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CRABB'S 

Handy  Cyclopaedia 

OR, 

AN  EXPLANATION  OF  WORDS  AND  THINGS 

CONSECTED  WITH 

ALL   THE  ARTS  AND    SCIENCES 

llluttrattd  taith  over  500  Engravings. 

By    GEORGE    CRABB.    A.M.. 

AUTHOR   OF  "  BNGUSH  SYNONYMS,"    "  TECHNOLOGICAL  OtCTIONAKV,"    AHS 
"HISlORICAt  DICnOVARY  " 


Mercury  giuded  by  Minerva,  bearing  Science  round  the  World. 


NEW   EDITION,  WITH   THE   LATEST   IMPROVEMENT» 


NEW  YORK; 
HURST      &      CO.,       PUBLISHBRB, 

122  Nassau  Street. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2007  witli  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/crabbsliandyoycloOOcrabiala' 


h  R  E  F  A  C  E . 


This  volume  contains  definitions  of  all  terms  of  art 
and  science,  with  such  additional  explanations  in  some 
cases  as  serve  to  illustrate  something  more  than  the 
bare  meaning  of  the  word.  A  work  of  this  kind  ca» 
not  fail  to  be  acceptable,  particularly  as  it  has  been  so 
liberally  supplied  with  illustrations  by  means  of  en- 
gravings. Although  small  in  bulk,  it  will  be  found 
to  contain  a  vast  number  of  words  which  are  not  to 
be  met  with  in  any  other  works  whatever,  the  ex- 
planation of  which  is  nevertheless  highly  necessary 
for  those  who  are  not  in  the  constant  habit  of  hear- 
ing them  used  in  ordinary  discourse.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion are  the  Latin  phrases  now  adopted  into  our  lau- 
guage,  as  Sine  qua  non,  Ne  plus  ultra,  and  the  like. 
The  historical  essays  on  each  science,  which  have 
been  expnessly  composed  for  the  work,  serve  to  show 


IT  PEKFACE. 

the  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences  from  tlie  earliest 
periods  to  the  present  time. 

The  present  edition  has  undergone  a  careful  revision, 
and  such  alterations  and  additions  have  been  made  as 
seemed  necessary  to  render  it  complete.  In  the  depart- 
ment of  Natural  History,  many  errors  have  been  cor- 
rected, and  many  articles,  particularly  relating  to  the 
Zoology  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  have  been  added. 
The  Zoological  arrangement  of  Cuvier,  which  has 
nearly  superseded  that  of  Linnaeus,  is  here  introduced. 
It  having  been  omitted  in  the  oriijiQal  edition. 


CRABB'S 

Handy  Cyclopaedia 


ABA 

A,  the  first  letter  of  the  alphabet  of  all 
the  kuowu  lauguages,  except  the  Ethio- 
pic,  in  which  it  is  the  thirteenth  aud 
the  Kunic  iu  which  itis  the  tenth.  It 
stands  for  the  indefinite  article  as,  a 
man  ;  for  the  sixth  note  iu  the  gamut, 
for  the  first  of  the  dominical  letters  in 
the  calender, as  a  numeral  for  one  among 
the  Greeks  aud  500  among  the  liomaus, 
or  with  a  stroke  over  it  A,  5,000,  for  an 
abreviation,  as  A.  M  Artiuui,  Magister, 
Master  of  Arts,  A.  D.  Ante  Meriduui.etc. 

A.  A.  A.  In  Cliemistry  etaads  for  Al- 
magam  or  Amalgamation. 

A.  1.  A  mark  to  denote  a  ship  of  the 
first-class,  as  to  newness  aud  being  sear 
worthy. 

AiVM.  A  Dutch  measure  of  liquids, 
varying  from  35  to  41  English  gallons. 

AARD-VARK.  An  edentate  animal,  a 
native  of  Southern  Africa. 

AARD-WOLF.  A  carniferous  animal 
intermediate  between  the  Civit  and  the 
Hyena. 

AAVORA.  The  fruit  of  a  species  of 
West  Indian  palm  tree. 

AB.  The  Hebrew  name  of  father.  In 
the  Jewish  calendar,  the  11th  month  of 
the  civil  year,  aud  the  filth  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical yefir,  answering  to  a  part  of 
July  and  of  August.  In  the  Syriac  cal- 
endar, Ab  is  the  last  summer  month. 

ABABILO.  A  fabulous  animal  which 
has  the  feet  of  a  dog  and  the  beak  of  a 
bird,  mentioned  in  the  Koran. 
^^ABACA.  A  kind  ot  flax,  which  grows 
in  the  Philippine  Islands. 

ABAOAY.  The  calangay,  a  species  of 
parrot. 

ABACISCTTS.  In  archseology,  any  flat 
member,  the  square  compartment  of  a 
Mosaic  pavement. 

ABAC0S.  An  instrument  for  calcula- 
tion, consisting  of  a  board  of  an  oblong 
figure,  divided  by  several  lines  or  wires, 
and  mounted  with  an  equal  number  of 
balls  arranged  so  as  to  express  units, 
tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  &c.  The 
ball  on  the  lowest  line  expresses  1;  each 
of  those  on  the  second  line,  10,  &c.  ; 


«    »     •    • 
#-• 

•  •     • 

•  •    • 


those  in  the  middle  spaces,  halfaa  mucli 
as  those  on  the  lines  above  theiu. 


10000 
1000 
100 
10 

1 


ABADA.  A  species  of  large  African 
Deer,  which  has  two  horns  on  its  fore- 
head aud  a  third  on  the  nape  of  its 
neck. 

ABBEVILLE  FLINTS.  Kude  flint  im- 
plements iu  the  form  of  spear-heads, 
&c.,  found  in  great  abundance  in  the 
post-tertiary  sands  and  gravels  of  the 
river  Somnie  near  Abbeville,  iu  France. 

ABDALAVI.  The  Egyptian  melon. 

ABDALS.  Certain  religious  fanatics 
in  Persia  and  other  Mohammedan  coun- 
tries, who  occasionally  rush  into  the 
streets,  and  attempt  to  kill  all  they 
meet  who  are  of  a  different  religion  to 
themselves. 

ABDERITE.  An  inhabitant  of  Abaera, 
in  Thrace.  Democritus  is  called  from 
being  a  native  of  this  town,  and  as  he 
was  much  prone  to  laughter,  foolish  or 
incessant  laughter  has  been  termed 
abderian. 

ABELLANS,  ABELONIANS,  or  ABEl^ 
ITES.  In  church  history,  a  sect  which 
arose  in  Africa  during  the  reign  of  Ar- 
cadius  ;  they  married,  but  lived  in  con- 
tinence, after  the  manner,  as  they  pre- 
tended, of  Abel,  and  attempted  to  main- 
tain the  sect  by  adopting  the  children 
of  others. 

ABERRATION.  A  small  apparent  mo- 
tion in  the  fixed  stars,  discovered  by 
Mr.  Molynenx  and  Dr.  Bradley  in  the 
year  na,");  also  a  deviation  of  therays  of 
light,  when  inflected  by  »  speeiUam  by 


2  ABS 

which  they  are  preventi-d  meeting  in  the 
lanie  [hiimi. 

A  B  E'lTOR.  One  who  instigates  another 
to  commit  a  crime. 

ABEYANCE.  The  expertancy  of  an 
estate,  honour,  or  title. 

ABJURATION.  A  declaration  on  oath, 
cilJit  the  son  of  Jaiiieii  II.  aail  his  issue 
have  no  riglit  to  the  .hron«  of  Great  Brit- 
ain ;  also  a  voluntary  banishment,  or  leav- 
ing the  realm  on  oalli  never  to  return. 

ABLACTATION.  A  sort  of  engrafting 
trees,  hy  leaving  the  gnift  <m  its  proper 
suicli,  until  it  be  fully  incorporated  with 
the  new  stock. 

ABLATIVE.  The  sixth  case  of  noiin«  in 
graMiinar. 

ABLUTION.  A  religions  ceremony  of 
washing  the  body,  still  used  by  tlie  'J'nrks 
and  Mahonierians  ;  also  the  washing  away 
the  8n(>ertluoi:8  salts  out  of  any  body  in 
rhrmiatry. 

AUOLLA.  A  kind  of  military  garnvent 
«vnrn  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  scildiers. 

ABOAJASUS  (in  Comparative  Ana- 
tomy). The  fourtli  stomach  uf  ruminating 
animals. 

ABOBIGI.NES.  The  ancient  and  origi- 
nal inhabitants  of  Italy,  supiiosed  to  h.-.ie 
b«en  conducted  into  I^atiuin  by  Saturn  ; 
also  the  original  inhabitants  of  any  country. 
In  America  we  call  tlie  native  Indiar.j, 
Aborigines. 

ABOUT.  A  sea  term,  signifying  the  sit- 
uation of  a  ship  Immediately  after  she  hii." 
tacked. 

ABRAUM.  A  kind  of  red  clay  used  by 
cabinet' makers  to  deepen  the  colour  of 
new  niohugany. 

ABREAST.  Side  by  side;  a  sea  term,  ap- 
plied to  two  or  more  ships  ranged  together. 

ABRinGI.NG  (in  Algebra).  The  re- 
ducing a  compound  equation  to  a  more 
•iinple  form. 

ABRIDGMENT.  The  bringing  the  con- 
tents of  a  book  within  a  short  compass  ;  in 
l<nw,  the  shortening  a  count  or  declaration. 

ABSCESS.  An  intlammatory  tumour 
containing  punilen   matter. 

ABSCISSE.  The  part  of  any  diameter 
or  BXi.^  of  a  curved  line,  cut  off  by  a  per- 
pendicular line,  called  the  ordinate. 

ABSOLUTION.  The  forgiveness  of 
■ins,  which  the  Romish  Church  claims  to 
•self  the  power  of  granting;in  Civil  Law, 
a  sentence  whereby  the  party  accused  Is 
declared  Innocent  of  the  crime  laid  to 
hti  charge. 

ABSORBENTS.  Medicines  that  have 
the  power  of  drylngup  redundant  humours; 
•l<io  what  causes  acids  to  elfenreKe,  as 
quirk  line,  soda,  Slc. 


ACC 

ABSORBENT  VESSELS.  Ve^ssls 
which  ciirry  any  fluid  into  the  blood,  aa 
the  inhalent  arteries. 

ABSORPTIO.N  (in  Chemistry).  Th« 
conversion  of  a  gaseous  tluid  into  a  liquid 
or  solid,  on  being  united  with  some  other 
solid. 

A  IISTERGE.NTS.  Medicines  for  cleans- 
ing the  body  from  impurities. 

AB^TINE.N'CE.  An  abstaining  from 
meat  diet,  as  practised  in  tlie  Uiiml&h 
Clinrcli. 

ABSTRACTION  (in  Logic).  The  Intel 
Icctual  act  of  seiiarating  accidents  or  <iua- 
lities  from  the  subjects  in  which  they  re 
site,  as  whiteness  from  stow  or  a  wall, 
&,c. ;  animal  from  man  or  the  brutes ;  in 
Chemistry,  the  process  of  drawing  otT  by 
distillation  any  part  of  a  compound,  and 
returning  it  again  any  number  of  times  tc 
be  redistilled. 

ABUTMENTS.  The  extremities  of  any 
body  adjoining  another,  as  the  extremities 
of  a  bridge  resting  on  the  banks  or  sidM 
of  a  river. 

ABVSS.  Any  deep  place  that  is  bottom- 
less, or  supposed  to  be  so,  as  the  deepest 
or  unfathomable  parts  of  the  sea. 

ACACIA.  A  beautiful  shnib,  a  species 
of  which  bears  ro.se-coloured  llnwers.  A 
tborny  shrub  of  this  name  is  common  in 
tb»  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  pro- 
duces gum  Arabic. 

ACADEMICS.  A  sect  of  ancient  philo- 
sophers ;  Uie  term  is  stnnetimes  applied  to 
the  followers  of  Socrates  and  Plato. 

ACADE.MV.  A  scluxil  or  college  for  the 
improvement  of  arts  and  science,  so  called 
from  the  grove  of  Acndemus  in  Athens, 
where  Plato  kept  his  school  of  philosophy. 
The  first  modern  school  of  this  name  is 
said  to  have  been  established  by  Charle- 
magne at  the  instance  of  AUuin,  an  Eng- 
lish monk.  This  was  followed  by  the 
AcademiaSecretorum  Natura!,esiahllsl/ed 
at  Naples  by  Baptista  Porta  in  l.i69,  and 
the  Academla  Lyncei  at  Rome,  Sec. 

ACA.NTIIUS  (in  Botany).  Bearsbreech, 
or  Brank  Ursine,  a  plant,  the  leaves  of 
which  resemble  those  of  the  thistle ;  in 
Architecture,  an  ornament  repre.senting 
the  leaves  of  the  ancient  acanthus,  and 
.used  in  the  capitals  of  the  Corinliiian  and 
Composite  orders. 

ACCELERATION.  Increased  velocity 
of  motion,  particularly  applied  to  falling 
bodies  tending  towa.>  i-  the  centre  of  the 
earth  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

ACCENT.  The  raising  or  lowering  of 
the  voice  in  pronounrliig  certain  woras  of 
syllables;  also  the  marks  on  tae  woram  at 
syllables,  oa  tlie  acute  accent  marked  tniM 


ACE 

('),  the  grave  accent  thus  ('},  the  clreum- 
llex  thus  ('). 

ACCEPTANCE.  The  signing  or  sub- 
•crihing  a  hill  uf  exchange  with  the  word 
'acce|>te(i,'  and  one's  name,  by  which  the 
acceptor  obliges  liimself  to  pay  the  con- 
tents of  the  bill. 

ACCESSARY,  or  ACCESSORY  (in 
I.aw).  One  guilty  of  an  otTence,  not  prin- 
cipally, kilt  by  participation. 

ACCIDE.'.'i'E.  The  niles  of  the  inflex- 
ions of  nouns  and  conjugations  of  verbs 
arranged  in  grammatical  order. 

AC<:inE.\T.  That  which  belongsacci- 
dentally.  not  essentially,  to  a  thing,  as 
jweetncss,  softness.  &c.;  'n  Grammar,  the 
.ermination  of  wonls. 

ACC I PITR  ES.  'J'he  first  order  of  birds, 
tiaving  an  angular  •oothlike  process  on  the 
apper  mandilile.  as  the  vulture,  falcor; 
3wl,  tec. 


ACCr,AMATrO\.  A  shouting  in  con- 
cert, which  was  practi-^ed  among  the  Ro- 
mans as  a  token  of  applause,  particularly  in 
the  theatres. 

ACEPHALOCT3T.  A  genus  of  Euto- 
soa  or  intestinal  animal  which  has  the 
appearance  of  a  simple  bladder,  ■without 
any  visable  organs. 

.\CELDAMA.  In  Hebrew,  the  field  of 
blood  ;  a  field  said  to  have  lain  south  of 
Jerusalem,  and  thus  called,  because  i>ur- 
chased  with  tho  bribe  which  Judas  took 
for  betraying  his  Miister. 

ACEPH.\l.A.X,  or.\OEPHAlA.  A  class  of 
mollnsoa  having  no  head,  as  the  oyster, 
scallop,  mussel,  kc.  .\lso,  an  order  of 
insects. 

ACEPHALI,  or  ACEPH.U.ITES.  In 
ecclesiastical  history,  a  name  given  to 
several  sects  who  rcjfused  to  follow 
some  noted  leader  :  al«o,  to  churchmen 
who  were  under  no  bishop.  In  Eng- 
lish history,  certain  levellers  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.  who  acknowledged  no 
head  or  superior.  In  old  law,  men  who 
held  lands  of  no  particular  lords,  that 
is,  not  in  fee. 
ACETATES.    A  kind  of  salts  fonn«d 


ACT  S 

hy  the  cnmbinalinn  of  acetic  acid  with  a 
salitiable  base,  as  the  M'-etate  of  piitasb. 
**^CETIC  ACID.     KadicAl   vinegar,  oi 
the  strongeit  acid  of  vinegar. 

ACHRO.MATIC.  Colnuriess,  a  ti-rm 
applied  to  telescopes  which  w«-re  first  con- 
trived by  Dr.  Bevis,  to  remedy  the  aberra- 
tions of  colour. 

ACIDIKIAKLE.  An  epithet signifyms 
capable  of  being  con\'erted  into  an  acid  by 
an  acidifying  principle  ;  an  acidifiablebase 
or  radical  is  any  siihstnnce  lliat  is  capable 
of  uniting  with  smli  a  iinantity  of  oxygen 
as  to  iKjcoine  possrsseil  of  acid  properties. 

ACIDS.  Substances  which  are  in  tastfc 
sour,  chaiigi-  blue  vegetable  colours  to  red, 
and  combine  with  all  (lie  alkalis,  and  most 
of  the  metallic  oxiiies  and  earths,  so  as  to 
form  the  compounds  called  suits.  .Acids  are 
dislingiiislied  accord  ins  to  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  which  they  contain,  "iv  the  termina- 
tions I'e  and  cnu,  as  nitric  acid,  and  nitrons 
acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  sulphurous  .ncid, 
the  former  of  which  denotes  the  larger  dose 
or  (tortion  of  oxygen,  and  the  latter  the 
smaller  ;  when  the  syllable  hypo  is  added 
to  either  of  these,  it  denotes  a  degree  below 
it  in  |Hiin>  <if  <'vidi/ement,as  hy|MisiiIphuric 
acid,  an  intTnitdiate  between  the  sulphur- 
ic and  the  sulphurous  acid. 

ACONITE,  WoLf^BAfTE,  or  Monks- 
hood. A  plant,  the  flower  of  which  resem- 
bles the  hood  of  a  monk  j  it  is  a  violent 
poison, 

ACOUSTICS.  That  branch  of  science 
which  treats  of  the  nature  and  modifica- 
tions of  sou  ml. 

ACQUITTAL.  A  deliverance  or  setting 
free  from  the  suspicion  of  guilt,  as  where 
a  person,  on  the  verdict  of  a  jury,  is  found 
not  gniliy. 

ACaUITTANCE.  A  written  dischargi 
for  a  sum  of  money  that  lias  been  paid. 

.ACRE.  A  measure  of  land  containing 
four  sipiare  roods,  or  IfK)  square  pole?  of 
,1  yards  and  a  half,  or  4840  square  yards. 
The  French  acre  is  equal  to  one  an4  a 
quarter  of  an  English  acre. 

ACROSTIC.  A  set  of  verses,  the  firnt 
letters  of  which  compose  some  name,  title, 
or  motto. 

.ACTION  (in  Physics).  The  pressure  i 
percussion  of  one  body  against  another 
By  a  law  of  nature,  action  and  reaction 
are  equal ;  that  is,  the  resistance  of  the 
body  moved  is  always  equal  to  the  forc« 
communicated  to  it. 

ACTION  (in  Rhetoric).  Tho  carriafe 
and  motion  of  the  body,  and  the  modiila 
tion  of  the  speaker's  voice  in  deltverini 
an  nddreae 


ACTINIA.  A  genns  of  Acalephans  or 
polvpes,  whicli  have  a  soft  fleshy  body, 
frequently  ornamented  with  bright 
colors,  and  numerous  tentacles  or  rays 
extending  from  their  mouth,  or  centre, 
hke  th^,  petalsof  a  double  flower;  and 
h.!noe  tliny  have  the  popular  names  of 
Hji-anemones  and  animil-flowers. 

ACriNOLITE.  In  mineralogy,  ray- 
stone  ;  a  bright  green  variety  of  horn- 
bleade,  otrcurring  usually  in  glasi^y, 
prismatic  crystals,  an  I  also  fibrous.— 
.Ictiuoliteschist,  a  metamorphic  rock, 
c  insisting  chiefly  of  a-tinolite,  with  a 
mixturo  of  mica,  quartz,  or  felspar. 

ACTTINOMETER.  An  instrument  for 
mrisuring  the  intensity  of  the  sun's 
rays. 

iVDANSONIA.  The  Ethiopian  sour 
gourd,  monkey's  bread,  or  African  cala- 
bash-tree. It  is  considered  to  be  the 
largest  of  trees.  It  seldom  exceeds  18 
feet  in  height,  but  its  circumference  is 
often  upwards  of  75  feet. 

ADAl'I.S.  An  extinct  pachydermatous 
animal,  resembling  a  hedge-hog. 

ACUPl  NC'rURATKnV.  A  iiiethodof 
bleedine,  in  use  among  the  C'liineiie  and 
Ja|iane«w,  l>y  iimkiriK  piinrtiires  or  pricks 
with  a  pold  or  silver  needlf  in  any  part  of 
Uif  iKidy.  It  is  chiefly  einployeii  in  head- 
aches, convulsions,  lelhar|!ii-s,  &.c. 

A.  D.  Anno  Domini,  In  the  Year  of  our 
L<ird. 

ADAGIO.  Softly,  leisurely  ;  a  term  in 
music  books,  denotinf!  the  lowest  time  ex- 
c*-]A  the  grave,  a.f    adagio,  adagio.' 

ADAMANT.  The  hardest  sort  of  dia- 
mond. 

ADAMANTINE  SPAR.  A  sortof  earth 
brought  from  India  and  China,  that  is  of 
the  hardness  of  adamant. 

ADDRR.  A  small  |)oigonoiis  serpent 
with  plaits  on  the  belly,  and  scales  under 
the  tail  ;  it  is  not  rare  in  Britain. 

ADDITION.  The  first  i.f  the  four  fun- 
damental rules  in  arithmetic,  whereby  sev- 
eral small  sums  are  added  or  collected  into 
one  that  is  larger. 

ADHEHIO.N.  The  property  of  certain 
bodies  to  atlact  other  bodies  to  themselves, 
»r  the  force  by  which  they  adhere  to  each 
other.  Adhesion  denotes  a  nnidii  to  a  cer- 
tain point  between  two  distinct  bodies  ; 
cohesion,  the  union  nfthe  parts  of  the  same 
body  so  as  to  form  one  mass. 

AD  INFINITUM.  Indefinitely,  or  to 
infinity. 

ADIPOCERR.  A  sultstance  resembling 
•permaceti,  which  is  formed  from  an  ani- 
mal in  its  progress  towards  decomposition. 

ADIT.  The  shaft  or  entrance  into  a 
mine. 

ADJECTIVE.  Apwrtofspeechlngram- 
msr,  which  It  added  to  a  noun  to  qualify 
tM  itgnificatlon,  as  bitter,  iweet,  b.c. 


AOV 

ADJI'TANT.  One  wlioassisls  a  sup» 
rior  ofticer  li.  .i  regiment;  the  adjutant-gen- 
eral assists  the  general  with  his  coiinsn. 
and  personal  service.  Also  a  very  large 
bird  of  the  heron  species,  toininon  in  India 
and  New  Holland. 

AD  LIBITUM.     Atplea-xure 

ADMEAs^URKMENTun  Law.)  A  writ 
against  those  who  us.irp  more  than  llieJf 
own  share,  as  the  Admeasure^'ein  of  l'a»- 
ture,  or  the  Admeasi-en'ent  o;  Dower. 

ADMIM.STRAI'OR  i.n  Law).  T.'x 
person  to  whom  tHe  estate  and  effects  of 
an  intestate  are  otiinmilied,  lor  which  he 
Is  to  be  accountable  when  required. 

ADMINICUIiUM.  In  natural  history,  a 
term  applied  to  the  abdominal  semi- 
circular row  of  teeth,  which  enables 
certain  subterranean  insects  to  force 
their  way  to  the  surface. 

ADMETUS.  In  Mythology,  a  King  of 
Pherae,  in  Thessaly,  and  one  of  the  Ar- 
gonauts who  was  at  the  hunt  of  the 
Calydonian  boar. 

ADNA.  In  malacology,  a  term  applied 
to  those  cut-shaped  shells  found  at- 
tached to  stones  on  the  sea-coast  ;  a 
genus  of  Balani  or  Barnacles. 

ADNASCENT.  In  botany,  growing  to 
or  on. 

ADNATE.  Growing  close  to  a  stem. 

ADMONITIO  FUSTIUM.  A  puniih- 
ment  among  the  Romans,  which  consisted 
in  tieating  the  ofleiider  with  vine  branchM. 

ADONAI.  7'he  name  of  Jehovah 
among  the  Jews. 

ADONIS.  A  beautiftil  youth,  the  fa- 
vourite of  Venus,  who  was  killed  by  a 
wild  boar. 

ADOPTION.  A  practice  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  of  making  a  [XTSon 
one's  heir,  and  investing  liini  with  all  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  a  son. 

AOOKATIO.V.  A  mode  of  reverence  or 
worship  anciently  shown  to  the  gods  by 
raising  the  right  hand  to  the  mouth,  and 
gently  applying  it  to  the  lips ;  also,  in  gen- 
eral, any  oiitwanl  sign  of  worship,  by 
kissing  the  hand  or  feet,  walking  barefoot, 
and  the  like. 

AD  VALOREM.  According  to  ^he 
value. 

ADVANCE  (in  Commerce).  Monr» 
|iaid  before  good.t  are  delivered,  worl^ 
done,  or  any  consideration  given. 

ADVANCKD-GUARD,  or  Vak-ooard 
(in  the  Military  Art).  The  first  linn  o# 
division  (>f  an  army  ranged  or  marchin| 
in  order  of  battle. 

ADVENT.  The  coming  of  our  Sjiviour; 
also  the  festival  cnmmeinorative  of  the 
Advent,  which  falls  ab<mt  a  month  befors 
Christmas. 

Ai)V£RB.    A  port  of  ipeech  in  f/nm 


AER 

■w,  added  to  a  verh  to  complete  its  sig- 
nification, an  largely,  neatly,  &.c. 

ADVEKSAKIA.  A  leriiiHiiiniig literary 
men  for  a  coiunion-place  Uxik,  »  Herein 
iliey  enter  whatever  ticciirs  to  llieiii  in 
reading  or  conversation  tliat  is  worthy  of 
utiliee. 

AnVKRTISEMENT.  Any  printed  pub- 
.icalion  «if  circiiiiistanres,  either  of  public 
or  private  interest,  particularly  that  inser- 
ted ill  (he  iiews|>a|ieiM. 

ADULT  (in  Civil  |j»w).  Any  person  be- 
tween the  ages  of  fourteen  and  twenty- 
live. 

ADULTERATION.  The  debasing  of 
the  coin  by  the  mixture  of  impure  metals  ; 
also  the  dehiising  and  curriipling  any  arti- 
cle of  trade  by  puttin<;  imprnjwr  ingredients 
in  it,  as  is  done  verj'  frequently  . 

.\DYTUM.  The  inner  and  most  sacred 
part  of  the  auoieut  heathen  temples. 
None  but  the  priests  were  permitted  to 
enter  it,  and  irom  thenoe  the  oracles 
were  delivered.  The  Jewish  Holy  of 
Holies  was  a  similar  part  of  the  Temple 
of  Jerusalem. 

ADVOWSON  (in  Law).  A  right  of  pre- 
sentation to  a  vacant  church  or  beiielice. 
He  who  possesses  this  right  is  called  the 
patron  of  the  living. 

i£DILE.  A  Roman  magistrate  who  had 
the  charge  of  all  public  buildings,  partic- 
ularly temples  and  theatres,  also  of  all 
(t'eets,  bigtiways,  ice. 

/EGIS.  A  shield,  particularly  Jupiter's 
•bield. 

jEN'EID.  The  title  of  Virgil's  poem,  in 
which  be  celebrates  the  adventures  of 
JEneas. 

.«:OLlAN  HARP.  A  number  of  strings 

so  disposed  as  to  produce  a  set  of  musical 

times  by  the  action  of  the  wind  ii|)on  them. 

iEOLIC   DIALECT.   One  of  the  five 

dialects  of  the  Greek  tongue. 

jEOLIPILE.  a  hollow  metal  ball  with 
a  slender  pipe,  used  to  show  the  converti- 
bility of  water  into  steam 

iERA,  or  ERA.  Any  date,  period,  or 
e»  *nt  from  which  a  calculation  of  years  is 
made  to  roniinence.  The  principal  a-ras 
are  the  vulgar,  or  Christian  am,  dated 
from  the  birth  of  our  Saviour;  the  «era  of 
the  rreation,  dated  by  Usher  and  most 
cbronologists  4(104  years  before  the  vulgar 
Km ;  the  lera  of  the  Olympiads,  d.ited  altout 
776  years  before  the  vulgar  lera ;  the  lera 
of  the  building  of  Rome,  according  to  Var- 
n,  is  7M  yeari  before  Christ ;  tlie  ffra  of 
Nabonassar,  so  dated  from  Nalionassiir 
Ihe  first  king  of  Babylon,  747  years  before 
Christ ;  the  tera  of  the  Hegira,  or  the  .Ma- 
hometan Kra,  dated  from  the  hegira  or 
tifjai  of  Alaboniel  from  Mecca,  dated 
I* 


AER  ft 

about  623  years  alter  Christ,  or  the  vulgar 
lura. 

AEROLITES.  Air  stones,  or  meteoric 
stones  I'Uliiig  from  the  atiiinsphere.   These 
areseniiinetallic  siilisiaiii'«s,  tlin  descent  of 
which,  though  nieiitionrd  sevenil  times  in 
history,  has  not  been  authenticated  until 
these  few  years.     The  fail  is,  however,  by 
recent  and  frequent  observations  now  put 
beyiuid  all  doubt.     Two  showers  of  stone, 
are  recorded  by  Li\'y  and  Julius  Oltsequtina 
to  have  hapiiened  at  R<iuie  in  the  reign  of 
Tiilliw  llosliliiis,  and  iliiringlhe  consulate 
of  C.  Martiusand  .M.  Ton|iiaius  ;  a  shower 
of  iron,  ill  L'.icaiiia,  iiientioned  by  Pliny, 
and  a  shower  of  mercury  by  Dion.    Among 
the  moderns,  Cardeii  speaks  of  about  1-2,000 
stones,  one  of  l'20  ll>s.  another  of  tiultts.  that 
fell  at  Padua  in  Italy,  in   I.'ilOi  Gassendi, 
of  a  stone  of  59  lbs.  on  .Mount  Vaiser  in 
Provence ;   Muschenbrock    of   two    large 
stones  in  Ireland  ;  St.  Ainand  de  Baiidin 
and  others  of  a  great  shower  of  stones  in 
the  environs  of  Agen,  in  1790  ;  the  earl  of 
Bristol  of  twelve  stones  at  Sienna  in  Tus- 
cany, in  1794  ;  captain  Tophaiii  of  a  stone 
of  .Vi  lbs.  at  Wold  Cottage  in  Vorkshu-e, 
in  179.5;  Dr.  Southey  of  a  slmie  of  10  lbs. 
in  Portugal,  in  I79(>;  Pliilosopliical   Maga- 
zine, of  a  mass  of  iron  70  culnc  feel,  in 
America,   in    lt<00 ;  and    M.    Fourcroy  of 
several  stones  from  10  lbs  to  17  lbs.  that  fell 
near  L'Aigle  in  .\ormaiidy,  besides  other 
instances  equally  well  attested.  The  largei 
sort  of  these  stones  have  l,eeii  seen  as  lumi- 
nous bodies  to  move  with  gre.it  vehicily, 
descending   in   an  oblique  direction,  aod 
fretpieiitly  with  a  loud  hissing  noise,  re- 
semhliiig  that  of  a  nionar  shell  when  (.."►- 
jected  from  a  piece  or  ordnance.     AIhki! 
the  year    1807,  a  liiinliioiis  iHidy  of  this 
kind  passed  over  Coiiiirrticut,  and  explo- 
ded with  a  loud  noise  like  thunder,  and 
large  masses  of  stones  fell  in  Weston  in 
that  state,  specimens  of  which  are  in  thf 
Cabinet  of  Vale  Collet:e.    Though  ditTer- 
ent  fnun  every  other  known  terrestrial  sub- 
stance, yet  these  stones  perfertly  resemble 
each  other,  having  the  same  apftearance 
of  semimetallic  matter,  coated  on  the  out- 
side with  a  thin  black  iiirriistatiun,  and 
being  in  their  chymical  composition  very 
similar.     The  stone  which  fell  at  L'.Aigle 
ill  France,  in  180U,  was  found  to  ctmtain 
of  silica  54  parts,  oxyde  of  iron  36,  mag- 
nesia 9,  oxyde  of  nickel  3.  sulphur  2,  lim« 
I  i  their  specific  gravity  is  also  nearly  th« 
same,  being  alniut  3  and  a  half  that  of  coin- 
mon  water. 

AERONAUT.  One  who  sails  or  floala 
in  the  air  in  a  balloon. 
AEROSTATION.  The  nK>dem  ut  •< 


AEROSTATION 


laiclns  i>nil'>*-f  into  and  nr.vipating  the  air, 
kj  tiiearia  <if  rarf lifil  air  collected  within 
ail  envelope,  cmiiiMorily  calleJ  a  balloon 
(see  liiLLOiiN). 

AEROSTATION,  Histort  of.  This 
irt  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  any 
body  which  is  8|iecifically  liyliter  than  tlie 
lUaospheric  air  will  lie  hwoyed  up  by  it 
and  ascend  ;  a  principle  which  had  donbt- 
tess  long  been  known,  althoiigh  the  appli- 
cation of  it  to  any  practical  purpose  is 
altogetliera  modern  invention.  It  is  true 
that  we  read  of  the  attempt  which  was 
made  by  Daidaliis  and  his  son  Icarus  to 
pass  through  the  air  by  means  of  artificial 
wings,  in  which  the  Ibrnier  is  said  to  have 
■ucceeded,  but  tliis  is  commonly  reckoned 
among  t.'ie  fables  of  the  ancients.  Ur.Black, 
in  his  lectures  in  17tJ7  and  \~('iS,  was  the 
first  who,  al\er  Mr.  Cavendish's  discovery 
of  the  specilic  gravity  of  intlanimable  air, 
threw  out  the  siiggestiiKi  that  if  a  bladder, 
nufHcteutly  light  and  thui,  were  tilled  with 
air,  it  would  form  a  mass  lighter  than  the 
lanie  bulk  of  atmospheric  air,  and  rise  in 
h.  But  want  of  leisure  prevented  him  from 
trying  the  experiment,  the  honour  of  which 
jelonged  to  Air.  Cavallo,  who  communi- 
cated the  res\ilt  to  the  Kuyal  Society,  on 
the23tli  of  June  in  that  year.  After  having 
oiade  several  unsuccessful  experiments 
witli  bladders  and  skins,  he  succeeded  at 
length  in  making  soap  bulls,  which  being 
inflated  with  inflammable  air,  by  dipping 
the  end  of  a  small  glass  tube,  connected 
with  a  bladder  containing  the  air,  into  a 
thick  solution  of  soap,  and  gently  compres- 
sing the  bladder,  ascended  rapidly.  These 
were  the  first  sort  of  inflammable  air  bal- 
loons that  were  made.  But  while  philoso- 
phers in  Britain  were  thus  engaged  in  ex- 
periments on  this  subject,  two  brothers,  in 
France,  Stephen  and  John  Montgolfier,  pa- 
per manufacturers  of  Annonay,  had  made 
rapid  advances  towards  carrying  the  pro- 
ject inioexeciition.  Theiridca wastofumi 
an  artificial  cloud  by  enclosing  smoke  in  a 
floe  Milk  bag  ;  and  having  applied  burning 
paper  to  an  a)>«rture  at  the  bottom,  the 
air  thus  became  rarefied,  and  the  bag  as- 
cended to  the  height  of  70  feet.  This  ex- 
periment was  made  at  Avignon,  about  the 
middle  of  the  year  1782,  and  was  followed 
by  other  experiments,  all  tending  to  prove 
the  practicability  (X  th«  scheme.  An  im- 
mense bag  of  linen,  lined  with  paper,  and 
containing  upwards  nf23,()00  cubic  ft.,  was 
faund  to  have  a  power  of  lifting  about  ."iOO 
pounds,  Including  its  own  weight.  Burning 
chopped  straw  and  wool  under  the  aperture 
ofthe  machinecaused  it  to  swell  and  a.<cend 
ki  tbe  apace  of  ten  minutes  to  the  height  of 


6000  feet :  when  exiiausted,  it  fell  to  the 
ground  at  the  distance  of  some  thousand 
feel  from  the  place  where  it  ascended.  In 
an  ex|)eriment  tried  before  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  a  large  balloon  was  made  to 
lift  eight  persons  from  the  ground,  who 
would  have  been  carried  away  had  tha 
machine  not  been  kept  down  with  force 
On  the  repetition  ofthe  ex(x^rimeni  befi>ra 
the  king  at  Versailles,  with  a  balloon  near 
00  feet  high  and  43  iti  diameter,  a  sheep, 
a  cock,  and  a  duck,  the  first  animals  that 
ever  ascended  in  a  balloon,  were  carried 
up  aliout  1440  feet,  and  after  remaining  in 
the  air  about  eight  minutes,  came  to  the 
ground  in  perfect  safety,  atthedistiinceof 
10,200  feel  from  the  place  of  ascent.  Em- 
boldened by  this  experiment,  M.  Pilatre 
de  Rozier  offered  himself  to  be  the  first 
aerial  adventurer.  A  new  machine  was 
accordingly  prepared,  with  a  gallery  and 
grate,  &.c.  to  enable  the  person  ascending 
to  supply  the  fire  with  fuel,  anil  thus  keep 
up  the  machine  as  long  as  he  pleased.  On 
the  l.'ilh  of  October,  I7S3,  M.  Pilatre  took 
his  seat  in  the  gallery,  and,  the  machine 
being  inilated,  he  rose  to  the  height  of  84 
feet,  and,  after  keeping  it  afloat  about  four 
minutes  and  a  half,  he  gently  descended  : 
he  tl'H  rose  again  to  the  height  of  210  feet, 
anr  .ne  third  time  2u2.  In  llie  descent,  a 
gust  of  wind  having  blown  the  machine 
over  some  large  trees,  M.  Pilatre  extricated 
himself  by  throwing  straw  and  wool  on  the 
fire,  which  raised  him  at  once  to  a  sufli- 
cient  height,  and  in  this  manner  he  found 
himself  able  to  ascend  or  descend  to  a  cer- 
tain height  at  pleasure.  Some  time  alter, 
he  ascended  with  M.  Girond  de  Vilf  Ite  to 
the  height  of  330  feet,  hovering  over  Paris 
at  least  nine  minutes,  in  sight  of  a  I  the 
inhabitants,  and  the  machine  keeping  all 
the  while  a  steady  |K>sltiou.  In  1783,  he 
undertook  a  third  aerial  voyage  with  the 
Marquis  d'Arlandes,  and  in  the  space  of 
twenty-five  minutes  went  about  five  miles 
In  this  voyage  tliey  met  with  several  diflTer- 
ent  currents  of  air,  the  effect  of  which  wan 
to  give  a  very  sensible  shock  to  the  machine 
They  were  also  in  danger  of  having  the 
machine  burnt  altogether,  if  the  fire  liad 
not  been  quickly  extinguished  by  means  of 
a  spimge.  After  this  period  aerostatic  ma- 
chines were  elevated  by  inflammable  air  en- 
closed, instead  of  lire,  with  which  Messrs 
Roberts  and  Charles  made  the  first  exjieri- 
ment.  In  this  case  the  bag  was  com|iosed 
of  lutestring,  varnished  over  with  a  solu- 
tion of  elastic  gum,  called  caoutchouc,  nnj 
was  about  13  English  feet  in  diameter 
After  being  filled  with  considerable  difli- 
culty,  it  .vai  found  to  be  35  pounds  ligbfei 


AEROSTATION. 


Jiaii  an  equal  bulk  ofnonimoii  air.  \\'itli 
this  tliey  asceiiilcil,  and  in  three  i|itnrters 
ol'aii  lioiir  tnivrrsfil  lifteeii  miles.  Tlieir 
midiien  descent  was  occa^jiuned  l)y  a  rup- 
ture which  hiipiteneil  tu  tiie  macliine  when 
it  was  at  its  greatest  liei;;lil.  On  a  subse- 
quent day  tlie  same  genllenien  made  an 
accent  In  a  bailnDU  tilled  with  iutlummable 
air.  This  machine  was  formed  of  gores  of 
silk,  covered  with  a  varnish  of  caoutchouc, 
ot  a  spherical  figure,  and  measuring  27  feet 
b  iiichet  in  diaineier.  A  net  was  spread 
ftver  the  upper  hemisphere,  and  fajttened 
to  a  hoop  wliich  passed  round  the  middle 
of  the  balloon.  To  this  a  sort  of  car  was 
suspended,  a  few  feet  below  the  lower  part 
of  the  balloon  :  and  in  order  to  prevent  the 
burstingof  the  'lachine,  a  valve  was  placed 
in  It,  by  opening  of  which  some  of  the  in- 
tiaininable  air  might  be  allowed  to  escape. 
In  the  car,  which  was  of  basket-work,  and 
covered  witli  linen,  the  two  adventurers 
took  their  seats  in  the  aflernixin  of  the  1st 
of  December,  1763.  At  the  time  the  bal- 
liKin  rose  the  barometer  was  at  3U''.  18'. 
and  it  continued  rising  until  the  barometer 
fell  to  27°,  from  which  they  calculated  that 
tJiey  had  ascended  GOO  yards.  By  throw- 
ing out  ballast  occasionally  they  found  it 
practicable  to  keep  nearly  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  earth  during  the  rest  of  their 
voyage,  the  mercury  fluctuating  between 
27"  and  27*  65',  and  the  thermometer  be- 
tween 53°  and  57°  the  whole  time.  They 
continued  in  the  air  an  hour  and  three 
quarters,  and  alighted  at  the  distance  of 
27  miles  from  Paris,  having  sutfered  no 
inconvenience,  nor  experienced  any  of  the 
contrary  currents  described  by  the  marquis 
d'Arlandes.  M.  Roberts  having  alighted, 
and  much  of  the  inflammable  gas  still  re- 
maining, M.  Charles  determined  on  taking 
another  voyage.  No  sooner  therefore  was 
thtt  balloon  thus  lightened  of  130  pounds  of 
its  weight,  than  it  arose  with  immense  ve- 
locity, and  in  20  minutes  was  9000  feet 
above  the  earth,  and  out  of  sight  of  all  ter- 
restrial objects.  The  globe,  which  had  be- 
come flaccid,  now  began  to  swell,  and 
when  M.  Charles  drew  the  valve,  to  prevent 
the  balloon  from  bursting,  the  inflammable 
eas,  whicli  was  much  warmer  than  the 
external  air,  for  a  time  diffused  a  warmth 
around,  but  afterwards,  a  considerable 
change  was  observable  in  the  temperature. 
His  fingers  were  benumbed  with  cold, 
which  also  occasioned  a  pain  in  his  right 
ear  and  jaw,  but  the  beauty  of  the  prospect 
compensated  for  these  nconveniences. 
The  sun,  which  had  been  set  on  his  ascent, 
became  again  visible  for  a  short  time,  in 
eoniequence  of  the  height  which  he  had 


reached.  He  saw  fora  few  fecon'Js  vapot;n 
rising  from  the  valleys  and  rivers.  The 
clouds  scerned  to  rise  ft  oin  the  earth,  and 
collect  one  upon  the  otiier ;  only  their  col- 
our was  gray  and  obscure  from  the  dimness 
of  the  light.  By  the  light  of  the  uuwn  ho 
perceived  tliat  the  machine  was  turning 
round  with  him,  and  that  there  were  con- 
trar]'  currents  which  brought  him  back 
again  :  he  also  observed  with  sur|)rise,  that 
the  wind  caused  his  banners  to  point  up- 
wards, although  he  was  neither  rising  nor 
descending,  but  moving  horizontally.  On 
alightingin  afield  about  three  miles  distant 
from  the  place  where  i)e  set  out,  he  calcu- 
lated that  he  had  ascended,  at  this  time 
not  less  than  10,500  feet.  Hitherto  all  ex- 
(lerimeiits  of  this  kind  had  been  unattended 
with  any  evil  consequences,  but  an  attempt 
which  was  made  to  put  a  small  aerostatic 
machine  with  nirefied  air  under  an  inflam- 
mable air  balloon,  proved  fatal  to  the  ad  ven- 
turers, M.  Pilatre  de  llozier  and  M.  R<>- 
inaiiie.  Their  inflammable  air  balloon  was 
about  37  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  power  of 
the  rarefied  air  one  was  equivalent  to  about 
60  pounds  They  were  not  long  in  the  aii 
when  the  inflammable  air  balloon  was  seen 
to  swell  considerably,  and  the  aeronaut* 
were  observed,  by  means  of  telescopes,  tu 
be  very  anxious  to  descend,  and  busied  iu 
pulling  the  valve  and  giving  every  possible 
facility  of  escape  to  the  inflammable  air, 
but,  in  spite  of  all  their  endeavours,  th<> 
balloon  took  fire  without  any  explosion 
and  the  unfortunate  gentlemen  were  pre- 
cipitated to  the  earth  at  the  height  of  almiit 
three  quarters  of  a  mile.  M.  Pilatre  seem- 
ed to  have  been  dead  before  he  came  to  the 
ground  ;  but  M.  Komaine  was  found  to  be 
alive,  allhougli  he  expired  iminediately 
after.  The  ill  success  of  this  experiment, 
which  had  been  made  for  the  i>iirfM>se  ol 
diminishing  the  expense  of  inflating  tbs 
machine  with  gas,  did  not  interrupt  the 
progress  of  aerostation.  Aerial  voyages 
continued  to  be  made  on  the  old  scheme 
The  first  trial  in  England  was  made  by 
Vincent  Lunardi,  an  Italian,  on  the  15tli 
of  September,  1784.  His  balloon,  the  di- 
ameter of  which  was  33  feet,  was  made  of 
oiled  silk,  painted  in  alternate  stripes  of 
blue  and  red.  From  a  net,  which  Avent 
over  about  two  thirds  of  the  balloon,  de- 
scended 45  cords  to  a  hoop  hanging  below 
it,  and  to  which  the  gallery  was  attached. 
Instead  cf  a  valve,  the  aperture  at  the  neck 
of  the  balloon,  which  was  in  the  shape  of 
a  pear,  served  for  admitting  or  lettmg  out 
the  inflammable  air.  The  air  for  filling 
the  balloon  was  produced  from  zinc,  by 
means  of  diluted  vitriollcar.W    M  ».—,«-• 


•  AFF 

■Mtetided  rnini  the  Artillery  Ground,  at  two 
o'<  liick,  liitvjiig  witji  him  a  dot;,  a  cat,  and 

•  pigfdii.  Me  was  obli;:ed  to  throw  out 
•oiiie  of  hifi  ballast,  in  order  to  clear  the 
houNes,  when  he  rnsm  to  a  coiisiderahle 
beielit,  proceeding  firisl  N.  \V.  by  VV.  and 
then  nearly  N.  Ahonl  lialf  after  three  he 
descended  very  near  the  earlh,  and  landed 
Uie  cat,  which  was  l-all'deud  with  the  cold; 
he  then  reascended  by  throwing  out  some 
more  of  his  ballast,  and  ten  minutes  past 
four  he  alighted  in  a  meadow  near  Ware, 
in  Hertfordshire.  His  thermometer  stood 
:n  the  course  of  his  voyage  as  low  as  21)". 
and  he  observed  that  the  drops  of  water 
collected  round  the  balloon  were  frozen. 
The  second  aerial  voyage  in  England  was 
performed  by  Mr.  Blanchard,  on  the  IGtIi 
of  October  in  the  same  year,  in  which  he 
was  Rccom|ianied  by  Mr.  Shelden,  profess- 
or t>f  anatomy  at  the  Royal  Academy,  the 
first  Kngli-shman  that  adventured  in  such 
an  excursion.  They  ascended  a  few  minutes 
past  12  o'clock,  and  after  proceeding  about 
14  miles  beyond  Chels^ea,  Mr.  Ulanchard 
landed  Mr. Sheldon,  reascended  alone,  and 
finally  landed  near  Rum.sey,  in  Hampshire, 
about  75  miles  from  London,  which  was  at 
the  rate  of  about  2i>  miles  an  hour.  Mr. 
Blanchard  ascended  so  high,  that  he  felt  a 
difficulty  inbreathing;  and  a  pigeon,  which 
flew  from  the  boat,  laboured  for  some  time 
to  sustain  itself,  but  was  at  length  compel- 
led to  return  and  rest  on  the  btKit. 

Aerial  voyages  now  became  frequent  in 
England  and  elsewhere,  and  afforded  no- 
thing worthy  of  notice  before  the  ascent  of 
M.  (inrnerin,  in  1802,  who  undertook  the 
singular  and  desperate  ex|)eriment  of  de- 
scending by  means  of  a  panicliute.  (See 
Parachute.)  In  this  descent  it  was  ob- 
aerved  that  the  parachute,  with  the  appen- 
dage of  cords  and  the  basket  in  which  M. 
Garnerin  had  seated  himself,  vibrated  like 
tbe  pendulum  of  a  clock,  and  at  times  the 
vibrations  were  so  violent,  that  more  than 
once  the  imracliute  and  the  basket  seemed 
to  be  on  the  same  level,  or  quite  horizon- 
tal, which  presented  a  teirtftc  spectacle  of 
danger  to  the  spectator.  They  diminish- 
ed, however,  as  M.  Garnerin  approached 
tlie  earth,  and  he  was  landed  in  safety, 
though  strongly  affected  with  the  violent 
•hocks  that  his  frame  had  experienced. 
Various  excursions  have  since  been  made 
by  Mr.  SaiJIer,  Mr  Green,  and  others. 

AETITES,  or  RAOi.E-tToNE.  A  stone  ao 
called,  becaure  it  was  originally  found  in 
eagles'  nntu.  It  is  a  sort  of  ore  of  a  kid- 
■ey  ihaiie,  imbedded  in  iron-«hot  clay. 

AFFEUTUOSU.  In  an  aflecting  style  : 


AGE 

a  term  In  music  books  at  the  he,(inninE  <<( 
a  movemeiii.  

AGALLOCH,  or  AGALLOCHUM.  Aloes- 
wood,  ttie  product  of  a  tree  growing  in 
China,  and  some  of  the  Indian  Isles. 
There  are  three  varieties,  the  calambac, 
the  commou  lignum  aloes,  and  the  cal- 
ambour.  The  first  of  these  is  light  and 
porous,  and  so  flllod  with  a  fragrant 
resin,  that  it  may  be  moulded  by  the 
fingers  ;  the  second  is  denser  and  less 
resinous  ;  and  the  third  is  the  aloes- 
wood  used  by  cabinet-makers,  &c. 

AGALMATOLITK.  A  solt  stone,  a  Bub- 
Bpecies  of  mica  of  various  colors,  which 
different  mineralogists  severally  term 
Boap-stone,  lard-stone,  steatite,  talc 
graphique,  &c.  It  contains  no  magnesia, 
but  otherwi.se  has  all  the  characters  of 
talc.  The  best  specimens  are  brought 
from  China.  It  is  used  in  that  country 
in  the  manufacture  of  images. 

AGAMI.  A  remarkable  bird,  inhabit- 
ing the  woods  of  Central  America.  It  ia 
of  the  size  of  a  large  fowl,  has  a  short 
tail,  and  long  legs,  and  runs  with  great 
speed.  It  is  sometimes  otherwise  cal- 
led the  gold-breasted  trumpeter. 

AGA'l  K.  A  precious  stone,  nrsl  found  in 
Sicily  ;  it  is  a  mineral  composed  of  various 
f.ibstances,  as  cluilcedoiiy,  cornelian,  jas- 
per, &.C.;  also  a  stone  of  the  agate  kind 
engraven  by  art,  which  constitutes  among 
antiquarians  a  S|>ecies  of  gems. 

AGE.  A  certain  (leriod  or  limit  of  time, 
marked  for  the  convenience  of  chronology 
and  histtiry  by  some  remarkable  evetits 
Clironologers  comiii<mly  reckon  seven  such 
ages,  namely,  1.  Prom  the  creation  to  the 
deluge.  2.  From  the  deluge  to  the  birtn  of 
Abraham.  3.  From  the  birth  of  Abraham 
to  ttie  de|iarture  of  the  Israelites  out  of 
Eg.vpt.  4.  From  the  departure  of  the  Is- 
raelites to  the  building  of  the  temple  by 
Solomon.  5.  From  the  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  the  temple  to  the  reign  of  Cyrus  in 
Babylon.  6.  From  the  reign  of  Cyrus  to 
tile  coming  of  Christ.  7.  Since  the  birth 
of  our  Savitmr.  Clironologers  are  g«iuerally 
agreed  its  to  the  divii'.ing  the  time  from  the 
creation  into  seven  ages,  but  they  differ 
materially  as  to  the  time  contained  in  these 
periods.  The  (xiets  distinguished  the  period 
of  the  world  into  four  ages  ;  namely,  into 
the  golden  age,  or  the  age  of  simplicity 
and  happiness  ;  the  silver  age,  which  was 
inferior  to  the  golden  age  in  enjoyments;  in 
this  age  man  began  to  till  the  giound  for 
their  sustenance.  In  the  brazen  age  strifes 
and  contentions  heg-.in,  which,  in  the  iron, 
were  carried  to  the  utmost  extent,  and 
accompanied  with  every  evil  that  afntcta 
mankind.  It  is  most  prohahle  that  this  no- 
tion of  the  four  ages  was  taken  from  th« 
hiatuiy  of  the  golden  image, -aeen  by  NA- 


AGR 

•chadnpxznr  In  a  dream,  mpntioned  in 
Daniel,  hy  wliicl)  tlie  first  nionarcliy  was 
lenottrd  llie  golden  ime,  the  gecunU  silver, 
the  ihird  brazen,  and  the  fourth  inm.  The 
Greeks,  who  derived  their  nijtholoR)'  from 
the  Egj'ptians,  doubtless  gathered  this  idea 
from  the  same  source,  and  wrought  it  into 
a  fable  by  the  ingenuity  of  llieir  poeu. 

AGE.  A  term  in  law  for  those  special 
Smes  which  enable  men  and  women  to  do 
ihat  which  tuey  could  not  do  before  ;  thus, 
In  England,  a  man  may  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  at  twelve  years  of  age,  is  at  the 
age  of  discretion  at  fourteen  to  choose  his 
guardian  and  contract  a  marriage,  and  is 
at  full  age  at  twenty-one.  A  woman  at 
the  age  of  nine  is  dowable,  at  twelve  may 
confirm  her  consent  to  ma'riage,  at  four- 
teen may  receive  her  land  into  her  own 
hands,  and  at  twenty-one  may  alieitale 
her  lands  and  tenemejits.  The  laws  in 
the  United  States,  are  similar. 

AGENT  (in  Law).  A  person  empow- 
ered to  act  for  another. 

AGENT  (in  Physics).  Any  thing  having 
the  power  to  act  on  another  object,  as  cold 
or  heat. 

AGGREGATE.  An  order  of  plants  in 
the  Kinneean  system,  having  compound 
flowers  with  separate  anthers. 

AGGREGATION  (inChemistrj')-  The 
adhesion  of  parts  of  the  same  kind  ;  as 
pieces  of  sulphur  united  by  fusion  form  an 
aggregate. 

AGIO.  A  term  used  chiefly  in  Holland 
and  Venice,  to  denote  the  difference  be- 
tween the  bank  money  and  the  current 
money,  or  cash;  as  when  a  merchant  stipu- 
lates to  receive  for  his  goo('s  100  livres 
bank  money  or  105  cash,  or  current  money, 
the  agio  is  said  to  be  5  per  cent. 

AGRICULTURE.  The  art  of  tilling  tlie 
land  according  to  certain  ru)es  of  experi- 
ence and  science. 

AGRICULTURE,  Histort  of.  As  the 
ground  was,  hy  divine  appointment,  to  fur- 
nish subsistence  for  man,  and  after  his  fall 
he  was  doomed  to  procure  it  by  labour, 
husbandry,  or  the  practical  part  of  agricul- 
ture, was  of  necessity  the  first  and  most 
important  occupation  of  the  descendants  of 
Adam;  wherefore  we  learn  from  Scripture, 
that  his  two  sons,  Abel  and  Cain,  were 
both  employed  in  this  manner,  the  former 
being  a  keeper  of  sheep,  and  the  latter  a  til- 
ler of  the  ground.  With  what  implements 
this  work  of  tillage  was  earned  (m,  and 
what  degree  of  art  was  employed  In  produ- 
cing the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Is  left  to  con- 
jecture ;  but  writers  on  those  early  periods 
•re  generally  agreed  that  the  antediluvians 
wtrt  !■  poMSMioii  of  inajy  arti  and  inveiH 


AGR  t 

tions  which  were  in  process  of  time  lost, 
or  at  leant  but  ini|>erfrclly  retaiTked  anionf 
the  differenl  nations  that  were  scattered 
abroad  after  the  confusion  of  tongues 
Agricullurewasoneof  Ihea  ts  which  Noah 
and  his  |Misterity  retained;  for  we  tind  that 
he  cultivated  the  vine.  Those  of  the  line 
of  Shem  appear  to  have  followed  the  breed- 
ing and  feeding  of  cattle :  but  those  of  the 
line  of  Ham,  who  look  iH>sse8sion  of  Egj  |)t, 
applied  themselves  to  the  tilling  of  the 
ground,  and  with  so  much  ingenuity,  in- 
dustry, and  success,  that,  owing  to  the  in- 
undations of  the  Nile,  and  the  consequent 
fertility  of  the  soil,  Egypt  was  enabled  in 
the  tiuMt  of  Abraham,  and  still  uMire  so  in 
the  time  of  Joseph,  to  supply  its  neighbours 
with  corn  during  a  period  of  famine.  Nor 
were  the  inhabitants  backward  in  assisting 
the  liberality  of  nature:  they  busied  them- 
selves in  embanking,  irrigation,  and  drain- 
ing, in  order  to  derive  all  the  benefits  which 
the  t>enigiianl  river  was  cajKible  of  afford- 
ing them.  These  works  are  saiil  to  have 
l>een  carried  on  with  |)articular  spirit  under 
the  auspices  of  Sesostris,  1800  years  before 
the  Christiar  »ra.  So  sensible  were  the 
Egyptians  nf  the  blessings  wliich  agricul- 
ture atforrted,  that,  in  the  bliudness  of  their 
7.eal,  tliey  ascritwd  the  invention  of  the  .irt 
to  their  god  Osiris,  and  the  culture  of  bar- 
ley and  wheat  to  their  goddess  Isis. 

The  Pehvsgi,  or  atioriginal  inhabitants  of 
Greece,  were  among  the  number  of  tho.«e 
who  lost  all  the  primeval  arts,  and  fed  upon 
acorns  and  wild  fruits,  until  they  were  led 
by  the  Egyptians,  with  whom  they  had  an 
early  communication,  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  ground.  Like  them,  l(«>,  tliey  placed 
their  lienefactress  Ceres,  to  whom  they 
ascribed  the  introduction  of  corn,  among 
the  nuiiil>eroftheirdeities;a  goddess  whom 
authors  agree  was  no  othrt'  than  the  Egyp- 
tian Isis.  In  the  time  of  Homer,  agricul- 
ture was  in  such  esteem  that  King  Laertes 
laid  aside  his  royal  dignity,  that  he  miglit 
cultivate  a  few  fields.  Hesiod.  the  contem- 
porary of  this  author,  has  devoted  a  whole 
poem  to  the  labours  of  the  field  in  the  dif- 
ferent seasons  of  the  year.  Of  otlier  writ- 
ings, among  the  Greeks,  on  agrit-ulture  lit- 
tle remains  except  a  Iretrtise  hy  .Xenophon 
on  rural  afhiirs,  and  scattered  notices  on 
the  subject  in  the  works  of  Aristotle  and 
Theophrastiis ;  but  we  learn  from  Varro, 
that  there  were  In  his  time  not  less  than 
fifty  Greek  authors  to  be  consulted  od 
agricultural  maf">r. 

The  Jews,  a»  i«cripttire  informs  us,  ap- 
plied themselvM  when  they  came  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  to  the  cultivation  of  ifce 
soil,  havitii;  each  their  territory  allrtted  I* 


«0 


AGKICULTURE. 


•ticm.  We  may  also  Infer,  from  the  fre- 
quent allusion«  to  lliis  subject  in  different 
parts  iiftlir  Old  Testament,  that  liuHbHoilry 
formed  tlieir  prmci)ial  occupation.  The 
law*  of  iMosea  have,  many  uf  them,  fur 
Uieir  object  the  regulation  ol  their  tiocki), 
their  herds,  and  their  lields.  David  culti- 
vated his  own  land,  having  officers  to  take 
charge  of  his  Hocks,  his  herds,  his  camels, 
his  asses,  and  his  warehouses  of  wine  and 
oil,  Si.c.  Elislia  was  in  the  field  with 
twelve  yoke  of  oxen  when  Elijah  found 
bini.  Besides  the  freiiuent  mention  of 
husbandry  business  in  different  jmrls  of 
the  sacred  writings,  as  tl>«  digging  of 
wells,  the  planting  of  vineyards,  tiie  leas- 
ing, gathering  in,  threshing,  siding,  and 
winnowing  of  corn,  with  a  number  of 
other  things  of  the  like  kind. 

That  the  Carthaginians  did  not  neulect 
agriculture  is  evident  from  this,  that  they 
had  writers  on  the  subject,  of  whom  a  fa- 
mous general,  Mugo,  was  one,  who  isi|Uo- 
ted  by  Varro.  He  wrote  no  less  than  twen- 
ty-eight books.  It  is  probable  that,  under 
the  auspices  of  these  [leople,  agriculture 
flourished  in  Sicily,  wnich  wasaUerwards 
the  granary  of  Koine. 

.  No  subject  engaged  the  uttenlion  of  the 
Romans  more  than  agriculture,  theoretical- 
ly as  well  as  practically.  They  divided  their 
time  between  war  and  husbandry;  their 
greatest  men  in  the  early  ages  of  tlie  re- 
public, lieing  einployeil  alleriiutely  in  the 
one  and  the  other.  Cinciniiatus  was  taken 
from  the  pliMigh  to  fill  the  orhce  of  dictator; 
and  Kegnlus  besought  the  senate  that  he 
might  return  to  his  little  farm  for  a  short 
lime,  to  prevent  it  from  being  ruined.  I'liiiy 
abserves,  that  the  Romans  ploughed  their 
lields  with  the  same  diligence  that  they 
pitched  their  tents,  and  sowed  their  corn 
with  a«  much  i^re  as  they  raised  their 
•nnies.  When  riches  had  introduced  lux- 
ury, and  artificial  manners  and  habits,  the 
labours  of  the  field  were  performed  by  their 
•laves;  but  there  remained  many  among 
Ihein  of  the  higher  orders  who  directed 
their  personal  atteiitinn  to  the  subject.  The 
writings  of  Cato  the  Censor,  "irro,  Pliny, 
Columella,  and  Palladins,  aa  well  as  those 
of  the  poet  Virgil,  abound  with  practical 
and  useful  observations  on  the  whole  round 
of  farming  business.  Al  the  same  time  they 
ill  agree  in  ln;iienting  that  agriculture  was 
not  p'.irKiied  wUh  the  same  zeal  as  formerly. 
I'lie  great  among  the  Romans  had  town 
housefi  as  well  as  villas,  and  living  more  in 
the  for  iier  than  in  the  laiter,  the  maiiase- 
Jwit  of  tneir  farms  was  left  to  (heir  haillffs 
m  wrvanta.  The  oi,  which  was  the  prin- 
iJpai  bcoit  uf  burden  ^ntoiig  the  Egyptians, 


the  Jews,  and  Grecians,  was  aljo  hi{^} 
esteemed  among  the  Koniani.  Many  diretr 
tions  for  the  breeding,  breaking,  feeding, 
and  working  this  animal  are  to  be  found 
in  the  writers  al)ovemenlioned  ;  as  also  in 
regard  to  the  iiiaiiageiiient  of  bees,  which 
were  highly  prized.  As  to  the  implements 
of  husbandry  used  among  the  Romans,  the 
description  of  them  not  being  illustrated  by 
any  representation,  it  is  not  ea-iy  to  speak 
precisely  of  them;  but  it  is  clear  that  they 
used  the  plough  with  and  without  wheels, 
with  and  wittiout  boards,  with  and  without 
coulters,  also  with  shares  of  different  coD- 
strurtions.  A  reaping  machine  is  likewise 
spoken  of  both  by  Pliny  and  Palladius. 
which  was  driven  by  an  ox  ;  but  for  the 
most  part  they  cut  their  corn  with  the  hand, 
either  with  the  hook  close  to  the  ground, 
or  only  the  ears  with  a  curved  stick  and  a 
saw  attached  to  it,  or  otherwise  they  cut 
the  stalks  in  the  middle,  leaving  the  stubble 
to  be  afterwards  mowed.  They  threshed 
either  with  a  machine  composed  ufrollerSi, 
or  with  rods  or  flails,  or  they  trod  it  out 
with  their  feet.  Haymaking  was  performed 
among  the  Romans  much  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  at  present.  Harrowing  the  corn  woa 
particularly  recommended  by  the  Roman 
writers;  who  also  sfieak  of  'loeing,  weed- 
ing, watering,  draining,  and  following  the 
ground,  which  was  universal  aniiuig  them 
Agriculture  shared  the  fate  ot'all  the  other 
arts  on  the  decline  of  the  empire:  from  the 
time  of  Pliny  to  the  tifleentli  century,  there 
is  no  work  extant  on  the  subject,  except 
the  UeoiMMiics,  which  was  published  by 
Constantine  Pogoiiatus,  and  probably  col- 
lected by  the  emperor  himself.  Crescenzio, 
a  writer  of  Kologna,  was  the  first  who  called 
the  attention  of  his  countrymen  to  this  sub 
ject  after  this  long  iittervjil.  His  little  work, 
which  was  collected  from  the  Roman  wri- 
ters, was  followed  by  siuiie  other  Italian 
productiims:  but  probably  nothing  contri- 
buted more  to  give  an  im|iortance  to  agri- 
cultural pursuits  than  the  introduction  of 
the  feudal  system,  which  gave  to  every 
man  a  rank  and  distinction  accordiiigtothe 
quantity  of  land  he  either  (Missessed  or  oc- 
cupied; for  not  only  the  great  lord,  who  waa 
the  owner  <if  the  >,..  1,  or  reaped  the  fruita 
of  it,  but  also  his  tenants,  who  cultivated 
it,  were  invested  with  political  privileges 
that  were  enjoyed  by  no  other  memliers  of 
the  community  ;  and  alUiough  the  feudal 
burdens  and  restraints  have  ceased,  yet  tba 
privileges  and  advantiigen  attached  to  the 
possemion  of  landed  pro[>erty  still  give  It 
a  (Kiraniount  advaiitaite.  Hence  it  Is,  thai 
allies  tne  revival  of  the  arts,  the  science  of 
agrtcultura  haa  been  sealoualj  culUvatad 


AIR 

•»  III*  liigher  orders.  The  writers  likewise 
-.•n  lliio  siihjecl  have  within  the  last  centu- 
ry been  more  numerous  than  at  any  former 
perittd  ;  ai>d  every  etfort  has  Iteen  made 
oy  evperiments,  inventions,  and  improve- 
ment to  rentier  tlie  land  productive.  Nor 
have  tliese  efforts  been  without  elFect,  for, 
notwithstanding  the  immense  increase  in 
the  |x>piilatioii,  tliere  has  l>een  no  such 
■carcity  as  we  read  of  in  former  times. 

AGUE.  An  intermitting  fever,  witli  hot 
and  cold  fits  alternately. 

A(;<)L'TI.  A  South  American  animal, 
resenilihng  a  gtiineapig,  havina  the  charac- 
ters of  the  rat  kind,  and  the  hair  and  voice 
ofthehi'!:.  When  provoked,  it  raises  all 
the  hair  of  its  l>ack  upright,  and  strikes  the 
cartii  Willi  Its  hinder  feeu 


AGUAPECACA.  The  Jacana.  a  Brazil- 
ian bird  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon. 

AGRYPN0C05L\.  The  three-toed 
sloth  ;  BO  named  from  its  peculiar  cry. 

AI.\.  Brazilian  bird  of  the  Spoon- 
bUl  kind. 

AlCUKUS.  A  large  and  beautiful 
species  of  parrot,  found  in  Brazil. 

AILURUS.  The  panda,  a  carnivorous 
quadruped  inhabiting  the  north  of  In- 
dia ;  it  is  atUed  to  the  racoon,  about  the 
size  of  a  largo  cat.  and  has  a  soft,  thick 
fur,  of  a  briUiant  lulvoua  red,  on  the 
upper  parts. 

.\IR.  An  invisible,  transparent  fluid, 
which  we  constantly  breathe,  and  which 
is  essential  to  the  support  of  animal 
and  vegetable  existence.  It  envelops 
the  entire  globe,  and  constitutes  the 
atmosptiere  tnat  FniTouuds  it.  Air  is 
81(3  times  lighter  than  its  bulk  of  water; 
1,003  cubic  inches  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature and  pressure  weighing  305 
grains.  It  consists  of  about  &0  parts,  in 
bulk,  of  nitrogen,  and  20  parts  of  oxy- 
gen, and  about  i»ne-thousandth  part  of 
carbonic  acid.  Air,  when  inhaled  into 
the  lungs,  unites  with  the  carbon  of 
the  blood,  and  forms  carbonic  acid,  a 
process  which  produces  the  heat  neces- 
sary to  sustain  the  proper  temperature 
of  the  animal  system. — In  zoology.  Air- 
cells  are  membraneous  receptacles  com- 
municating with  the  lungs,  and  in 
birds  extending  through  the  different 
parts  of  the  body,  by  which  their  spe- 
cific gravity  is  dimiaished.  and  they  are 


ALA  IJ 

rendered  fitter  for  sustenation  in  the 
air. — In  botany,  air-cells  are  cavities  ia 
the  leaves  and  stems  of  certain  alg», 
which  render  thom  buoyant  in  water. — 
Air-plauts  are  orchideous  plants  which 
live  for  many  months  suspended  in  the 
air. — Air-vessels  are  spiral  vessels  or 
ducts  in  plants  containing  air,  and  sup- 
posed to  answer  the  same  purpose  in 
the  vegetable  system  as  lungs  do  in  th« 
animal. 

AlK-I'LT.MP.  A  iiiachine  for  exhausting 
the  air  cmt  cf  vessels,  in  the  s.tme  manner 
as  water  is  drawn  up  by  a  pump.  This 
celeUnited  machine  was  invented  by  Otto 
de  <;iirrJrke,  consul  of  .Mapdeliurgh,  who 
exhibited  his  lirsl  piilitic  experiiiients  with 
tills  instriiiMent  before  the  Emperor  and 
i^tates  of  (ieriiiany,  at  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Imperial  Diet  at  KatislK>n,  in  the  year 
Hi.'>4  :  but  his  4lescrlplion  of  the  machliM 
was  first  published  m  lli72,  at  Amsterdaiu 
umler  the  title  of  Kxperinkenta  nova  Mag 
debiirjica  de  Vacuo  Spatio.  Before  this 
imblicatinn,  it  ap|iearslhnt  iMr.  Boyle,  who 
had  piirticul.arly  directed  his  attention  to 
the  study  of  pneumatics,  a'so  conceived  a 
similar  idea,  which  led  .^l■.  Hu«ike  to  as- 
crilie  the  invention  to  hiiii ;  but  .Mr.  Boyle 
himself,  ill  a  letter  to  his  nephew.  Lord 
Uiiiigarvon,  expresses  his  acknowledgment 
for  the  discover;  of  this  useful  machine 
from  what  he  had  heard  re|Hirted  of  it,  al- 
though, as  he  adds,  he  had  not,  at  that  time, 
|)erused  the  account  of  it.  <Jii  hisliecoming 
acquainted  with  the  m.icliiiie,  he  made 
many  improvements  ii|Hin  it ;  as  did  alXei>- 
wards  Mr.  Huuke  and  many  ulbeni. 


AIR  SHAFTS  (in  Mining).  T?o»«»  c* 
shads  let  down  froiii  the  o|ien  air  to  dis- 
charge the  fiiul  va|M>urs. 

AIK-VICSSKI.S.  .^laral  ducts  or  CAnal* 
in  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  plants, 
which  are  siip|M>sci|  to  supply  them  with 
air,  after  tlie  niaiiiierof  lungs  in  aniuials. 

AI.AI»A.<TKI<.  A  «oll  kind  of  marbl* 
which  is  i>f  a  eranular  texture,  and  of  a 
white  riibHir,  ami  hus  a  certain  degree  of 
traai<|>ureiicy.     It  is  limuJ   in   Gemiaay 


It 


ALG 


Prance,  and  Italy,  and  la  ua«d  by  sculptor* 
for  ttatiir*. 

ALBATUOSri,  or  Man  or  W»h  Rird. 
A  lar|;e  WHter  fowl,  vvhicli  iiiliahita  uiorft 
■ea^  hflwff ..  ttit'  tri<|iic8. 

ALIilN'iS  Tin-  Willie  Mimre,  so  called 
by  the  I'orliiuiie!*  ,  llit-y  have  ii;»xeii  hair, 
blue  r(>lliii|2  eyes,  and  a  |Mle  livid  while- 
netis 

ALBUMEN.  The  whitenf  an  eeg,  and 
any  viscous  tliiid  withimt  taste  or  smell  that 
b  like  It,  as  llie  serous  |iarl  ot'  llie  tilixid. 

ALKI'KM'M.  'I'hestirt  while  sulwlance 
n  trees  next  t »  (ht  liber,  or  wilier  hark. 

AM'IIF:M\  r^at  obsolete  branch  of 
chyinistry  which  yi'  for  its  object  the 
:ransinutation  of  nietais  into  gold ;  the 
findine  the  panacea,  or  universal  remedy  ; 
an,d  some  other  Ihines  e(|iially  ridiculous. 

AIA'i  >I|i  )L.  C'(uiiiiH>nly  called  spirit  of 
wine,  but  oblniiied  by  distillation  in  a  state 
more  anient  and  |>uritied  than  that  li(|uor. 
It  is  cliierty  einjiloyed  in  (ireparing  var- 
nishes, and  dtssiilviii|>  cuins,  resins,  &c. 
It«  antiseptic  power  makes  it  useful  in  pre- 
serving anatomical  prrpanttions. 

AIjCOK.  a  small  siar,  ailjoining  the 
bright  one  in  the  middle  of  the  tail  of  l/rsa 
Major. 

AU:ORA.\.    SeeKoBAN. 

AI-DEBAKAN,  or  Thb  Bull's  Ete. 
A  star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  the  con- 
ctellatioM  Taurus. 

ALDEK.  A  tree  which  thrives  partic- 
Dlarly  in  moist  places.  The  principal  sorts 
of  alder  are  the  round  leaved,  or  common 
alder,  the  liuiiileaved,  and  the  dwarf  alder. 

Al.ltKRiMA.V.  A  8ii|><>rior  jinlae,  who 
In  England  sat  with  the  liisliop  in  the  coun- 
ty courts  In  (he  time  of  the  Saxons.  The 
alderinaii  is  now  a  niajistrale  next  to  tlie 
mayor  in  a  city  or  iHirougli. 

A-LEE.  A  sea  term,  siunifying  to  the 
leeside,  or  side  which  the  wind  blows 
upon. 

Al.EMBK;.  A  vessel  formerly  used  for 
distilling  ;  in  the  place  ot  which  retorts  are 
now  mostly  in  use. 

ALEX  A.N  DRIVE.  A  verse  in  modem 
poetry  consisting  of  ten,  twelve,  or  thirteen 
syllables. 

ALGjK.  a  natural  oriler  of  plants  in  the 
Llnnean  system,  coniaiinne  flags,  sea- 
weeds, and  other  marine  plants,  whose 
root,  leaf,  and  stem  are  one. 

ALGEBRA.  The  science  of  computing 
abstract  quantities  by  means  of  symlHils  or 
signs.  Il  Is  called  S|iecious  Arithmetic  by 
Viela,  and  l/niversal  Arithinelir  by  New- 
tor..  Tlie  first  letters  of  the  alpJialwt,  a,  b, 
•,  i.  Sic.  are  mad»-  to  represent  known 
juaninitw ;  and  tlie  lant  luOers  x,  j,  i,  to  I 


ALG 

represent  those  that  are  unknown.  The 
o|>erationi  with  these  letters  are  |>erfi.rmed 
by  means  ol  the  chamciers  (-+-)  lor  addi- 
tiiui,  ( — )  for  siihtraciion,  (X)  •"■■  "'"'t'l'" 
cation,  (_!-)  for  division,  (=j  for  eipialily 
ALGEBKA,  I1i«torv  ir.  The  terra 
alcebra  is  of  Arabic  original,  and  is  deri- 
ved by  some  rriiiii  algeatiar  almocabaleh, 
sigirn'ying  reslitiition  and  comikirison,  ol 
resolution,  which  pro|ierly  expresses  llie 
nature  of  the  thing:  others  have  derived 
il  fromCieber,  a  celebrated  malliemaliciaii. 
This  science  is  not  of  very  ancient  dale, 
although  it  is  not  (Hissible  to  tix  the  exact 
period  oritscommencenient.  The  earliest 
treatise  on  tliis  subject  now  extant  is  tiiat 
of  Uiophantiis,  a  Greek  author  of  Alexan 
dria.  who  flourished  about  the  year  3.50, 
and  wrote  thirteen  books  of  ArithmeticO' 
ruin,  of  which  six  mily  are  preserved. 
These  b(M)ks  do  not  contain  the  elementary 
parts  of  algebra,  only  some  diflicult  pro- 
Itlenis  respect! n !:  sipiare  and  cube  numbers, 
and  the  properties  of  numliers  in  general, 
to  which  the  writings  of  the  more  ancient 
authors,  as  Euclid,  Archimedes,  and  A|hiI- 
loiiius  might  naturally  besupiHised  to  have 
given  birth.  Whether  the  Arabians  tisik 
their  hints  from  tins  and  similar  works 
among  the  (Jreeks,  and  drew  out  the  sci- 
ence of  algebra  for  themselves,  or  whether 
they  more  imniediately  derived  it,  as'they 
dill  their  notation,  from  tho  llondiHis,  is  a 
matter  of  doubt.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  the  science  was  first  transmitted  by 
the  yirabiaiis  or  Saracens  to  Eiiro|ie.  about 
t*ie  year  1 100;  and  that  alter  its  introduc- 
tion the  Italians  took  the  lead  in  its  culti- 
vation. Lucas  Paclolus,  or  Lucas  de  Kiirgo, 
was  one  of  the  first  who  wruleiui  llie  sub- 
ject, and  has  left  several  treal  ises,  published 
between  the  years  1470  and  l:'>09.  In  his 
principal  work,  entitled  Suiiima  Ariilinie- 
ticiB  et  GeruiietriiP  l'ro|Mirlii>nuinipie  Pro- 
portion.'ilitatiim,  piiblished'tirsi  in  I4!M,  lie 
mentions  several  writers,  and  particularly 
LeiMianlus  l'is.tnus,  otherwise  called  Bo- 
■lac.ri,  an  Italian  merchant,  who,  i.i  ih(> 
thirteenth  century,  used  to  Iniile  to  the  sea- 
ports, and  thence  introiliired  llie  science  of 
algebra  into  Italy.  Aller  Lucas  de  Riirgo, 
many  other  Italian  writers  took  up  th« 
subject,  and  treated  it  nM>re  al  large,  nt 
Scipio  Perreus,  who  found  out  a  rule  foi 
resolving  one  case  of  a  coni|Hiiind  ciiluc 
equation  ;  but  more  es|)ecially  llieronyniiis 
Cardan,  who,  in  ten  bisiks  pubiisheJ  in 
1.5:J9-4.'>,  has  given  the  whole  doctrine  of 
cubic  e<piations  ;  for  part  of  which,  h-<w«v- 
er,  he  w.is  indeliied  to  .Nicholas  Tartalea, 
or  Tartaglea.  nl  Brescia,  a  c(>iitem|Mtrarr 
of  Cardan's  wh«i  piiblishe  1  b  b«ik  uncuAV 


ALGEBRA. 


It 


•qiiat!on<i,  entitled  Q.iiesiu>  Invenzioni  di- 
verse, which  apiieiired  in  15U6.  Cardan 
often  uwd  the  literal  notation  ofa,b,  e,  U, 
tc,  but  Tartalea  niaile  no  alteration  in  the 
fomis  of  expression  used  by  Lucas  de  Bur- 
fo,  calling  the  first  |K>werof  the  unknown 
qitiiutity  in  his  lanpuage  cosa,  llie  second 
censii,  the  third  cuho,  &.C.  writing  the 
n-unes  of  all  the  o|)eration8  In  words  lit 
)en<nli,  without  using  any  contractions, 
Mc<-pl  tlie  initial  R,  for  root,  or  rtvlical- 
hy.  About  this  time  the  science  of  alge- 
bra also  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Ger- 
niaaa,  among  whom  we  find  the  writers 
Stil'elius  and  Scheubelius.  Stifelius,  in 
his  Arilhmetica  Integra,  published  at  Nu- 
remberg in  1544,  introduced  the  charicters 
-U,  — ,  and  /y/,for  plus, minus, and  radix, 
or  root,  as  he  called  it ;  also  the  initials  3|., 
3i  Ksj  '""'■  '''*  power  1,  2,  3,  &.C.,  and  Uie 
numeral  exponents  0,  1,  2,  3,  tc.  which 
he  called  by  the  name  of  exponens  exiK>- 
nent.  He  likewise  uses  tlie  literal  no- 
tation, A,  B,  C,  D,  &c  for  the  unknown 
or  general  quantities.  John  Scheubelius, 
who  wrote  aluuit  the  same  lime  as  Car- 
dan and  Stifelius,  treats  largely  on  surds, 
and  gives  a  general  rule  for  extracting 
the  root  of  any  binomial  or  resid-ial, 
a-hb,  where  one  or  both  parts  are  surds. 
These  writers  were  succeeded  by  Robert 
Recorde,  a  malhen»itician  and  physician 
of  Wales,  who  in  his  works,  in  1552  and 
1557,  on  Arithmetic,  showed  that  the  sci- 
ence of  aljiebra  had  not  been  overiooked 
in  England.  He  first  gave  niles  for  the 
extracting  of  the  root-*  of  compound  alge- 
braic quantities,  and  made  use  of  the  terms 
binomial  and  residual,  and  introduced  the 
8ignofequ.\lity,or:r:.  Peletarius,  a  French 
alsebniist,  in  his  work,  which  appeared  at 
Paris  in  1558,  made  many  improvemenu 
on  tho««  parts  of  alitebra  wliich  had  already 
been  treated  of.  He  was  followed  by  Peter 
Ramus,  who  published  his  Arithmetic  and 
Aluelirain  1560;  Raphael  Bombelli,  whose 
Algebra  ap[ieared  at  Bologna  in  1.579 ;  and 
Simon  Steven,  of  Bruges,  who  published 
ttis  .\rilhnietic  in  15S5,  and  his  Algebra  a 
little  after.  This  latter  invented  a  new  cha- 
racter fortlie  unknown  quantity,  namely,  a 
•ni.ill  circle  ( o  )i  within  which  he  placed 
numeral  exponent  of  the  power;  and 
^.*o  denoted  roots,  as  well  as  powers,  by 
numeral  exponents.  The  algebraical  works 
of  Vieta,  the  next  mnrt  distinguished  alge- 
braist, appeared  alwiut  the  year  1600,  and 
e<>ntain  many  unprovements  In  the  methods 
of  \»  orking  algebraical  questions.  He  uses 
the  vowels  A,  E,  [,  O,  Y,  for  the  un- 
known qu.'tntitles,  and  the  roTn-miants,  B, 
■  0,  Itc  for  "he  unowa  « uaoiiues ;  and 
3 


introduced  nii«ny  terms  which  are  In  pr»- 
senl  use,  as  ctwtficienl,  affirmative  and 
negjitive,  pure  and  adfecled,  ice:  also  the 
line,  or  vinculum,  over  ctmipound  quanti- 
ties (AOJ).  All)ert  Uirard,  an  ii.genusi* 
Flemish  mathematician,  wan  the  first  |ier- 
»<in  who,  in  his  Invention  Nouvelle  en 
I'Algebre,  tc.  printed  in  ltM9,  explained 
the  general  doctrine  of  the  forniation  of 
the  coefficienU  of  the  p<nvers  from  the 
sums  of  their  rooU,  and  their  products. 
He  also  finrt  understootl  the  use  of  negative 
roots,  in  the  solution  of  geometricjil  pro- 
blems, and  first  spoke  of  imaginary  roots, 
tc.  The  celebrated  Thomas  Harriot,  whose 
work  on  this  subject  apjieared  in  1631,  in 
troduced  the  uniform  use  of  the  letters  •, 
i,  e,  tc. ;  that  is  tlie  vowels  a,  e,  and  « 
for  tlte  unknown  quantities,  and  the  con- 
sonants, b,  c,  d,  tc.  for  the  known  quan- 
tities ;  these  he  joins  together  like  the 
letters  of  a  word,  to  represent  th«  multipli- 
cation or  product  of  any  niiiiiher  of  these 
literal  quantities,  and  prefixing  the  numeral 
coefficient,  as  is  usual  at  present,  exce|>t 
being  separated  by  a  point,  thus  .S.bbc 
For  a  root  he  sets  the  index  of  the  root 
after  the  mark  /^ ,  as  ^3  for  the  cube  root, 
and  introduces  the  characters'^  and  <^, 
for  greater  and  less  ;  and  in  the  reiluction 
of  equations  he  arranged  the  ofierations  in 
separate  steps  or  lines,  setting  the  eipht- 
nations  in  the  hiargin,  on  the  left  hand, 
for  each  line.  In  this  manner  he  brought 
algebra  nearly  to  the  fonn  which  it  now 
bears,  and  added  also  much  information 
on  the  subject  of  equations.  Ouahtred,  in 
his  Clavis,  which  was  first  published  m 
1631,  set  down  the  decimals  without  their 
denominator,  separating  them  thus  aUiit) 
In  algebraic  multiplications  he  either  joins 
the  letters  which  represent  the  factors,  or 
connects  them  with  the  sign  of  multiplica- 
tion -\-,  which  is  the  first  iiitr<Mliiction  of 
this  character.  He  also  seems  to  have  first 
used  points  to  denote  proportion,  as  7  . 9  :: 
28  .  36 ;  and  for  continued  proimrtion  has 
the  mark  ^.  In  his  work  we  likewise 
meet  with'  "the  first  instance  of  applyine 
al^bra  to  geometry,  so  as  to  investigate 
new  ge«imetrical  properties:  which  latter 
subject  is  treated  at  large  by  Descartes,  to 
his  work  on  Geometry,  published  in  1637, 
and  also  by  several  other  subsequent  wri- 
ters. Wailis,  in  his  Arithmetic*  Infiniio- 
nim,  first  led  the  way  to  infinite  series, 
particularly  to  the  expressiin  of  the  qii»- 
dratiire  of  the  circle  by  an  infinite  series. 
He  also  substituted  the  fractional  exponents 
in  the  place  of  radical  signs,  which  in  many 
instances  facilitate  the  sprrations.  Hiiy 
(ens,  Barrow,  and  other  n»Ml»ematlcia»»- 


14 


ALL 


^ 


•mployert  the  (ilcehniical  calcu1ii«  Jn  resoV 
vtns  riiiiiir  (irotileiiiH  which  hail  hitherto 
bntflctd  Mi;ilhriiiaiiciitn8.  Sir  Isaac  N>w- 
lon,  in  ki«  Ariihmelica  Universalis,  made 
many  improvriiienla  in  aiialylicii,  which 
■uhject,  as  wril  aslhe  theory  (if  infinile  iSe- 
ries, was  further  ilevelo[)«!(l  hy  llalley,  Ber- 
n<Hilli,  Taylor,  Maclaiiriii,  Nicole,  Stirling, 
D«  Moivre,  Ulairaiit,  Laiiil>ert,  Waringi 
Euler,  &c. 

AUGt)L.  A  fixed  star  of  the  seaiiid 
ma^nittule  in  the  coiisiellatioii  of  Perseus, 
or  Medusa's  Mead. 

ALGORITHM.  An  Arabic  word,  fre- 
quenily  used  to  denote  the  practical  rules 
of  al|;ehra. 

AM  AS  (in  Law).  A  word  algnifylnp, 
Hieraily,  otherwise  ;  and  employed  in  de- 
■crihing  the  defendant,  who  has  a^uined 
other  names  besides  his  real  one. 

AI^IBI  (in  I«iw).  A  term  signifying, 
literally,  elsewhere;  and  used  by  the  de- 
fendant in  a  criminal  prosecution,  when 
he  wishes  to  prove  Ins  iiiiiitcenre,  by  show- 
ing that  he  was  in  another  place,  or  else- 
where, when  the  act  was  comiiiilted. 

ALICONDA.  Ar.  Kthiopiaii  tree,  from 
the  bark  of  which  flax  is  spun. 

ALIKN  (in  Ijaw).  One  born  in  a  foreign 
country.  An  alien  is  incajiable  of  inheriting 
lands  until  lie  is  naturali/.ed  hy  an  act  of 
the  legislature.  He  has  likewise  no  right 
to  vote  at  elections,  or  to  enjoy  any  office, 
nor  to  be  returned  on  any  jury,  unless  where 
an  alien  is  to  be  tried. 

ALIMONY  (in  the  Civil  Law).  The 
allowance  made  to  a  married  woman  upon 
her  sepanition  fnun  her  husband. 

ALiaUANT  PARTS.  Such  numbers  In 
arithmetic  as  will  not  divide  or  measure  a 
whole  number  exactly,  as  7,  which  is  the 
aliquant  part  of  16. 

ALIULTOT  PARTS.  Such  part  of  a 
number  as  will  divide  or  measure  a  whole 
number  exactly,  as  2  the  aliquot  part  of  4, 
3of9,  aiid4of  16. 

ALKALI  or  AliCALF.  A  perfectly  pure 
•alt,  which  combines  with  acids  so  as  to 
neutralize  or  impair  their  activity,  and 
produces  salts.  Besides,  alkalies  change 
the  purple  colour  of  many  vegetables  to  a 
green,  the  reds  to  a  purple,  and  the  yellows 
toabrown.  Some  alkalies  are  called  fixed, 
because  they  remain  fixed  in  the  fJre,  as 
potash  and  soda;  others  are  volatile,  as 
ammonia. 
ALLAH.  The  Arabian  name  of  God. 
ALLEGIANCE  (in  Ijiw).  Tlmfaithful 
obedience  which  every  subject  owes  to  his 
prince  ;  the  oath  of  allegiance  Is  that  which 
every  penon  is  required  to  take  before  he 
wtors  on  imy  office. 


ALL 

ATJ-EGORY.  A  series  or  chain  cf  me 
taphors  rontinned  through  a  whole  die 
course ;  thus  the  prophets  represent  the 
Jews  under  the  allegory  of  a  vine,  planted, 
cul(ivaled,Hiid  wateredby  the  handof  God. 

ALLEGRO.  An  Italiafi  word  used  in 
music,  to  denote  that  the  part  is  to  t»e  play* 
ed  in  a  brisk  and  sprightly  manner. 

ALLIGATION.  A  rule  in  arithmetic, 
teaching  how  to  compound  several  ingre- 
dients for  any  design  pro|>osed.  It  is  either 
medial  or  alternate.  Alligation  medial  is 
the  method  of  finding  the  rate  or  quality  of 
the  composition  from  having  the  rates  or 
qualities  of  the  several  ingredients,  as  to 
find  the  value  of  bnindy  per  gallon,  which 
is  composed  of  10  giillons  at  24s.  per  gal- 
lon, 12  at  30».  per  galhm,  &.C.  Alligation 
alternate  is  the  method  of  finding  the  quan- 
tities of  ingredients  necessary  to  form  a 
compound  of  a  given  nite,  as  to  find  how 
gold  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  that  is 
of  19,  21,  and  23  carats  fine,  &.c.  may  be 
mixed  together  so  that  the  mixture  may 
be  20  carats  fine.  Uiiestions  of  this  kind 
are  better  solved  by  algebra. 

ALLIGATOR.  An  amphibious  animal, 
abounding  in  both  Nc  'h  and  South  Amer- 
ica in  the  torrid  zone,  and  sometimes 
grows  to  the  length  of  18  or  20  feet.  The 
Alligator  is  found  in  the  lower  parts  of 

the  Mississippi,  but   it   is  more  coi m 

in  the  large  rivers  of  South  America. 
It  is  called  Caym.\n  by  the  Indians. 
It  resembles  the  Crocodile  of  Africa  and 
Asia,  but  it  never  grows  as  large,  and  is 
beside,  different  in  formation,  and  in  Its 
habits. 


ALLITRRATION.  A  repeating  or  play 
ing  up«ui  the  same  letter  in  a  succession  of 
words. 

ALLODIAL.  An  epithet  for  lands  held 
without  any  acknowledgment  to  a  lord  or 
superior,  in  opposition  to  feudal  lands. 
Allodial  lands  are  exempt  from  rent  tm 
services. 

ALLOY,  or  ALLAY.  A  proport^n  of 
any  baser  metal  mixed  with  one  that  is 
finer,  thus  the  gold  coin  has  an  alloy  of 
silver  and  copper,  as  silver  bos  of  eapiMt 


ALM 

tfnn#?  th«i  proitortlon  in  the  ft>Tmer  case 
fiir  Mandard  pold  18  2  carats  of  alloy  in 
apiiiinil  wfli^lit,  or  23  carau  (ine;  in  the 
latter  <■».•»*,  for  tlie silver,  lliere  aielSdwla. 
of  alloy  in  II  oz.  2  dwts.  fine. 

ALL  SAINTS.  A  festival  observed  by 
soHie  Christians  on  the  first  day  of  Novein- 
h«-r,  in  cotnniemoration  of  all  the  saints. 

ALI.SPICE,  or  the  Pihe^vio  Tree.  A 
beautiful  irre  of  Mexico  and  the  West  In- 
dies, the  fruit  of  which  Is  hfshly  aromatic. 
The  trttf  is  glH>ul  30  feet  in  height,  and  3 
la  ctrcuniftreHC« 


ALT 


18 


ALLUVION.  A  gradual  increase  ofland 
washed  to  the  shore  by  iiiuiidations.  .Al- 
luvial fonnations  are  also  to  be  found  in 
valleys  and  plains,  by  the  deposit  of  gravel, 
loam,  clay,  or  other  earths  washed  down 
from  the  mountains. 

Al,.M.\GEt?T.  The  name  of  a  celebrated 
book  on  astronomy,  composed  by  Ptolemy. 

AL.M.\  M.\TER.  The  name  given  to  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  En- 
gland, by  tlieir  several  members  who  have 
pa.4.<:ed  their  degrees  in  each  of  these  uni- 
versities. The  same  is  done  by  the  Am- 
erican Colleges. 

AL.MAN.\C.  A  calendar  or  table  con- 
taining a  list  of  the  months  and  days,  with 
an  account  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
Bun  and  motm,  and  other  Incidental  mat- 
ters. The  English  Nautical  Almanac,  or 
ABtrononiical  Ephemeris,  is  a  kind  of  na- 
tional almanac,  begun  in  1767,  under  the 
direction  and  by  the  advice  of  the  astron<i- 
mer  royal,  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Maskelyne. 
Besides  most  things  essential  to  general 
use,  which  are  found  In  other  almanacs,  it 
conlaina  many  new  and  lm|M»rtant  matters, 
pwtieilarly  the  distance  uf  the  nioo<i  fnxii 
bo  mxa  and  &xod  Mara,  oomputed  \»  tiie 


meridian  of  Greenwich,  fbr  every  thr»e 
hours  of  time,  for  the  pur|><>seof  coinpnting 
the  longitude  at  sea.  This  almanac  i« 
generally  computed  a  few  yean  forward, 
for  the  conveiiLeiice  of  ships  going  out  U|>on 
hmg  voyages.  A  similar  work  Is  published 
in  the  United  Stales.  The  American  Al- 
manac, first  published  at  Rriston  in  1830, 
embraces  a  great  mass  of  statistical  know- 
ledge, lieside  that  usually  given  in  an  alma- 
nac. 

ALMOND.  The  fruit  of  the  almond  tree, 
which  is  a  nut,  and  is  either  sw4^t  or  bit- 
ter. 

ALMOND  TREEL  A  tall  tree,  resem- 
bling the  peach  tree,  whicn  flourishes  in 
Asia  and  the  southern  parts  of  Eu-  ^pe.  It 
is  one  of  the  first  trees  that  blcwtm  in  :?pring. 

ALMONER.  Ir.  Englanc  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal officer  ot  ti.«  king,  appointed  to  '(■strih. 
utp  the  King's  alms  to  rhe  p<«>r  every  day 

ALOE.  A  tree  v/lilch  originally  came 
from  India,  is  remarkable  for  a  bitter  juice, 
called  aloe?,  which  is  extracted  from  Its 
leaves,  and  is  very  useful  in  medicine. 
I'lie  <il(<e  soccotrina  is  a  European  species 
much  cult'.t'ated  in  Spain. 

.ALfHA.  The  first  letter  in  the  Greek 
alpliaN-t,  which  with  'he second  letter,t>e- 
ta,  foiiMS  >.ne  word  alpharn. 

ALPHABET.  A  se.i  ^  of  the  several 
letters  in  a  language,  '^-h  ct.  vary  in  num 
ber  in  different  Ianj".<ige8  The  Hebrew 
contains  22  lette.-s,  as  aiso  the  Chaldee, 
Samaritan,  Syriac,  Persian,  ./Ethiopic,  Sa- 
racen, &.c.  ;buttlie  Irish,  which  is  I  he  same 
as  the  Pelasgian,  or  Scythian,  still  retains 
only  17;  the  Grttek  alphabet,  which  was 
brought  by  Cadmus  into  Ureece  from  PhOR- 
nicia,  and  w:ts  also  PelH.sgiaii  in  its  origiK- 
al,  consisted  of  IG  or  17,  to  which  were  af- 
terwards added  7  orCJ  more,  to  make  up  24. 
The  ancient  Arabic  al(ihabet  c«iiisisted  of 
24,  to  which  4  more  letters  have  since  been 
added  ;  the  C<i(»tic  alphabet  ronsists  of  32, 
the  Turkish  of  .S:},  the  Georgian  of  3U,  the 
Russian  of  39,  the  Spanish  of  27,  the  Ital- 
ian of  20,  the  Latin  of  22,  the  French  of  2:i, 
and  the  English  of  26.  See  more  on  this 
subject  under  the  head  of  VVritiko  The 
Chinese  have  no  proper  alphabet,  unless 
we  reckon  a.i  such  their  keys  to  clast^s  of 
words,  distingiiisiied  by  the  number  of 
strokes  combined  in  each,  of  which  they 
have  214  in  number.  As  to  the  written 
ctiaracters  of  these  alpbabets,iee  WaiTina 

ALT.  That  part  of  tlie  great  scale  of 
sounds  lying  between  F  above  tite  tr«bt« 
clififnote,  and  G  in  altissinio. 

ALTAR.  A  table  or  raised  place  on  which 
any  offering  was  made  to  the  Aliiilgbty 
Tti«  driit  aliw  mentioued  is  that  biuli  bf 


-^ 


If 


AL,T 


AMA 


Knak  after  the  flood.     Tlie  two  principal 
■tun  of  Ute  Jew*  were  Ums  altai  of  burnt 


ALTERNATION  A  nile  in  arithmetic 
ihowing  ihr  ilifferent  ways  in  wliirli  any 
niiiiiiNT  of  quantities  ina,.  he  cliaiiged  or 
C(>rnl)ine(1. 

ALTIMETRY.  Tlie  art  of  measuring 
altitudes  or  lieights, 

ALTITUDE.  The  heipht  of  an  object, 
or  its  elevation  alHive  tlial  plane  to  which 
the  b:u^  is  referred  ;  tliiis  In  iiiathenialics 
llie  altitude  of  a  figure  i«  the  perpendicular 
or  nearest  diMtance  of  iti  vertex  rn)in  the 
base.  The  altitude  of  an  object  is  the  ele- 
vation of  an  object  almve  the  plane  of  tlie 
hon/on,  or  a  t>er|iendicnlar  let  fall  to  that 
plane,  aa  a  per|iendicular  let  fall  from  a 
tower. 

Altitude*  are  either acressibin  or  Inaccea- 
rihle.  An  accessible  altitude  of  an  object 
Is  that  whose  base  we  can  have  access  to, 
•o  a.«  to  measure  the  distance  between  it 
and  tlie  station  from  which  the  measure  ia 
to  be  taken. 

Inaccaisibte  altitude  Is  when  the  base  of 
the  object  cannot  be  approached ,  I  naccMi- 
M)tt  altitude*  may  be  nieaaured  eitliei-  by 


peometry,  trigonometry,  optical  refleevloa 
or  by  the  barometer.  The  altitudes  of 
nioiiiiinins  may"  be  determined  best  by  tha 
b.'ironieter,  for  as  the  weight  of  the  almos- 
pherr  diiniriislies  as  we  rise,  the  fall  of  the 
biiroiiieler  determines  the  elevation  of  any 
phice.  The  altitude  of  the  pyramids  in 
E(;>  pt  was  mea.-iured  in  the  time  of  Tlialea, 
by  means  of  their  shadow  and  a  pole  set 
iipri):lit  beside  them,  making  the  altilini''* 
of  the  pole  and  pyramid  to  be  proportional 
to  the  length  ot  tneir  snadows.  The  in- 
striimenls  now  commonly  used  in  measur- 
ing altitudes  are  the  geumetricai  square, 
the  quadrant,  and  theodolite. 

ALTITUDE  (in Optics).  Theheightof 
an  object  alK>ve  a  line  drawn  parallel  to 
the  hiirivu>n  from  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

ALTITUDE  OF  THE  EYE  (in  Per. 
spective).  The  perpendicular  height  of  tli« 
eye  above  the  geometrical  plane. 

ALTITUDE  OF  A  ST.\R,  &c.  ( In  As- 
troiiiiiiiy).  The  height  of  any  star,  &c 
above  the  horizon,  or  an  arc  of  a  verticia 
circle,  intercepted  between  the  star  and  the 
horizon.  This  altitude  is  either  true  or  ap. 
parent,  according  as  it  is  reckoned  from  the 
nitional  or  sensible  horizon,  and  the  differ- 
ence between  these  two  is  termed  by  as- 
tronomers the  parallax  of  altitude. 

ALTO(  in  Music  books).  Italian  for  the 
upi>er  or  counter  tenor,  and  is  common  in 
music  of  several  parts. 

ALUM.  A  mineral  salt,  composed  of 
sulphuric  acid,  potash, aliimina.and  water. 
It  Is  of  a  white  colour,  and  of  an  astrinueiit 
add  taste ;  natural  alum,  which  was  well 
known  to  the  ancients,  is  a  kind  of  whitish 
Oiable  .atone,  formerly  found  in  the  islauii 
of  .Melos,  Macedonia,  Egypt,  itc.  Facti- 
tious alum  is  comimmly  made  of  a  stoim, 
of  seaweed,  and  of  urine.  It  is  known  by 
the  names  of  rock  or  English  alum,  which 
is  colourless  ;  and  Roman  alum,  which  ii 
of  a  reddish  colour. 

ALUM  EARTH.  The  earth  from  which 
alum  is  extracted. 

'ALUMINA,  or  ALUMFNE.  The  earth 
of  alum,  an  argillaceous,  soft,  and  insipid 
sort  of  earth,  which  is  the  base  of  alum, 
being  the  princijial  part  of  clay. 

ALUM  WATER.  A  preparation  used 
by  painters  in  water  colour,  prepared  by 
dissolving  alum  in  water. 

A.  .M.  An  abbreviation  for  Anno  Miindi, 
the yearofthe  world,  and  Magister  Artium, 
master  of  arts. 

AMALr.AM,  or  AMALOAMA.  Th« 
mixture  of  mercury  with  some  other  metal 
AmalzTimsare  used  either  to  render  a  metlll 
fit  lobe  spread  Mil  •onie  works,  aa  in  gilding. 


AME 

»T  else  to  reduce  the  metnl  to  »  oiihtle 
•owder.  An  aiiialiiain  of  tin  aiul  mercury 
.S  lined  for  liHikiiic  slaxsea. 

AMAh«AiMATION.  'J'he  operation  of 
mixiiig  (|uicfciiilver  with  Home  otlier  metal, 
by  fusiiif!  llie  metal,  and  in  tliat  state  add- 
ing a  iKirtioii  uf  mercury  to  it.  Uold  of 
all  ineU'iU  uiiiiea  heiit  wicli  nierciiry,  next 
to  tlial  Milver,  then  lead,  tin,  and  every 
other  iiietai,  except  iron  and  co|i|ier,  (lie 
last  of  which  admits  scarcely  any  uf  Kucii 
kiii'ilgaiiiuiioii. 

AMANL'B.NiSlS.  A  slave  among  the 
Romans,  who  used  to  be  eiii|il(iyed  in 
writiiii;  for  his  muster  ;  also  any  one  among 
(he  moderns  who  is  employed  to  iraiiscrilie 
for  another. 

AMARANTH.  A  plant  which  flourishes 
in  the  Indies  and  South  America,  rf.uinrk- 
tble  for  the  lasting  beauty  of  its  flowers 

AMATEUR.  One  who  follows  a  (larti- 
ciilar  art  or  profession  not  for  gain  but  for 
pleasure. 

AMBASSADOR.  One  appointed  by  a 
•uvereign  power  to  represent  him,  and  su- 
perintend his  affairs  at  a  foreign  court. 

.\MBKR.  A  liard,  brittle,  tasteless  sub- 
stance, mostly  semitransparent,  or  o|KU|iie, 
and  of  a  glossy  surface.  It  is  highly  ele<;- 
tric,  and  if  a  piece  be  kindled  it  burns  to 
the  end  with  pungent  white  vapours,  with- 
out melting. 

AMBERGRIS.  A  solid  sebaceous  or  fat 
substance,  found  floating  in  the  sea,  near 
the  coasts  of  vari^ius  tropical  countries.  It 
is  supposed  to  he  the  excrement  of  the 
■permatic  whale,  having  freiiueiilly  been 
met  witli  in  the  intestines  of  that  lish. 

AMBER  TREE.  A  shrub,  tt  •  beauty 
uf  which  lies  in  its  small  evergreen  leaves; 
these  grow  as  close  as  heath,  and  when 
rubbed  emit  a  fragrant  odour. 

AMBIDEXTER.  A  person  who  can  use 
both  hands  with  ei|iial  facility. 

AMBUSCADE.  A  place  wliere  soldiers 
lieconceaJed,  in  order  to  suriirise  an  enemy. 

AMENDE.  A  peciuiiary  punishment  im- 
posed, according  to  the  customs  of  France, 
by  a  judge,  for  any  false  prosecution  or 
groundless  appe.iL 

AMENDE  HONORABLE.  An  infa- 
mous liind  of  punishment  formerly  inflicted 
in  France  on  traitors,  parricides,  or  sacri- 
legious persons,  who  were  to  go  naked  to 
the  shirt,  with  4  torch  in  their  hand,  and 
a  rope  about  their  neck,  into  a  church  or 
a  couit,  to  beg  pardon  of  God ,  the  court, 
and  the  injured  party. 

AMENTACE^.  A  natural  order  of 
Itlants,  iKtariiig  catkins,  as  Uie  po{i!ar,  ha- 
sel,  beech,  &c. 

AMERCEMENT.    A  pecuniary  punish- 


AMP 


17 


ment  imposed  on  olTenders  at  the  mercy 
of  the  court ;  il  is  contracted  from  the  Lntiu 
words  a  misericordia,  winch  signify  lile- 
niily/ront  or  at  tke  m»rcy.  Aiiierceinenta 
difler  from  flnes,  in  as  much  as  the  latter 
are  defined,  and  the  fora><:rare  pro|)ortici>> 
ed  to  the  fault,  or  more  piuperly  at  the  di«- 
cretion  of  the  court. 

AMERICAN  ELK.  A  noble  af.lniaJ  o( 
the  deer  kinu. 

AMETHYST.  A  gem  of  great  hardness 
and  britliHiicy,  and  of  various  colours,  his: 
mostly  purple  or  violet.  It  comes  froDi 
India,  and  is  use-l  in  medicine  as  an  as- 
tringent. 

AMIANTHUS.  An  incombustible  mine- 
ral flax,  which  may  be  drawn  into  threads 
and  wove  into  cloth.  It  is  iiiiisily  found 
among  r<K:ks. 

AMMON.  The  title  under  which  Jupiter 
was  worship|>ed  in  Libya,  where  a  temple 
was  erected  to  him,  from  which  oracles 
were  delivered  for  many  ages. 

A.\l.MOMA.  A  voliitile  allfili,  which, 
when  in  its  purest  stale,  exists  only  in  (h« 
form  of  a  gas.  It  forms  a  liquid  when 
ciMiled,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  harlM- 
horii,  because  It  is  obtained  from  distilling 
the  liorn  of  the  hart.  It  may  also  be  ob- 
tained from  urine  and  camel's  dung  by 
distillation. 

AMMONIAC,  or  GUM  AMMONIAC. 
A  resinous  substance  hroiiglit  from  th» 
East  Indies  in  drops  or  granules.  Thci 
best  kind  is  of  a  yellowish  colour  withi'Ul 
and  white  within 

AMM<»NIT^  SNAKE  STONE.  A 
sort  of  fiissil  shells,  made  up  of  sinaii  cir- 
cles, like  those  of  a  snake  rolled  up. 


AMMITNTTION,  A  general  term  for 
all  warlike  stores,  but  more  espeeia'lv 
powder.  Iiiills,  guns,  &c. 

A3IOBPH0ZOA.  The  lowest  clas.s  of 
the  animal  kingtlom,  as  sijonges  that 
have  no  regular  symmetrical  structure. 

AMPETrrE.  Alum  elate,  earth  used 
fcy  the  Auciente  to  kill  in?eets  on  vines. 

AMI'llllilA.  A  class  of  animals  which 
live  eipially  well  in  air  or  water,  such  as 
the  phtH^ae,  or  seal  tribe,  frogs,  lizards, 
crocodiles,  eels,  water  "eriients,  snakes 
They  are  remarkable  Ibi  U  ait  tenacity  ol 


M 


ANA 


fife;  •nroe  will  continue  to  move  even 
when  Uie  head  is  ciil  off. 

AMPUISCII.  A  name  applied  by  geogra- 
phers uuhe  inhabitants  of  Uie  torrid  zone. 

A.MHIIITIIEATKE.  A  circular  building 
among  the  ancienW,  having  seat.'i  entirely 
anwrnrt,  and  an  area  in  liie  middle,  where 
BIH-ciacle*  were  exhibited.  Some  of  these, 
a*  ilie  ColisflBum  in  Rome,  could  contain 
from  5(),IK)0  to  80,000  persons. 

A.MPLIFICAT10N( with  Rhetoricians). 
An  aiiiplifyingor  enlarging  upon  an  argu- 
ment. eitl)er  by  aggravating  or  extenuating 
a  crime,  heightening  an  eulogium,  or  en- 
liirginj  a  narration,  by  an  enumeration  of 
circumstances,  so  as  to  excite  proper  emo- 
tions in  the  audience. 

AMJ'MTUDE.  An  arch  of  the  horizon, 
intercepted  between  the  east  or  west  points 
and  the  centre  of  the  sun  or  stars  at  their 
riJiing  and  setting.  It  is  called  ortive,  or 
eai<lern  amplitude,  when  the  sUtr  is  rising; 
and  ocriduous,  or  western,  when  the  star 
is  setting. 

A.MPIJTUDE  MAGNETICAL.  Is  an 
arc  of  the  lK>rizon,  contained  Urtweeu  the 
8iin  or  a  star  at  its  rising  and  setting,  and 
the  magnetlcal  east  or  west  point  of  the  hori- 
lon,  indicated  by  the  magnetical  compass, 
or  the  amplitude  or  azimuth. 

AMrLTTATION  (in  Surgery).  The  cut- 
ting off  a  limb  or  other  part  of  the  body 
with  an  instrument. 

AMULET.  A  supposed  charm  or  pre- 
servative against  witchcraft,  mischief,  or 
diseases.  Amulets  consist  of  stone,  metal, 
sirnples,  or  whatever  else  the  fancy  sug- 
gfsied ;  aonielimes  words  or  sentences 
might  be  employed  in  this  manner. 

A.M7.EL.  A  bird  of  the  blackbird  kind, 
belonging  to  tlie  same  genus,  inerula,  in 
the  l.iniia^an  system.  The  ring-amzel  is 
reiimrkal>le  for  having  a  fine  broad  white 
ring  at  the  lower  part  of  its  throat. 

ANA.  A  name  given  to  amusing  mis- 
celhinies,  consisting  of  anecdotes,  traits  of 
clianicter,  and  incidents  relating  to  any 
person  or  subject. 

A.VABASIS.  The  title  of  Xenophon's 
dexcription  of  the  younger  Cyrus's  ex|)edi- 
lion  against  his  brother,  in  which  the  wri- 
ter bore  a  principal  part. 

ANACHRONISM.  An  error  in  chrono- 
logy, as  when  an  event  is  relatetl  to  have 
bapfiened  in  the  reign  of  a  certain  prince, 
which  hnpiiened  either  before  or  after. 

ANACI^As^TIC*.  Another  name  for 
iJopirics,  or  that  branch  of  optic«  which 
relales  to  refmrled  light. 

A.\A«;RR<>.\TIC  verse,  a  eoit  of 
feme  so  called  from  the  Creek  poet  Anac- 
■soit  by  w'jom  it  was  tirsi  used.    It  con- 


ANA 

sists  of  three  feet,  generally  apaidee*  Bn4 
iambic.  It  is  adapted  to  soft  and  tender 
subjects. 

ANAGRAM.  The  transposition  of  tha 
letters  of  one  word  so  as  to  form  another, 
as  amor  changed  into  Rrnia. 

AN  Al^EM.M  A.  A  projection  ofthe  sphera 
on  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  orth<igrapht 
cally  made  by  straight  lines  and  ellipse!, 
the  eye  being  supposed  at  an  intinite  dis- 
tance, in  an  equinoctial  jMiint. 

ANALK.MMA.  Is  also  an  instrument,  A 
kind  of  astrolabe,  made  eillier  of  brass  or 
wood,  with  an  horizon  fitted  tu  it ;  it  i» 
used  for  finding  the  time  ofthe  sun's  rising 
or  setting,  the  length  of  the  longest  day, 
&.C.  The  most  ancient  treatise  on  this  in- 
strument was  written  by  I'loleiity,  and 
published  in  156^,  with  a  (,'oiiiinentary 
by  Commandine.  Other  authors,  us  Aqiii- 
lonius,  Jactpiet,  Deschales,  &c.  have  sine* 
written  on  ll>e  same  instrument. 

ANALOGY.  The  relation  which  thing* 
bear,  or  are  supposed  to  Imar,  to  eacli  otiier, 
from  their  resemblance  or  pri>|>ortion  to  one 
another  ;  as  tlie  analog)-  between  animals 
and  plants,  from  which  asimilarXreatiDeni 
of  them  in  many  cases  may  l>e  inferred. 
Analogy  is  one  of  tike  principal  grounds  of 
reasoning  in  matters  of  experience. 

ANALYSIS  (in  l>ogic).  Ttie  reeolutiim 
or  unfolding  of  any  thing,  so  as  to  discover 
its  component  parts  as  opposed  to  sy  ntiiesis 
Analysis  is  the  method  of  finding  out  truth, 
and  synthesis  is  the  method  of  explaining 
that  truth  to  others.  Among  mathematicians 
it  is  tlie  art  of  discovering  the  truth  or  falst- 
hood  of  a  proposition,  by  supposing  the 
question  to  be  solved,  and  then  examining 
the  consequences,  till  some  truth  is  disci>- 
vered,  or  the  absurdity  and  impossibility  of 
the  pro|>osition  is  discovered.  The  analysis 
of  finite  quantities  is  properly  called  sjie- 
cious  arithmetic,  or  algebra ;  the  analysis  of 
infinite  quantities  is  the  method  of  tiuxions 
or  differential  calculus. 

ANALYSIS  (in  Chemistry).  Is  the  d». 
com{>osition  of  bodies,  as  vegetables  an^ 
minerals,  to  discover  tlieircoiii(H>i)eiit|Kiris 
ANALY'J'ICS.  A  name  given  to  algebra 
being  nothing  else  but  a  general  analysis 
of  ptire  mathematics ;  or  else  because  'i 
teaches  how  to so>ve questions,  and  demon- 
strate theorems,  by  searching  into  the  fun- 
damental nature  an<l  frame  of  the  t)iiit)>, 
which  is,  as  it  were,  restilved  into  |>aria. 
or  taken  to  pieces,  and  then  put  together 
again. 

ANAMORMIGSIS  (In  PerKpectlve  nni 
Painting).  A  monstrous  projection,  or  r»'- 
presentation  of  an  image  on  a  (Jane  r» 
curve  surface,  which  beheld  at  a  certain 


ANA 

AManM  ■bail  appear  regular  and  in  pro- 
yortioB. 


ANA 


It 


i 
i 

m 

1 

t 

\ii// 

1 

i 

.1 

ANAPiBST.  A  mrtrlca!  foot,  having  the 

two  first  short  and  the  last  long  ( ),  as 

pietas. 

ANARCHY.  A  society  without  a  Rovem- 
ment,  or  where  tliere  ia  no  supreme  gov- 
ernor. 

AiNATrrEMA.  In  the  ceneral  sense,  a 
relitfious  curse;  in  the  |>:irticular  sense, 
ecclesi:ii<tic.il  exconitniiniratirm. 

ANATOMY.  Tlie  act  ol  idssecting  ho- 
rties  for  the  purpose  of  examiiiiiis  their 
structure,  and  the  nnturtf,  uses,  .ind  func- 
tions of  their  several  pnrts  ;  aiso  ilie  know- 
ledfieoftlie  human  body  derived  frmn  such 
dissections  and  exainiiialioiis ;  when  ap- 
plied to  nniuials  it  is  termed  ('oinparutive 
Anatomy.  In  the  science  of  anatomy,  the 
boily  is  divided  into  the  head,  trunk,  and 
extremities,  and  is  composed  of  solids  and 
fluids.  The  stdids  are  the  inlesuinents, 
bones,  cartilages,  lipiinents,  membranes, 
vessels,  muscles,  nerves,  and  elands.  The 
principal  (liiids  are  the  blood,  the  chyle,  the 
lymph,  and  the  bile.  Anatomy,  from  the 
Bamesoftlie  |>arts  treated  of,  is  divided  into 
'<si«  >|;eny,or  the  doctrine  of  tha  gr..w(h  uf 


the  bonee  ;  nstetilogy,  the  doctrine  of  iIm 
b«ne.s  in  the  adult  siibjert ;  ch(Uidri>lo<;y, 
the  doctrine  of  the  cartihuies;  syndeiim»- 
logy,  tlie  doctrine  of  tlie  ligaments  ;  my- 
ology, the  iloctrine  of  the  muscles  ;  bursa- 
touy,  the  doctrine  of  the  iMirsir  niucona; ; 
splunchnolo|:y,  the  doctrine  of  (he  viscera  ; 
aii);elology,  the  doctrine  of  the  vessels; 
adeiiiilomr,  the  doctrine  of  tlie  glaints; 
neurtdogj-,  the  doctrine  of  the  nerves,  &,c. 
Anatomy,  Uiken  absolutely,  applies  only  to 
the  dIssectliMi  of  human  subjects  ;  the  di»- 
srciion  and  exaininalioiiuf  brutes  Mcatted 
Coniik'iralive  ,\nHtoiiiy. 

ANA'I'O.MY,  lluTOHT  or.  The  science 
of  aiialimiy  was  dniibtless  coe\°ul  with  that 
of  nieilicine,  for   the  connexion  between 
the  two  studies  w<Mild  naturally  sug<;est  to 
tlip  inipiirer  Into  the  dise.tses  of  the  human 
body  the  necessity  of  becoming  acquainted 
Willi  its  c<>m|>oneiit  |>arts.     In  Bg>'pt,  the 
practice  of  embalming  rendering  it  neces- 
sary  to  oprii  the  bfsly,  led  theiii  first  to 
make  observations  on  the  structure  uf  the 
liunian  frame,  which  was  at\erwards  en- 
C4iuraged  by  their  kings,  who  ordered  dead 
bodies  to  be   regularly  dissected   for  like 
(lerfection  of  the  art ;   but,  judging  fmni 
somes|)ectnien8  which  have  been  preserved 
of  their  anatomical  observatiiuis,  the  sci- 
ence dnt  not  iiiakeanycimsiderable  progress 
uinong  tlieui.  I'here  is,  however,  no  donlit, 
but  they  laid  the  foundation.and  llie Greeks, 
who  derl  veil  tlieir  earliest  information  fnun 
them,  enlarged  the  IsMindaries  of  the  sci- 
ence by  their  researches.    llip|>ocrates,  who 
liveil  alxuit  -IIMI  years  t>efore  Christ,  is  the 
tirsl  who  expressly  wrote  on  this  subject; 
and  the  first  anatomical  dissection  recorded 
was  made  by  his  friend  Deniocritiis,  of 
Abdera.     In  Aristotle's  works  Uiere  are 
many  minute  particulars  on  this  subject, 
which  show  that  he  had  made  the  animal 
iMidy  Ills  (larticiilar  study.  From  the  (jrffks 
this   science,  after  an  interval  of  several 
centuries,  pasaeil  ag;iin  into  Kgypt,  where, 
by  the  fostering  care  of  the  noleinies,  it 
was   revived   and   made    gre.it  advances. 
EnistniUis,  the  pupil  and   f-i«-iid  of  Theo- 
phrastiis  and  llerojdilliis,  laid  the  foiinda- 
tl<ui   of  the  famous  scIhkiI  of  anatomy  at 
Alexandria,  which  was  for  many  centuries 
in  such  bi!:li  repute  th.tt  no  one  was  sup- 
posed iiualified  for  the  medical  art,  who 
had  not  studied  at  Alexandria.     Ilerophi- 
liis  IS  said  to  liave  dlsst-cted  not  less  th.in 
Too  bodies,  and  among  the  rest  some  living 
sulijecls,  but  prolialily,  as  such  a  monstrous 
piece  ofcriirlty  must  have  defe.iled  its  own 
pur|M>se,  this  latter  part  of  the  etor>-  is  only 
an  exaaseration.  The  Romans  learned  from 
t'j*  Greeks  the  science  ul  auauMuy ,  aa  tbey 


ANATOMY. 


did  moBt  other  «rU  and  •ctences  ;  for  the 
init  nidiiiieiiU  weri:  Uiimlit  lo  tliriii  by 
ArtJiaiP»lliii.'>.  n  Greek  iiliymiian,  who  tirttt 
wlaWlinlicdhiuwell  at  Koiiie,aiiil  anerwarils 
by  AiJcleiiiadea.  who  tloiirinhed  in  the  lime 
of  roiii(»ey,  mid  (Piiiied  nuch  repme  llial 
oe  »a«  Uioked  U|miii  as  a  second  Hij>tH)- 
cnite*.  He  was  Biicceeded  by  Ciuwini,  who 
wiui  nii|>|MK«*d  lo  he  tlie  disciple  of  Aacle- 
piadeii,  Celmis,  llufus,  I'liiiy,  Ctelius  Aiire- 
liami«,  and  Araueus,  who.xe  works  ab«iund 
Willi  auatoiiilcal  observalioiis,  and  prove 
llial,  allhouijh  their  researclies  were  not 
deep,  their  attention  was  dniwn  towards 
tlie  subject.  This  is  also  still  inure  evident 
froiii  the  works  of  Galen,  who,  in  [wiiit 
of  accuracy  and  niiiiuleness  <if  det;iil,  sur- 
|iassed  all  that  went  before  him,  and  also 
all  that  followed  him  until  within  the  la?! 
tJiree  centuries.  The  Anibiaiis  and  Aira- 
ceiis,  iMi  the  decline  of  the  empire,  tiHik 
Ihe  plac«  of  the  Greeks  and  Kiuiians  in  Ihe 
cultivation  of  the  sciences,  but  as  by  the 
tenets  of  their  relisjioii  they  were  prohil'ited 
from  touchiii)!  dead  bodies,  and  conse. 
quriitly  Qiiild  not  practice  dissection,  they 
were  obliced  to  ciuitent  themselves  with 
cnninienlini!  u|n>ii  (iaien.  To  effect  this 
object,  we  find  that  Abdollatiph,  a  teacher 
of  analomy  in  llie  Ihirleenth  century,  ex- 
amiiird  and  deiiionslnited  the  structure  of 
Uie  iHiiies  by  punt;  to  the  burying  grounds  ; 
and  by  that  nieiins  he  detected  some  errors 
III  Galen.  Although  the  Eurojieans  were  not 
nnder  the  same  restrictions,  yet  during  the 
midille  ages  it  is  certain  that  the  science  of 
Biiaioiiiy  made  no  advances.  The  best  trea- 
tise then  extant,  whicli  gained  the  author 
preni  repute,  and  was  the  standard  book 
inllieschools,  was  that  of. Muiidliius,  which 
ap|ieared  in  i:il.5,  yet  this  was  nothing  but 
■  n  abstract  of  Galen,  On  the  expiilsiiui 
of  tlie  MiNirs.  the  prejudice  against  dissec- 
tion Hhsiied.and  copies oftheGreekaiilhors 
havini:  found  their  way  into  Eurn|)e  after 
the  siickiiig  of  Coustanlinople,  the  study  of 
anatomy  reviveit  considerably  in  the  tif- 
trenth  century.  Among  the  Italians.  Achil- 
linus  Belied  ictus,  BerengarlUs,  and  Massa 
added  to  Ihe  stock  of  analnmicat  knowledge 
by  ''iscoveriesof  theirown  from  dissections. 
Bui  the  most  distinguished  names  among 
the  analoiniiits  of  that  period  are  those  who 
flourished  in  tlie  followingcentury, namely, 
Vesaluis,  a  native  of  Briissets,  Sylvius  in 
France,  Ctdunibus,  Fallop'.iis,  and  Eusta- 
chius  in  Italy,  who,  contrary  u>  the  prac- 
tice of  Galen,  drew  their  observatinns  from 
the  human  h<idy.  rai!i<'r  than  from  that  of 
the  brutes.  V>s:>liiis  gave  'he  names  to  the 
muiclea,  most  of  which  .ire  reuined  to  this 
ia^.    Gabriel  Falioptua,  lu  hia  irvatise  en- 


titled Observationea  Anatomicie,  published 
ill  I5«il,  mil>r«>ved  U(«ui  the  descriptions  ^ 
Ve.-ialms  'I'he  t  ipuscula  Analoiuica  of bar- 
tholoiiiiPus  Eustachius,  published  in  IMS, 
have  ever  been  admired  for  the  correctnesJ 
and  exactness  of  their  descriptions.  Ilia 
plates,  which  were  intended  for  a  targe 
and  complete  work  on  the  subject,  were 
not  published  until  l.W  years  atler,  wheii^ 
being  found  in  an  old  cabinet,  they  were 
eilited  by  Lancisi,  the  iKiiie'.-"  physician. whc 
added  a  short  explanattiry  text,  tM-caus« 
lh.1t  of  Eiistachius  could  not  be  found.  The 
ne.\t  in  the  list  of  distinguished  aiiato- 
iiiists  must  be  reckoned  Harvey,  who,  after 
having  studied  in  Italy  under  Kabricius  ub 
Aqua|>endeiite,  wiis  led  by  the  writings  <.f 
his  master  toctuisider  the  manner  in  which 
the  bliHid  was  circulated  over  the  whole 
iMidy,  and  the  ottices  of  the  several  vessels. 
Fabricius  published  an  account  of  theval  vea 
whicli  he  disc«ivered  in  the  veins.  'J'hia 
discovery  ali'ected  the  esUkblished  doctrine 
of  all  ages,  that  the  veiiis  carried  the  bUKid 
from  the  liver  to  all  parts  of  the  iMMly  fur 
nourishment ;  and  Harvey  was  led  by  this 
to  consider  more  narrowly  the  fuiicti<uia 
of  the  heart  and  the  vascular  system.  The 
result  of  liis  investigation  was,  that  the 
heart  is  the  grand  reservoir  of  the  hhMid, 
that  the  arteries,  which  had  hitherto  lieen 
considered  as  air  vessels,  were  the  channels 
by  which  it  was  conveyed  to  all  parts  of 
the  body,  and  the  veins  were  the  channels 
by  which  it  was  carried  back  to  the  heart 
His  d(M:triiie  at  hrsl  met  with  considenible 
opposition,  but  farther  researches  put  it  at 
length  lieyond  all  ipiestion,  and  led  to  other 
discoveriesof  considerable  ini|Hirtance.  Tlie 
lacteals,  or  vessels  which  carry  the  clijle 
to  the  Intestines,  were  discovered  by  As- 
celiiis,  an  Italian  ;  the  thoracic  duct  by 
Pecijuet,  in  lti5l  ;  the  lymphatics  by  Tho- 
mas Bartheline,  a  Hanish  anatomist;  lie- 
sides  niimeniiis  other  discoveries  which 
were  made  by  the  helpof  magnifying  glas- 
ses. These  were  first  brought  into  use  by 
Malpiglii,  alter  by  Laureiitiiis  Belliniis,  a 
distinguished  an.-itomi.U  <if  Italy,  Swain- 
merdam,  Vafi  Horn,  De  Grajif,  and  other 
Hutch  nnatimiists,  particularly  Antoniiia 
Iiiewenhoeck,  of  Helft,  who  improved  on 
Malpighi's  use  of  inicro8co|)es,  and  Slier e4>d- 
ed  in  disc<ivering  globules  in  the  hliMid, 
aniinalcnlo!  in  the  s<-iiien,  and  many  otiier 
particulars  which  had  hiihertoescn|ied  no- 
tice. From  this  time  the  science  of  anato- 
my m.ide  prtHligious  advances  towards  ac- 
curacy, so  that  each  particular  part  has  fur* 
nished  matter  for  the  lalHiiirs  of  celebrated 
anatomists.  The  figures  of  the  bones  have 
been  ff  veu  in  four  large  felio  vui  uues^  bj 


AND 

Albiiiiii,  Cheselden,  Trews,  See. ;  those  of 
Clir  iiiii«cIk3  iirf  iiiveri  in  two  large  fcilinii, 
by  Cow  per  and  Alliiniis,  the  latterof  which 
are  particularly  admired  for  their  correct- 
neM.  llaller  has  pulilished  a  folio  on  the 
blcMtd  vessels,  Dr.  Miinro,  junior,  on  the 
nerves,  Albiniis,  Roederer,  and  Hunter  on 
me  gravid  litems,  Weibrecht  and  others 
on  the  joints  and  fresh  bones,  Soemmering 
on  the  brain,  /inn  on  the  eye,  Cotnnnius 
Mickei,  junior,  and  otheni  on  tlie  ear, 
Walter  on  tlie  nerves  of  the  thorax  and 
abdomen,  Munro  on  the  biirsie  inucosx, 
k<sides  the  several  systems  of  anatomy 
from  the  jiens  of  Albinus,  Keil,Cheselden, 
llun'er.  .Mnnro,  Douulas,  Fife,  Winslow, 
Biscboff,  Gia\-,  Bowman,  Viichow,  &.c. 

AiNCESTR  V.  Tlie  line  of  ancestors  or 
forefathers  from  which  any  person  is  de- 
scended. 

ANCHOR.  An  instrument  for  holding 
•  i^ip  in  tlie  place  where  she  should  ride. 


ANG 


21 


■.:^'-AiE^_--;^^.: 


ANCHORAGE.  The  proimd  that  is  fit 
for  holding  the  anchor  ;  also  the  iliily  taken 
ef  ships  for  the  use  of  tlie  haven  where 
they  cast  anchor. 

AN'CHORET.  A  hermit,  or  one  who 
retired  from  the  world,  and  lived  in  per 
feet  solitude. 

ANCHOVY.  A  small  senfish  much  used 
In  sauce  ;  it  is  so  like  the  coiiiinon  spral, 
iial  the  latter  is  ollen  pickled  and  sold 
iiider  its  name. 


ANDAXTE  (in  Music).  Itilian  for  ex- 
act and  just  time  in  playinc,  so  :w«  to  keep 
Uie  notes  distinct  from  each  other. 

ANDROinES  (in  Mechanics).  A  term 
nsed  to  denote  an  aiitomnton  in  the  figure 
of  n  man,  which,  by  means  of  certain 
springs  and  other  inech.inical  contrivances, 
is  enabled  to  walk,  and  perfonn  other 
actions  of  a  man.  The  most  celebrated  of 
these  automatons  which  have  been  exhib- 
hed  in  modern  liiues  are  the  tiule-player  of 


M.Vaneansc  n,  exhibited  at  P.iris,  the  chess- 
player of  M.  de  Kempliii  of  I'resbiira,  and 
the  chess-player  who  lalely  iierformed  won 
ders  in  that  game  In  Uiiidoii.  The  con- 
struction of  these  automatons  is  at  present 
a  secret. 

A.\l)ROMED.\.  A  small  northern  coa- 
stell.iliiiii  cmisisting  of  sixty-three  stars. 

ANE.MOMETER.  An  instrument  used 
for  measuring  the  force  and  velocity  of  tlie 
w.nd 

ANEMONE.  A  beautiful  flower  origi- 
nally brought  from  llieeast,  but  now  much 
cultivated  in  our  gardens.  The  word  sig- 
nifies properly  wind-Hower,  because  it  was 
supposed  that  it  opened  only  when  tlie 
winil  blew. 

ANE.MO.^CnPE.  A  machine  showing 
from  what  point  of  the  com|>ass  ttie  wind 
blows. 

ANDESITE.  A  mineral  found  in  tha 
Andes  containing  tlie  fel-spar  called 
Andesine. 

AXEMOirETEU.  An  instrument  for 
determiuing  the  course,  the  force  and 
velocity  ot  winds. 

ANGELINA.  A  planet  first  observel 
bv  Tempel,  in  1861. 

ANGLES.  A  German  tribe  on  the  Elbe, 
of  the  raoe  of  the  Suevi,  who  after- 
wards passed  over  with  tha  Saxons  into 
Britain,  and  gave  their  name  to  that 
country. 

ANGIOSPERMIA.  A  term  In  the  Lin- 
mean  system  for  such  plants  of  the  class 
nidynainia  as  hnve  their  seeds  enclosed  in 
a  capsule  or  seed-vessel. 

ANGLE.  The  inclination  of  two  lines 
meeting  one  anollier  in  a  iMiint,  which 
lines  are  called  the  legs  :  when  the  lines 
meet  iieriiendlciilarly  it  is  a  right  an^le,  as 
A,  B,  0  j  when  they  meet  so  as  lu  mak* 


the  angle  less  than  a  right  angle,  it  is  called 
.tciite,  .ts  A,  R,  I)  ;  and  when  they  make 
the  angle  gnMter,  it  is  called  an  obtus*  an- 
gle, as  A,  n,  E. 

ANCI^ER.  A  singular  fish,  also  knnwa 
at  present  l>y  the  name  of  the  fishing  fru|, 
from  the  resemblance  which  it  bears  to 
that  animal  in  the  st.ile  of  a  tadpole. 

ANGLICAN  CIIL'KCII.  That  form  oT 
dorjrineand  discipline  which  isesUihlislie^ 
in  England,  aud  serves  fur  tlis  novui  uieot 


a  ANN 

of  the  vhole  Cliristian  church  in  that  coun- 
try. 1>  sdoctrJtiesarecoiiiprelieiiiled  wiiliin 
tliirtyniiie  articles,  and  its  fdvernnienl, 
whict.  is  e|ii.sc(i|iHl,  consists  of  two  arch- 
bishop!* and  twenty-four  liishops,  ti>cether 
witli  llie  diirerenl  orders  of  inferior  clerK>'. 
Tlie  same  Churcli  is  estalilisiied  in  Ameri- 
ca, but  is  independent  u(  that  uf  England. 
The  meinhers  of  Uiis  church  are  called 
Episcopalians. 

A.\(;MCISM.  An  idiom  or  manner  of 
ipeech  |ier.uliar  to  Uie  English,  and  tlieir 
4escendants. 

ASCUISG.  The  art  of  fishing  with  a 
rod,  to  which  are  attached  a  line,  hnok, 
and  bait.  Anglers  liHik  for  breams  in  the 
deepest  water,  for  eels  under  banks,  for 
chuh  in  deep  shaded  holes,  for  perch  and 
roach  in  ponds,  and  for  trout  in  quick 
streams.  The  best  months  for  angling  are 
from  April  to  October  ;  the  time  of  the  day 
early  in  the  morning,  or  in  tlie  evening  of 
hot  days,  h'lsli  bile  freely  in  cloudy  warm 
weather,  but  not  nt  all  when  it  is  cold  and 
stormy.  Kisli  ought  to  be  fed  on  corn  boil- 
ed soft,  garliage,  worms  chopped  to  pieces, 
or  grains  stee|ied  in  blood.  If  you  fish  in 
a  stream,  it  is  best  to  cast  in  the  grains 
above  the  hook. 

AM.MAJj.  A  living  body  endued  witii 
sensation  and  spontaneous  motion  ;  in  its 
limited  sense,  any  irrational  creature,  as 
distinguished  from  man. 

A.MMAIX'l,'L/E.  Animals  so  minute 
as  not  to  be  tlie  iminedhite  object  of  our 
senses.  They  are  seen  only  by  the  help  of 
the  microscope. 

ANIMAL  KINGDOM.  One  of  the  three 
principal  divisions  into  which  all  organized 
bodies  are  divided  by  I^iunuius.  It  com- 
prehends six  classes  of  animals;  namely, 
Mammalia,  or  such  as  suckle  their  young, 
mostly  ipiadrupeds  ;  Aves,  birds,  which  are 
oviparous ;  Amphibia,  amphibious  ani- 
mals ;  Pisces,  lishes,  sucli  as  live  only  in 
water,  and  are  covered  with  scales  ;  Insec- 
ta,  insects,  which  have  few  or  no  organs 
of  sense,  and  a  lumy  coat  of  mail ;  Vermes, 
worms,  which  have  mostly  no  feet. 

ANLME,  orGUM  AM.ME.  A  resinous 
suhstanrx-  imported  from  New  Spain  and 
the  nra/.ils. 

A.NN  A  LS.  A  species  of  history,  in  which 
events  are  related  in  tlie  exact  order  <if 
chronology. 

A  \N  EALING.  The  process  of  heating 
steel  and  other  met.-il  iNidies,  and  then 
suffering  them  to  c<m>I  again  gradually 

ANNOTI'O.  A  kind  of  red  dye  broiiBht 
from  the  West  Indies.     It  is  procured  from 
Ihe  pulp  of  the  seed  capsules 
ANNUAL.     An  epithet  for  whatever 


ANT 

happens  every  year,  or  lasts  a  year.  Aa 
aiiiiiial,  in  Botany,  is  a  plant  which  dies 
within  the  year. 

ANNUITY.  The  periodical  payment  of 
money,  either  yearly,  half  yearly,  or  quar- 
terly ;  for  a  determinate  peruid,  as  ten, 
filly,  or  a  hunilred  years  ;  or  for  an  inde- 
terminate period,  de)>endant  (Ui  a  certain 
contingency,  as  the  death  of  a  [lerson  ;  or 
for  an  imlefinite  term,  in  which  latter  case 
they  are  called  |ierpetiial  annuities 

ANNL'LET  A  small  square  member  in 
the  Doric  capital. 

ANNUNCIATION.  The  delivery  of  a 
message,  particularly  the  angel's  message 
to  the  Virgin  Mary,  concerning  the  birth 
of  our  Savi<iur.  The  festival  in  cominem- 
onition  of  that  event  is  called  Lady  Day 

ANODYNES.     Medicines  so  called  b«»- 
cause  they  ease  pain  and  procure  sleep, 
siicli  as  the  medicinal  prei)aration8  uf  the  - 
poppy. 

ANOMALISTICAL  YEAR  (in  Astrtv 
nomy).  1'he  time  that  tlie  earth  taken  t« 
pass  through  her  orbit. 

ANOMALOUS  VERBS  (in  Grammar). 
Verbs  which  are  not  conjugated  regularly. 
ANOMALY.  In  ageneral  sense,  irregu- 
larity ;  in  Astron(uny,  the  irregularity  in 
the  motion  of  a  planet. 

ANSER.  A  star  of  the  fifth  magnitude 
in  the  milky  way. 

ANSERES.  The  third  order  of  birds  in 
the  Linnxan  system,  including  such  as 
have  the  bill  somewhat  obtuse,  covered 
with  a  skin,  and  gibbous  at  the  base,  aa 
the  goose,  duck,  swan,  &c 


ANT.  A  gregarious  and  ptoverhiall/ 
industrious  tribe  of  insects,  which  are  di- 
vided into  males,  females,  and  neutrals 
Their  houses  are  curiously  constructed, 
and  divided  into  chambers,  magazines,  A.C. 

ANTARCTIC  (in  Astnuiomy).  The 
name  of  a  circJe  cf  the  sphere,  which  is 
opposite  to  the  ardic  or  northern  pole.  It 
is  nearly  23  and  a  halt  degreea  distant  tnm 


ANT 

fie  south  pole,  wliicli  is  also  nuieo  the  m- 
tarctic   pole. 

;*  NT-EATER.  An  animal  of  Soiilli 
AiuKrica,  that  has  a  large  sleniler  toiisiiie, 
ivM.cli  italliiws  lo  gel  covered  with  aiils, 
anil  ihen  ipncklv  dmws  it  in. 

ANTECEDENT.  Tlw  word  in  grammar 
to  wliich  the  relative  refers  ;  as  GimI,  whom 
we  adore,  the  word  God  is  llie  aiite- 
usdent. 

AN'l'ED.^TE.  A  date  that  precedes  the 
re.-il  one  ;  as  the  anled.tte  of  a  bill,  that 
which  is  earlier  tlian  the  time  wlien  it  is 
dniwn. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.  Pers<ms  living  be- 
fore the  deliise. 

AXTELOI'E.  A  beautifnl  qnadruped, 
of  uliicli  tlirre  are  many  varieties.  Ante- 
lopeti  are  singularly  swift  in  their  motion, 
ami  in  general  natives  of  hot  climates. 
p,-iiticul.\rl_\r  in  Afric.i  and  Asia.  Eiir(>|>e 
has  hut  two  six-cies,  and  America  hut  one  ; 
U  is  called  the  I'rong-hurued  /Vntclopa. 


AN'TENN.'E.  The  horns  or  feelers  of 
Injects  which  project  from  their  heads, 
and  serve  them  in  the  sense  of  feeling  and 
see in  2. 

.A.VTHE.M  A  sacred  composition  used 
as  a  part  of  Christian  worship. 

A.N'TIIER  A  part  of  the  stamen  of  a 
flower  which  is  at  the  top  of  the  filament. 
It  contains  the  pollen  or  farina,  which  it 
emits  or  explodes  when  ripe. 

.OCTHOLOGY.  A  collection  of  choice 
poems,  particularly  a  collection  of  Greek 
epigrams  so  called. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI.  Another  name 
for  cannibals,  or  men  eaters. 

.\NTIDOTE.  Acounterpoison,  orany 
medicine  generally  that  counteracts  the 
eflects  of  what  has  been  swallowed. 

ANTIMONY.  .\TOotallic.  solid,  heavy, 
brittle  substance,  which  is  very  seldom 
lonnd  pure,  but  mostly  mixed  with  other 
ruetals.  In  its  pure  slate  it  is  called  tlie 
re^iiliis  of  antimony.  Crude  antimony,  in 
eommerce,  is  a  metallic  ore,  consisting  uf 


AOR  a 

the  metal  called  antimony  "ombineh      tb 

sulphur. 

ANTI.\().MI.\.VS.  An  ancient  sect,  wh« 
maintained  >liai  faith,  witliout  sihmI  works, 
Wiis  siiihcieiit  for  s,ilvalion.  Tliissect  haa 
been  revived  since  the  KeforiiKUinn. 

A.VTIPUDES.  Persons  8«i  named  in 
geography,  who  live  diametrically  opposito 
to  one  another,  as  it  were  feet  to  feet. 
They  have  equal  l.ititudes,  the  one  north 
and  the  other  south  ;  hut  opposite  longi- 
tudes, coiiseipiently  when  it  is  day  to  ih* 
one  it  is  ni^'ht  to  the  other,  and  when 
summer  to  the  one  winter  lo  the  other. 

ANTIUUAKY.  One  who  .searches  aftei 
the  remains  of  antiquity.  1'he  miuiks  who 
were  entployeit  in  ni.'iking  new  copies  ot 
old  IxKiks  were  formerly  called  antiquarii. 
ANTIS(;il  (inGeo°mphy).  People  who 
'ive  on  ilitiereiil  sides  of  the  e<)iialor,  and 
have  their  sli:tdows  at  ao<iM  fall  directly 
cppo»ile  ways. 

ANTISEPTICS.  Substancea  which  r« 
gist  putrefariiun. 

ANTITIIE.<IS.  A  figure  of  sjieech,  in 
which  contraries  are  put  in  c<uitrast  with 
earli  other,  as,  lie  gained  by  lusing,  and  l>y 
falling  ro;*e. 

ANToECI  (in  Geography).  People  who 
live  under  the  same  menilian,  ea.sliir  west, 
but  under  opiHjsite  panillels  of  latitude ; 
they  have  their  niM>n  or  midnight  .at  the 
same  lii>ur,  hut  their  sen.soiis  cuiilrary. 

.\NTONO^L\SIA.  A  form  of  speech,  in 
which  the  name  of  some  dignity,  office, 
profession,  science,  or  trade,  is  used  in- 
stead of  the  true  name  of  a  person  ;  or, 
in  wliich  a  proper  name  is  put  in  place 
of  an  appellative  :  thus,  we  say  the 
President,  the  Englishman,  the  Printer, 
a  Cafo,  a  Solomon. 

ANTOSL\NDKI.\N.  One  of  a  sect  of 
rigid  Lutherans,  so  denominated  Irom 
their  opinsing  the  doctrines  of  Osian- 
der,  the  German  reformer. 

ANTRUSTION.  In  history,  the  An- 
fnistious  were  a  class  of  people  among 
ihe  Franks,  who  were  the  personal  vas- 
sals of  the  kings  and  counts. 

ANCBIS.  An  Egyptian  deity,  repre- 
sented by  a  human  figure,  with  the 
head  of  a  dog  or  a  lox.  He  was  the  son 
ot  Osiris,  and  was  regarded  as  the  con- 
ductor and  guardian  of  departed  souls. 
AONIAN.  Pertaining  to  the  Muses,  or 
to  Aonia,  their  residence,  in  Bceotia. 
AORIST.  The  name  of  certain  tenses 
in  the  Greek  language,  which  express 
time  indeterminate,  that  is,  either  past, 
present,  or  future. 

AOUTA.  A  tre-!  of  Otaheite.  from  the 
bark  of  wliich  the  natives  make  cloth. 
AORTA.  In  anatomy,  the  great 
artery,  or  main  trunk  of  the  arte- 
rial "system,  proceeding  immediately 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart.       It      i«      distingu^siied     into 


24 


ATI 


Ibe  descending  or  ascending,  according  lo 
Uie  manner  in  wliicli  it  runiJ. 

APATITE.  PlKisjiliale  of  lime  ;  a  mine- 
ral which  occiini  in  tin  vein«,  and  ia  found 
in  Curnwall  and  Germany. 

Al'E.  The  name  of  a  trilie  of  animals 
ol  tlie  monkey  kind  whicli  are  willioul 
UilR,  Imiutive,  chatterinn,  full  cif  geslicu- 
Uiioiia,  tUievisli,  and  mwcliievuu*. 


APERIENTS.    Opening  niedlcine«. 

AI'ETAU  >US  ( In  Bt.umy ).  A  rerni  for 
planu  \vlii«»e  Ho  went  have  nci  llower  leaves 
t>r  corolla ;  an  the  Uippuns,  or  fox  tail 
graiw. 

APEX.  A  little  woollen  tntt  on  the  cap 
pf  the  flamen,  or  high  priest,  among  the 
anciriits. 

APEX  (In  Maiheuiatic*).  The  angular 
point  of  a  c<ine  or  conic  section. 

A.  P.  G.  An  ablireviatiiin  lor  Professor 
of  AKtrononiy  in  Gresham  Collei;e,  Eng- 
land. 

APII/F.RESIS  (In  Grammar)  The 
taking  away  a  letter  or  sylLible  from  a 
word. 

APHELION.  Tliat  point  at  which  the 
earth,  or  any  planet,  ia  at  the  gRiate«t  di»- 
tance  from  the  mm. 

APHIS.  The  plant  loii$e  ;  an  extensive 
geiiUf  of  the  heinlptera  order. 

APHORISM.  A  brief  sentence  In 
■cienr^,  c<mi|>rehendiM2  some  experliiien 
tal  truth,  an  the  Apliorldius  of  Hippocrates, 
Slc. 

APIARY.  A  place  where  bees  are  kept, 
M'hich  shonhl  be  selected  with  great  care, 
•bserving  thai  it  face  the  south,  be  defen- 
ded from  high  winds,  and  not  within  the 
•tdiere  of  otfensive  smells,  or  liable  to  the 
attack*  of  taornetM  or  any  other  hostile 
trerrnln. 

APIS.  The  bee  ;  a  genus  of  insects  of 
Ibe  order  hymen*  ptera. 

APIS.  An  Ri;>'|>iian  deity,  worshiped 
■nder  the  f#rm  of  an  ox. 


APO 

APOCOPE  ( in  Grammar).  The  cutting 
off  the  last  letter  or  syllable  of  a  word. 

AI'ODAL.  The  first  order  of  fishes  in 
the  Linniean  system,  having  no  ventral 
fins,  as  the  eel,  the  wolf  lish,  tlie  awont 
fish,  the  lance,  &.C. 


APOGEE  That  point  of  the  orbit  al 
which  the  sun,  iikmiu,  or  any  planet  la 
iimst  disiaiil  from  the  earth.  This  term, 
as  well  as  the  (lerigee,  was  most  in  use 
among  the  ancients  ;  modern  astmnomers 
making  (he  sun  the  centre  of  the  universe 
iiiiisLly  use  the  terms  aphelion  and  (lerihe 
lion. 

APOLLO.  The  god  of  medicine,  music 
poetry,  and  the  fine  arts.  He  was  the  son 
•■■"Jupiter  and  Latoiia,  b<ini  in  the  island 
of  lielos,  and  is  commonly  represented 
naked,  with  his  lyre  or  bow. 


APOLOGtTE.  An  Inntnictive  ftibte,  cr 
a  feigned  relation,  intendc-u  «•  leach  aoiiM 
moral  truth  j  as  the  Fatilea  .if  Esop. 

APUI'HTHEG.M.  A  brief  and  pilhy 
sayin;:,  particularly  of  some  distinguished 
person. 

APOPLEXY.  A  disorder  which  sud- 
denly surprises  the  brain,  and  takes  away 
all  sense  and  inotluD. 

APot^TATE.  One  who  has  forsakea 
Ins  relii;ioii ;  particularly  one  who  has  de- 
serted the  Christian  profession. 

A  PUdTElUURi.    A  torui  employed  la 


ATP 

<«unnstraMnz  n  triilh  )  a.o  tvhen  n  caiixe  is 
provril  from  an  ffrtrt. 

APOSTLKS  l'ro|>«"r'y  niessenEem  or 
•nibassad'irs,  t.  tpriii  npiilipil  iiinv  paitini- 
iHrly  to  the  twelve  disiiples  cmiiniiit- 
■loiieil  hy  iiiir  Savimir  to  preach  tlie  gus^iel 
to  nil  iiHtinns, 

APlfSTlKJPHK.  A  fiLHire  of  pp«fech. 
by  which  the  nrntor  tiinis  ("r  'iii  liis  .iiilijcct 
to  ;iii(lreKi<  a  person  either  absent  or  dead, 
as  if  lie  were  present. 

ArosTROIMIE  (in  Oninimar).  A  mark 
of  contraclicn  in  a  word ;  thus,  lov'd  for 
loved. 

APOTHECARY.  Properly  the  keeper 
of  a  inedicinr  shop;  bnl  more  generally 
one  who  practises  the  art  of  pharmacy,  or 
of  coinpoiimlJng  medicines-  in  London, 
ajMiiliecaries  are  <me  of  the  city  companies, 
anil  are  exempted,  by  stat.  9  Geo.  I.  from 
serving  uiwin  juries  or  in  parish  offices. 
They  are  oblijred  to  nmke  up  tlieir  medi- 
cines according  to  the  formulas  prescribed 
ill  the  college  dispensatory,  and  are  liable 
to  have  their  shops  visited  by  the  censors 
of  the  college,  who  are  emjiowered  to  des- 
trov  such  medicines  as  they  do  nat  tliink 

pood. 

A  P"  )Tn  EOPIS.  Deification,  or  the  cei- 
emiiiiy  of  placing  among  the  giHts,  which 
was  frequent  among  the  ancients.  This 
hoiionr  wiis  conferred  cm  several  of  the 
Konian  eni|)erors  at  their  decease. 

APP  A.N.N  At;  E,  or  APPE.N'NAGE. 
Lands  set  apart  as  a  portion  for  the  king's 
youncer  children  in  France. 

APPAK,\TL'S.  A  set  of  instruments  or 
titeiisils  necessary  for  prartisinu  any  art, 
as  a  surgeon's  apparatus,  a  choniist's  appa- 
ratus. 

Al'PAREXT  (among  .Mathematiriansl. 
A  term  applied  lo  things  as  they  appear  to 
us,  in  distinction  from  what  they  are  in 
reality  ;  as  the  apparent  distance,  niacni- 
tiine,  place,  figure.  Ate.  of  any  heavenly 
body,  .-us  distinguished  from  the  real  or  tnie 
dJsiance,  ice. 

APPARITION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
becoming  visible.  Tlie  cinrle  of  apparition 
is  an  imasinarj-  line,  within  which  the 
■tars  are  always  visible  in  any  given 
latitude. 

APPEAL  (in  Law)  The  removal  of  a 
cause  from  an  inferior  to  a  superior  court. 

APPEARA.NCEOn  Law).  The  defend- 
ants appearing  i>efiire  the  court  to  plead  in 
any  prosecutiim  ;  th»  re  are  four  ways  for 
defendants  toap|iear  to  actions  ;  in  (tersoii, 
or  by  attorney,  for  persj.ns  of  full  ase  ;  by 
guardians,  or  next  friends,  for  infants. 

APPEAR.A.Nl'E  (in  PersiM-ctiveV  The 
irojectiun  oT  a  figure  or  body  on  the  per- 


APP  ■ 

spective  plane  ;  in  Astronomy,  the  same  aa 
pha-niiiiiennn,  or  phasis. 

APPELLANT,  or  APPELLOR.  On« 
who  makes  or  brings  an  apjienl ;  it  wn« 
formerly  nnich  used  for  one  wno  brought 
an  ap|ieal  in  a  criminal  proseci:!  on. 

APPELLATIVE  (in  Grammar).  A 
noun  or  name  nppliciilile  to  a  wliole  spe- 
cies or  kiiiil,  as,  a  man,  a  horse. 

APPE.NDA.NT  (in  Law).  Any  thing 
inheritable  that  belongs  to  a  more  worthy 
inheritance,  aa  an  advowson,  or  common, 
which  may  be  appenilant  lo  a  manors  or 
land  to  an  office:  but  land  cannot  be  ap- 
pendant Ui  land,  lK>th  being  cor|Hireal,  and 
one  thing  corporeal  may  not  be  apjiendanl 
to  another. 

APPLE.  A  well  known  fruit,  from 
which  Ciller  is  made. 

APPLICATION.  The  bringing  one 
thing  nearer  to  another  for  the  purpose  of 
measuring  it ;  thus  a  longer  space  is  meas- 
ured hy  the  application  of  a  less,  as  a  yard 
by  a  foot  or  an  inch. 

APPOSITION  (in  Grammar).  The 
placing  two  or  more  substantives  together, 
without  any  cjipulalive  between  them,  as 
Cicero  the  orator. 

APPR.AISI.NG.  The  valuing  or  setting 
a  price  on  cikmIs  An  pppraiser  is  one 
sworn  to  value  goods  fairly. 

APPREHENSION.  The  first  power  of 
the  mind,  by  which  it  simply  ctuitemplates 
thintis,  without  pronouncing  any  thing  up 
on  them. 

APPRE.NTICE.  A  youne  person  bound 
by  indentures  or  articles  of  aareenient  to  a 
tridesman,  or  artificer,  to  learn  his  trade 
or  mystery.  By  the  stat.  5  Eliz.  no  per- 
S(m  can  exercise  any  trade  in  any  part  of 
England,  without  havinu  served  a  regular 
apprenticeship  of  at  leiust  seven  year^.  No 
trades,  however,  are  held  to  be  within  the 
statute  hut  such  as  were  in  being  at  the 
making  of  the  same  in  the  reiun  of  Eliza- 
beth. No  such  law  exists  in  the  United 
SUates. 

APPROACHES  (In  Fortification).  TE'e 
works  thrown  up  by  the  Itesiesjers,  in  order 
to  get  nearer  a  fortress  without  being  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy's  cannon. 

APPB0PRI.\T10N.  The  annexing  a 
benefice  to  the  proper  and  perpetual  use  of 
a  religious  house,  bishopric,  college,  &e 
so  that  the  hinly  or  house  are  both  (lalroa 
and  (lersun,  and  some  one  of  the  number 
was  apixiinted  looffinate.  At  the  disM>lu- 
tiim  of  the  monasteries,  theappropnationa, 
heinc  more  than  one  third  of  all  the  giarisUM 
in  England,  were  eiTen  to  l.aynien.  wheni* 
sprii.il!  most  of  tne  lay  inipruprmimn*  •«- 
isiinj;  at  present ;  tor  wnai  Is  caUeu  aa  a|>> 


» 


AQU 


protirlMloii  In  the  hands  of  religious  per- 
wniD,  m  usiiiilly  called  an  impropriation  in 
the  hand!)  of  laity.  It  is  coinpiiled  that 
mere  are  in  Bngland  three  thou!<and  ciglit 
hundred  and  ftirty-five  iiiiprnprialions. 

AITllOVKR  (in  l«iw).  One  who,  being 
Indicted  of  tre.w<in  or  felony,  confesses  him- 
•elf  guilty,  and  accii!*es  others  to  save  hiiii- 
■elf:  this  in  vulg-.irly  called  turiiiitg  liiiig's 
eviileiice. 

AIM-KOXIMATION.  In  general  a  get- 
ting near  tr  anoliject;  in  iiiatheinntica,  a 
conliiiiial  approach  t4i  a  rout  or  quantity 
■oiieht,  but  not  ex|iec(ed  to  be  found. 

AJ'PI.LSB  (in  Astronomy).  The  ap- 
proach of  a  planet  towards  a  conjunction 
witli  the  sun  or  any  of  the  lixed  stars. 

AI'rUK'IK.NA.NCES  (in  Ljiw).  Things 
Cor|M>real  and  incorporeal  that  appertain  to 
another  thing  as  priinipal ,  as  tiaiiilets  to 
a  chief  manor,  (.tiitlioiises,  yards,  orcb- 
arils,  gardens,  &.C.  are  appurtenant  to  a 
Diestfuage. 
- — AFKICOT.  A  fine  sort  of  wall  fruit, 
which  rrtjuires  much  sun  to  ripen  it. 

APRIL.  The  second  inimth  of  Romulus' 
jreai',  and  the  fourth  of  Niiina'syeai,  which 
began  as  it  does  now,  in  January. 

A  PRIORI.  A  nioale  of  reasoning  by 
proving  the  effect  from  the  cause. 

APROPOS.    Ju!<tintime. 

APSIDES.  The  two  (HiinUi  in  the  orbit 
of  a  planet,  at  the  greatest  and  least  dis- 
tance from  the  sun. 

AITfciRA.  Tlie  seventh  order  of  insects, 
having  no  wings,  including  spiders,  Heas, 
earwigs,  Slc.  ;  also  lobsters,  craba,  prawns, 
and  alirimps. 


AQUArORTIS.  A  wiKik  and  Impure 
Ditnc  acid,  commonly  used  in  the  arts.  It 
li  made  of  a  mixture  of  purified  nitre,  or 
Mitpetre,  vitriol,  and  potter's  earth,  in 
equal  parts,  and  is  distinguislied  into  sin- 
fle  and  double,  the  former  of  which  is  on- 
ly half  the  strength  of  the  latter. 

AaUA  RRGIA.  Nitro-murlatic  acid; 
eomposed  of  a  mixture  of  the  nitric  and 
muriatic  acids,  which  dissolves  gold. 

AUU  A  R 1  t;s.  The  water-bearer,  a  con- 
■tellatlon,  and  the  eleventh  sign  In  the  ro- 
4iK  commonlj  marked  thus  (irr). 


ARC 

AGUATICS.  Trees  or  plants  whl«« 
grow  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  marshes 
and  waiery  places. 

AQUA-TI.\TK.  A  method  of  etchin«, 
which  is  made  to  resemble  a  line  drawing 
in  water  colours 

AUL'EDUCT.  A  conduit  for  water  by 
pi[ies.  In  the  time  of  the  eiii(>ei(.r  .\erv» 
there  were  nine,  which  emptied  tlieni«elv« 
through  i:),5!M  pipes  of  an  inch  diamelei 
That  constructed  by  L<iuis  XIV.  fi>r  carry- 
ing the  Bucq  to  Versailles,  is  7(100  fatlioiiia 
long,  with  '3500  fathoms  of  elevation,  and 
contains  '242  arcades. 

AaUEOUS  HUMOUR.  The  watery 
humour  of  the  eye,  the  first  and  outennost, 
which  IS  less  dense  than  the  crystalline. 

ARABIC,  or  OUM  ARABIC.  A  trans- 
parent kind  of  gum  broni:ht  from  Arabia, 
which  distils  from  a  plant  of  the  acacia 
species.  It  is  used  for  painting  in  water 
cohuirs,  and  also  by  calico  printers  and 
other  manufacturers,  but  it  is  ditlirult  to 
procure  it  genuine.  That  which  Is  in  small 
pieces,  and  of  a  perfectly  white  c<ilour,  is 
reckoned  the  best. 

ARABIC  FIGURES,  or  CHARAC- 
TERS. The  numeral  characters  now  used 
in  our  arithmetic,  which  were  introdured 
into  EfiL'land  about  the  eleventh  century 

ARBITER  (in  Civil  Law).  A  judie 
appointed  by  the  magislnite,  or  chosen  liy 
the  parties  to  decide  any  point  of  diiiVr- 
ence.  An  arbiter  must  judge  according  to 
the  usages  of  law  ;  but  an  arbitrator,  who 
is  a  private  extraordinarj'  judge,  chosen  liy 
the  mutual  consent  of  parties,  is  allowed  a 
certain  di»creti<uiary  power. 

arbitration!  a  mode  of  deciding 
ctmtroversies  by  means  of  arbiters  or  arbi- 
trators.    (See  Arbiter). 

ARBOR  VIT.E.     An  evergreen  shrub 

ARBUTUS.  The  strawberry-tree.  A 
beautiful  shrub,  bearing  a  red  ruuiidis!i 
berry. 

ARC.  Any  part  of  a  curve  line,  as  cf  a 
circle,  ellipse,  &c. 

ARC,  or  ARCH  WURXAL  (in  Astrt^ 
nomy).  That  part  of  a  circle  described  liy 
a  heavenly  body,  between  its  rising  r.iid 
setting.  The  nocturnal  arch  is  thatw  liich 
Is  described  between  its  setting  and  fusing. 

ARCH  (in  Architecture).  Thatp.irtofa 
building  which  derives  its  name  from  ita 
ci'Tved  form.  Some  arches  are  semicircu- 
lar, which  are  called  Saxon  arches  ;  oLben 
pointed,  which  are  called  Gothic 

ARCH  OF  EUUILIBRIUM  (In  Bridge 
building).  That  which  is  in  equilibrium  in 
all  its  parts,  and  therefore  equally  strong 
throughout,  having  no  tendency  to  break 
ill  one  part  more  than  anoUier. 


ARC 

ARCnnrSHOP.  The  chief  prelnte, 
ai.  iiic  aiilliiirity  over  other  bishops.  There 
tre  two  archhi-thops  in  Kiuiiainl  ;  namely, 
ihnt  of  Canterbury,  who  has  iwenty-tme 
bishops  unde^  him ;  and  tliat  of  York,  who 
has  I'oiir. 

ARCIinEAOON.  An  officer  in  the 
ehiirch  of  England,  who  acts  for  the  hisliop, 
having  a  siiperiiitenilant  (Hiwer  over  the 
elercy  within  his  district. 

AKCIIIM'KR.  One  having  a  preemi 
neme  over  other  dukes. 

AUCHERV.  The  art  of  shwling  wHh  a 
bow  ;  formerly  a  favourite  diversion  aninng 
the  English,  who  were  also  much  skilled 
In  it  as  a  military  exercise.  The  practice 
of  archery  was  much  encouraged  liy  the 
kingx.  It  was  followed  both  as  a  recreation 
and  a  service,  and  Edward  III.  prohibited 
all  useless  games  ihnt  interfered  with  the 
practice  of  it  on  holydays  and  other  inter- 
vals <if  leisure.  By  an  act  of  Edward  IV. 
every  man  was  to  have  a  bow  of  his  own 
height,  to  lie  made  of  yew,  ha/.el,  or  ash, 
ic;  and  mounds  of  earth  were  to  be  made 
in  every  township,  for  the  use  of  the  in- 
habitants. There  were  two  kinds  of  bows 
in  use  amone  the  English  ;  namely,  the 
long  bow  and  the  crosslKiw,  those  who  used 
the  long  bow  were  called  archers  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  criissbownien. 

ARCHIL,  a  sort  of  lichen  ;  the  name 
of  a  violet-re  J  paste,  used  as  a  dve  stuff. 

AKCHIlIia)E.A.N  SCREW.  A  spiral  ma- 
chine tor  raising  water,  consisting  of  a 
tube  roUeil  in  a  spiral  form  ronnil  a 
cylinder,  a  modification  of  which  has 
been  introduced  for  propelling  steam- 
vessels. 

AltCIIITECT.  One  who  is  skilled  in 
architecture.  The  architect  forms  plans  and 
designs  for  edifices, coniluctsthe  work, and 
directs  the  artificers  employed  in  it. 

A  RClllTKCTITRE.  The  art  of  building, 
*r  the  science  which  teaches  the  niethiHl 
of  consij-iicting  any  editice  for  utK  or  orna- 
ment. It  is  divided  into  civil,  military,  and 
naval  architecture,  according  .as  the  erec- 
tions are  for  civil,  military,  or  naval  pur- 
poses. The  two  last  kinds  are  otherwise 
called  Fortification,andNaval  Architecture 
or  Shipbuilding.  (i?ee  Furtificatiun  and 
NtTAL  Architecture.) 

ARCHITECTURE,  Histort  or.  The 
origin  of  civil  architecture,  or  architecture 
properly  so  called,  is  commonly  derived 
from  the  building  of  huts  in  a  conical  form, 
■preadiiig  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  Joining 
in  a  point  at  the  top,  the  whole  being 
Covered  with  reeds,  leaves,  &c.  But  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  form  of  the  first 
luildiiius,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  making 
•f  reguhu  habitation*  was  one  of  the  first 


ARC  n 

thinga  which  necessity  suggested  to  the 
re.ison  of  man  ;  for  we  find  (hat  Cain,  the 
son  of  Adam,  built  a  city,  'i'ents,  or  tein- 
|H)rar>'  residences,  which  were  only  suited 
to  such  as  lead  a  wandering  life,  were  not 
invented  before  the  time  of  Jubal,  the  son 
of  Tubal  Cain  ;  since  that  time  the  1'arturs 
have  followed  the  practice,  and  theoriiiinal 
inhabitants  of  Aniericadid  the  same.  Every 
nation,  in  pro|Kirtion  to  the  degree  of  civili- 
K:ition  which  it  has  attained,  has  shown  a 
dis|Kisilion  to  exercise  tlieir  ingenuity  in 
the  construction  oftheir  residences.  Among 
the  Egyptians  this  art  w.is  carried  to  an 
extraordinarj-  degree  of  perfection.  Their 
pyramids,  labyrinths,  and  .some  ruins  of 
their  palaces  and  other  edifices  are  still  to 
be  seen  and  admired  as  stii|iendous  monu- 
ments oftheir  industry,  perseverance, and 
skill.  Near  Amlera,  in  L'pjier  Eg>pt,  are 
the  ruins  of  a  palace  of  gray  granite,  the 
ceilincs  of  which  are  supported  by  columni 
of  sucii  thickness,  that  four  men  can  scarce- 
ly span  Iheni.  The  gniiid  hall  is  112  feet 
long,  f)0  high,  and  56  broad.  The  roof  of  the 
whole  edifice  is  a  terrace,  on  which  once 
sti^d  an  Arabian  village.  The  Babylonians 
and  Persians  vied  with  the  Es>'ptians,  both 
in  the  grandeur  and  splendour  of  tlieir 
biiildinzs,  as  may  t>e  Judged  from  the  ruiim 
still  remaining.  A  st.'urcase  was  to  be  seen 
some  lime  ago,  having  95  steps  ot  white 
marble  still  standing,  so  broad  and  flat,  ihnl 
12  horses  might  conveniently  go  abreast. 

As  these  vast  structures  were  not  fitted 
for  the  general  convenience  of  mankind 
we  must  Uxik  to  the  Greeks  for  the  art  of 
architecture  as  it  has  since  been  exercised. 
From  the  simple  constniction  of  wcxMlen 
huts,  V'itniviiis  supposes  the  orders  of  archi- 
tecture took  their  rise.  When  biiildinin^nf 
wood  were  sii|ierseded  by  solid  and  stately 
edifices  of  stone,  they  imitated  the  |iart4 
which  necessity  had  intrwiiiced  into  the 
primitive  huts;  so  that  the  upright  trees, 
with  the  stones  at  each  extremity  of  them, 
were  the  origin  of  columns,  bases,  and 
capitals  ;  and  the  beams.  Joists,  rafters,  and 
the  materials  which  formed  the  covering, 
gave  birth  to  architraves,  frizes,  triglyphs, 
cornices,  with  the  corona,  miitiiles,  mo- 
dilions,  and  dentiles.  To  bring  all  these 
several  parts  to  the  slate  of  perfection  at 
which  they  arrived  was  the  work  of  long 
experience  and  much  rea-jonine,  aided  by 
the  invention  of  many  tools.  The  Greeks 
improved  upon  the  works  of  the  Eg>'ptiaiis, 
so  as  to  render  them,  if  not  so  durable,  a.' 
least  mure  ornamental,  and  (lerhaps  mora 
really  serviceable.  The  construction  of 
arches  was  unknown  to  the  anciet.t  Asiiy* 
rians  and  P^^vluniniia.    The  ruuCi  of  tftai 


ARCHITECTURE. 


luUln  wi»f»  flxt^nd  rovpreil  wltti  itroiligloiic- 
ly  lariir  i<t<iiir«,  Hniiie  of'tlirin  larjie  eiiuii|;li 
tnrnvrrlli«  wlitilf  riioiii.  'I'liey  IkiiI  toluiniis, 
wn  ilit-y  Wfmll  pr<i(«irti<iiiect,  anil  till- i-!i|>- 
iUiN  wfri*  bailly  exrculed.  Tlie  artof  |iro- 
pfirtKiniiij!  llif  various  parts  of  a  tiuililing 
bfUiiiEs,!!!  «  iH'Ciiliar  iiiaiiiier,  totlietlrt'f  k», 
from  whniii  we  ilt-riv«t  the  three  principal 
onler!" :  atthi-same  time  it  iinis't  nut  he 
(l«nieit,  that  llie  Jewinh  natiiiii  had  earlier 
exniiiples  ii|'5ii('li  pr<>|Hirtiiiri ;  and  that,  in 
all  pri)liahilily,  the  (;reek.-'  took  their  idea 
•fa  repilar  order  in  artliiiecture  from  tlie 
<«niple  of  Solomon. 

Ill  the  Doric  tirder,  which  is  so  called 
froiii  nonix,  (he  son  ofMelenils,  and  graiid- 
■OM  of  Deucalion,  llie  column  approache.s 
Very  nearly  to  the  proixirtioiis  of  those  to 
be  Uiund  in  Solomon's  Icinple.  This  order 
\v«i<  firs*,  employed  hy  Dorns  in  the  biiild- 
ini!  of  a  temple  at  Ar^os,  in  honour  of  Juno, 
and  wan  formed  acrordiii!;  to  tlie  propor- 
tloiiH  between  the  fool  of  n  man  and  the 
rt!Mt  of  his  iKidy,  reckoning  the  foot  to  be 
tbe  sixth  (Kirtof  a  man's  height:  they  gave 
Ui  a  Doric  column,  taking  in  its  cliapiter, 
■ix  of  its  diameters  ;  that  is  to  say,  they 
made  it  six  tunes  as  high  as  it  was  tliick, 
but  they  aflerwRrds  added  a  seventh  di- 
ameter. 

Tbe  Ionic  Order,  which  takes  its  name 
Irom  the  lonians,  in  (Jpper  Asia,  was 
fonned  according  to  the  proportions  of  a 
woman  ;  making  lite  height  of  the  column 
U>  lie  eight  limes  greater  than  the  diameter, 
riiey  almi  ni.ide  cliaiineling  in  (lie  trunk, 
•o  imitate  the  folds  in  the  dress  of  a  wnman, 
and  by  the  volutes  in  the  chapiter  they  re- 
preseiiied  that  part  of  the  hair  which  hung 
III  curls  on  each  side  of  the  face  ;  besides 
the  lonians  adiled  a  base  to  their  column, 
Which  the  Dorians  originally  had  not. 

The  Cnrinlbian  t>rder,  which  was  |)oste- 
rlor  to  llir  other  iwu,  icsik  its  rise  from  an 
arridenl  related  by  Vitruviiis.  A  basket, 
with  u  tile  over  it,  had  been  placed  on  the 
toDib  of  a  young  Corinthian  maid,  near 
which  grew  the  herb  acanthus,  or  bear's 
breech.  The  leaves  of  ihis  plant  rising  up 
U)  the  lile.tben  curled  themselves  down  into 
a  sort  of  volute,  which  Iteiiig  observed  by 
CHlliniarhiis,  the  sculptor,  hetisik  the  Idea 
of  represenling  such  a  circle  of  leaves  in 
the  capital  of  uc«>lninn,  that  hus  since  been 
characteristic  oftlie  Corinthian  Order.  Sca- 
mozzi  calls  this  the  virginal  order,  because 
It  bears  all  the  delicacy  in  iu  dress  peculiar 
to  young  virgins. 

'I'he  Tuscan,  or  F.tniscan  Order,  derives 
t»  name  fr<iin  the  Etruscans,  or  Pelasgiaus, 
who  first  inhabited  Ktniria,  in  Italy :  this 
tiUier«fun)  looked  Uiwu  aa  a  Roman  Order. 


It  has  the  proportions  of  the  Doric  Ordwr, 
but  as  it  is  one  idllie  plainest  and  simpleid 
orders,  it  is  in  all  probiiliilliy  »iie  of  lh« 
most  ancient.  Cilruvins  s|ieaks  ofthe  pro- 
(Kirtions  of  this  order,  but  there  are  no 
certain  remains  of  it,  unless  we  except  Uie 
Tnijan  and  .'Vntoniiie  pillars  at  Koine. 

The  Composite  or  Uoinan  '  )rder,  is  so 
called  because  it  combines  the  pro(Mirtiona 
and  decorations  of  the  Coriiitliiau  Order 
with  tlie  angular  volute  and  dentils  of  the 
Ionian,  thus  forming  a  new  order,  which 
Wiis  adopted  by  the  Romans. 

Both  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  in 
the  practice  of  using  the  figures  of  men  and 
wonieii  instead  of  regular  culiiinns,  whence 
arose  the  Persian  or  I'ersic  Order,  in  whitll 
the  statues  of  men,  ami  the  Caryatic  Order, 
111  which  the  statues  of  w<uuen,  served  to 
support  the  entablatures,  in  the  place  of 
rolunins.  The  Kiniiaiisliad  also  tlieir  Ter- 
mini for  the  giip|iort  of  entablatures,  the 
itpiter  part  of  which  represented  the  head 
and  breast  of  a  human  body,  and  the  lower 
the  inverted  frustrnm  of  a  s<iuare  pyramid. 
Persian  figures  are  generally  charged  with 
a  Doric  entablature  ;  the  Caryatides  with 
ail  Ionic  or  ('orinthian  architntve  and  cor- 
nice ;  and  the  Termini  with  an  entablature 
of  any  of  the  three  (irecian  orders. 

In  their  private  buildings  tlie  Romait 
architects  followed  the  Greeks  ;  but  in  their 
public  edifices  they  far  surpassed- them  in 
grandeur.  Architecture  was  carried  to  its 
highest  pitch  of  perfection  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus.  The  Pantheon,  one  ofthe  finest 
monuments  of  aiitiipiity,  was  built  by 
Agrippa,theson  in  law  of  Augustus.  Some 
of  his  successors,  particularly  'I'rijan  and 
Antoninus,  were  no  less  favourable  to  the 
exercise  of  this  art ;  but  on  the  decline  of 
the  empire,  architecture  sliiireil  the  fate  of 
other  arts,  and  declined  also,  but  did  not 
altogether  drop.  New  modes  of  building 
were  introduced,  which  acipiired  Ihe  name 
of  styles  ;  as  the  Gothic,  t^a.xoii,  and  Nor- 
man styles. 

The  Gothic  style  was  so  called  becanse 
It  was  first  used  by  the  Visigoths.  The 
Saxon  and  Norman  styles  were  so  called 
because  they  were  res[>ectively  used  by  the 
Saxons  before  the  Conquest,  and  by  tlie 
Normans  aOer,  in  the  building  of  church- 
es. The  Saxon  style  was  distingiiislied 
by  the  semicircular  arch,  which  they  (eein 
to  have  taken  partly  from  the  Romans,  and 
partly  from  their  ancestors  on  Uie  conti- 
nent. 

The  Nonnan  style  was  distinguished  by 
the  following  particulars :  the  walls  were 
very  thick,  generally  witbout  hultrriwea; 
the  arches,  both  within  and  witJi    't  leiiii 


ARO 

eircniar,  and  »uppnrte<1  by  veiy  plain  and 
•olid  ciiIiiiiiiia;  of  wliich  examples  are  to 
be  »een  in  the  cliancel  at  Ortord.  in  Suf- 
folk, and  at  Christ  Church,  Canterlmry. 
Poinetinies,  however,  tlie  columns  were 
decorited  with  curN-ings  of  foliaee  or  ani- 
mal!!, and  sometimes  with  spirals,  loxenge, 
or  network. 

These  two  »:yles  continued  to  be  the  pre- 
TBilini;  modes  of  huilHliia  in  Knsland  until 
the  n  it;n  of  Henry  II.,  when  a  new  mode 
Wits  introduced,  which  was  called  modern 
Gothic.  Whether  this  was  purely  a  devia- 
tion from  the  oilier  two  modes,  or  whether 
It  was  derived  from  any  foreign  source,  is 
not  known.  It  is,  however,  siip|K>sed  to 
be  of  Saracenic  extraction,  and  to  have 
been  intniduced  by  the  crusaders.  This 
8iip|tosition  is  strengthened  by  the  fact,  that 
the  nXKupies  and  (Kilaces  of  Fez,  and  also 
some  of  the  cathedrals  in  Spain  built  by 
the  Moors,  are  in  this  style  ;  which  ouuht 
therefore  to  be  called  Anihic,  Saricenic, 
or  Moresque.  This  stylo  is  distinguished 
by  its  numerous  buttresses,  lofty  spires,  and 
pinnacles,  large  and  ramified  windows, 
with  n  profusion  of  ornaments  throughout. 
It  came  into  general  use  in  the  reign  of 
Ueno'  III.;  when  the  circular  gave  way  to 
the  (Hiiiited  arch,  and  the  ma:isive  column 
to  the  slender  pillar,  of  which  the.  present 
cathedral  church  of  Salisbury,  liegun  .it  that 
I>eri>Hl,  affords  the  best  S|iecimen.  From 
tJiat  time  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the 
pillars  in  churches  were  of  I'urbeck  marble, 
very  slender  and  round,  encompa-ssed  with 
marble  shaflsa  little  detached,  having  each 
k  capital  adorned  with  foliage,  which  join- 
in  g  formed  one  elegant  capiuil  for  the  whole 
pillar.  The  windows  were  long  and  nar- 
row, with  (lointed  arches  and  (Kiiiiled  gliiss; 
and  the  lofty  steeples  were  lurnished  with 
spires  and  pinnacles.  In  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry VI 1 1,  a  new  kind  of  low  |M>intedarch  was 
introduced,  which  wasdescriliedironi  four 
centres,  was  very  rmiin)  at  the  haunches, 
and  the  angle  at  the  top  was  very  obtuse, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Cardinal  Wolsey's  build- 
ings. In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies the  taste  fur  tUeek  and  Koniitii  archi- 
tecture revived,  and  brought  the  live  orders 
•"nin  into  use,  although  for  sacred  edifices 
i^axon  and  (juthic  styles  still  maintain 
liie  preeminence.  The  Italians  were  fora 
hing  time  reckoned  the  greatest  architects, 
but  England  may  also  boast  of  an  Inigo 
Jones  anil  a  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  who 
hold  a  very  high  rank  in  the  art.  Inigo 
Jones  has  left  the  banqueting  house  at 
Whitehall,  Queen  Catherine's  Cha|>el  at 
fl.  James's,  the  Piazr.a  at  Covent  Garden, 
I*  1  oUier  buildinip,  as  proofs  of  his  skill 


ARI  2S 

and  taste.  The  works  of  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  even  siirpiuss  those  of  hi  ■<  predece8S4«r, 
both  in  number  and  magnitude.  Ainon| 
these  stand  foremost  the  Catheilral  of  SU 
Paul's,  Greenwich  Hospital,  the  Mimu- 
nient,  Chelsea  Hospital,  the  Theatre  at 
Oxford,  Trinity  College  Library,  and  Em- 
manuel College,  Cambridge  ;  besides  uj>- 
vvarils  of  tirty-two  churrhes  and  innunter 
able  other  public  buildings. 

ARCIIITECTUKE  (in  rersjiective).  A 
Wirt  of  building,  the  members  of  whicli 
are  of  different  measures  and  imwlules,  au<i 
diminish  in  pro|)ortion  to  their  distance,  to 
make  the  building  api>ear  longer  and  larger 
to  tlie  view  than  it  really  is. 

ARCHITRAVE.  'l"h;a  part  ofactjuinn 
or  series  of  columns  that  is  aUive  or  lies 
immediately  np«u  the  capital.  U  is  the 
lowest  member  of  the  frieze,  and  is  sufi- 
piwed  to  represent  the  principal  beam  in 
timber  buildings.  It  id  souu-tinies  calleii 
the  reason  piece,  as  in  |M>rticoes,  chusters 
to. ;  and  the  masterpiece  in  chimneys. 

ARCHI  VAl?bT.  The  inner  amtour of 
an  arch,  or  a  frame  set  ntf  with  mouUtiiigs, 
running  over  the  faces  of  the  arch  stone* 
and  bearing  u|H)n  the  imposts. 

ARCHIVES.  The  place  wliero  there- 
cords,  &.C.  belonging  to  the  crown  umI 
kingdom  are  kept. 

A  RCTIC.  An  epithet  for  what  lies  to  th<! 
north,  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  Arctic  I'ole 

AREA.  The  site  or  space  of  ground  on 
which  any  building  is  erected. 

AREA  (in  Geometry).  'I'he  8U|>erficial 
contents  of  any  figure,  as  a  triangle,  qua- 
drangle, &c. 

ARE.VA.  That  part  of  an  aniphitiieatr* 
where  the  gladiators  c<mtended,  so  called 
from  tlie  sand  with  wliich  it  w:is  strewed 

ARGE.NT  (in  Heraldry).  The  while  co- 
lour in  tlie  coals  of  arms  of  baruneta 
knights,  and  gentlemen. 

ARGO  NAVIS.  A  coiislellation  called 
after  the  ship  of  Jason  and  his  coinpai^ 
ions. 

ARGUMENT.  Whatever  la  offered  or 
offers  itself  to  Ihe  mind,  s<i  as  tu  create  be- 
lief iii  regard  to  any  subject  or  matter  laid 
down. 

ARGUMENT  (in  Astronomy).  An  arc, 
whereby  another  arc  is  to  be  sought  bear- 
ing a  certain  prn|Mirti<m  to  tlie  first  arc. 

ARGUMENTUM  AD  HOMINEM  (la 
Logic).  A  mode  of  reawming,  in  which  an 
argument  is  drawn  from  the  pnifessed  prin- 
ciples or  practice  of  the  adversary. 

ARIES.  I'he  Rnin,  a  ctuistellation  or 
fixed  stars,  and  the  first  of  the  twelve  tigM 
of  the  ziMliac,  marked  C^i"). 

ARISTOCRACY.     A  form  of  | 


30 


ART 


TOfnt  m  wlucb  the  pi>wor  b  Tevted  hi  the 

notiihty. 

ARITHMETIC.  The  art  of  niimbertng 
•V  C4iinputlat!  bjr  ctfitaln  rules,  of  »  liicli  Ihtt 
four  &n)t  and  gtni|)le8t  are  aililitlnii,  «iili- 
trarliiiii,  uiiilti|>liaili(in,  and  division. 
Viilptr  AnUiiiielic  is  the  C(iiii|iiil;itiuii  of 
nuiii!>rre  ill  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life. 
Iiilejonl  ArillinK'tic  treats  of  whole  niiiii- 
brrs  ;  i-'raclional  Arilhiiietic,  of  fmilioiial 
R':aihers  j  Decimal  Arithmetic,  of  deciinal 
niimliers.  UniveiHal  Arithmetic  is  the 
name  given  to  Algehra  by  ssir  Isaac  Mew- 
k>a. 

ARITHMETIC,  Hi.tort  or.  Of  Arith- 
luetic  as  a  science,  we  know  hut  very  lit- 
tle as  to  its  slate  and  prop'ess  anion;;  the 
ancients.  It  is  evident,  fruiii  the  bare  coii- 
■iderati<>n  of  our  whiiIs,  and  earliest  Im- 
pressions, that  some  knowledge  of  iiiinibers 
or  some  mode  of  computation,  however  im- 
perfect, was  coeval  with  society  ;  and  as  the 
transactions  of  men  tiecaiiie  more  coinpli- 
oued,  tt  la  rea.4otiuhle  to  infer  that  they 
would  hit  on  devices  for  facilitating  and 
suiiplifyini;  their  calculations.  Josephus 
■tfserts  that  Ahmliam,  having;  retired  from 
Chnldea  into  ICi:y|>l,  diirlns  the  time  of  a 
famine,  was  the  first  who  l:Might  the  inha- 
bitants of  that  OMiiitry  a  knowledge  both 
of  arithmetic  and  astronomy,  of  which  they 
Were  iMiih  before  lenonint ;  a  circumstance 
tJie  more  prfihahle.as  it  is  well  known  that 
tiie  Kieiice  of  astronomy  was  first  cultiva- 
ted among  the  Chaldeans,  and  such  ad  van- 
cm  made  in  that  science  as  could  not  have 
been  effected  withotit  the  aid  of  aiilhmetl- 
cal  ciilciilations. 

'I'lie  (ireeks  imagined  that  the  science  of 
arithmetic,  as  well  as  that  of  geometry, 
ohKliialed  with  the  Egyptians;  but  this 
notion,  as  far  a*  res|iei-|s  priority  of  dis- 
e«>very,  was  eviilently  ernuieoiis,  and  no 
diiohl  arose  from  the  circumstance  of  their 
►av^Bj  .rinved  all  their  first  ideas  of  the 
k'V«  »  ./  "6.eiice*,  as  well  as  iiKiny  of  their 
^4hm  !»  ,in  the  Egyptians.  Thus,  as  the 
^jyA-^aa  believed  that  they  were  taught 
•  t-»«ni  by  their  god  Tlieul  or  Tliol,  wlio 
V^J*^<'  over  ciHiimerce,  the  Ureeks  as- 
a^iCned  a  similar  office  to  their  god  Mer- 
cury. As  the  Hhipiiicinna  were  the  first 
trading  pniple,  they  iiatiinilly  addicted 
themselves  to  the  science  and  (iractice  of 
•nthmetic,  which  led  Stralio  to  observe 
th.it  the  invention  of  the  art  belonged  to 
Ibeni ;  but,  as  the  Chaldeans  were  a  more 
■neient  |)e<iple,  this  »up|io»ition  is  no  less 
•noiieous  than  the  former.  What  advan- 
ces were  made  by  these  people  in  the  sci- 
•nc«  we  have  nomeans  of  ascertaining,  for 
*<jUtiiig  remaias  of  the  early  writings  on 


this  subject  except  what  may  lie  gathered 
from  the  coiiiiiieiit.iry  of  rrocviis  <ni  lJic 
First  BiMifc  of  Euclid's  Elements  It  ap- 
|H-an<  tlitit  almost  all  nations  were  led  to  dx 
upon  the  same  numeral  scale,  or  the  coiii- 
iiioii  method  of  iii>tation,  by  dividing  num- 
bers into  tens,  hundreds,  and  thousands; 
a  practice  doubtless  derived  from  the  cus- 
tom, so  universally  adopted  in  childhtMxi, 
of  counting  by  the  fingers  ;  which,  being 
first  reckoned  singly  from  one  to  ten,  and 
then  successively  over  again,  would  natu- 
rally lead  to  the  decimal  scale  or  the  de- 
cuple division  of  nuiiitiers.  But  they  rep- 
rexented  their  nuinlwrs  by  means  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  place  of  the 
miHlern  iiuiiierals.  Thus  the  Jews  divided 
their  alphal>et  into  nine  units,  nine  tens, 
and  nine  hundreds,  including  the  final  let- 
ters, as  H  .\leph,  I,  3  ISelh.Q,  &.c.  to  «  Vod, 
10  ;  then  9  Caph,  'JO,  *)  Lamed,  30,  &.C.  to 
p  Koph,  lUO,  T  Resh,  ioO,  &.c.  to  f  Tsmii 
final,  900.  Thousands  were  sometimes 
expressed  by  the  units  annexed  to  hund- 
red, as  1>TU,  14:14  ;  sometimes  by  the  \v«>rd 
n'yit,  loon,  o'C^St,  2000,  and  with  the 
oilier  numerals  prefixed,  to  signify  the  niim- 
lier  of  Ihousniids  To  avoid  using  the  di- 
vine name  of  rP.  Jehovah,  in  notation, 
they  substituted  p  for  filYeen.  Totlieal- 
phaliet.of  the  Greeks  were  assigned  two 
niiinerical  powers,  namely, a  power  to  each 
letter  in  order,  as  u.  Alpha,  1,  ice.  to 
ui  <  imeisi,  24,  and  a  power  siiiitlar  to  lh.it 
adopted  by  the  Jews,  as  u  Alpha,  1,  &c. 
to  X  Kappa,  10,  &.c. ;  to  cm  Omega,  COO , 
then  900  was  ex  pressed  by  ihe  character  77) 
and  the  thousands  were  denoted  by  a  (Munt 
under  the  letters  after  tliis  manner,  u,  lOOU, 

,4  <2000,  &.C. ;  the   number  of  10,000  was 

sometimes  expressed  by  a  small  d.ish  over 
the  lotii  I  bus  1,  but  malheinafiriansemploy- 
eil  Ihe  letter  .M,  which,  by  placingiinder  the 
siiiall  letters,  indicated  the  number  of  tlicu- 
sands,  as  a  fur  10,000,  ^  for  20,000,  &.c 

If  M 

Diophantiis  and  Pappus  made  Mv  to  re- 
present 10,000,  and  then  by  the  addition 
of  the  letters,  as  (»iHv,  for  20,(X)0,  &c. 
A|Hill<iiiiits  divided  numbers  into  periods 
of  four  chanicters,  to  which  he  gave  a  IikeI 
value  very  similar  to  the  modern  mode  of 
notation.  The  Greeks,  however,  were  en- 
abled, by  means  of  their  letters,  to  perform 
the  common  rulesof  addition,  subtraction, 
iniiltiplicitlon,  and  division,  from  which 
no  doubt,  the  idea  was  taken  of  working 
with  letters  in  our  Algebra  ;  for  It  is  worthy 
of  observation  that  In  their  inullipllcatlo* 
they  proceeded  fironi  left  to  rigkt  u  !■  tkt 


ART 

Binlrfptlrittlnn  nf  alcfbn  at  present.  The 
i»ret-KK  liHil  likewise  aiuillier  kiiiil  of  iiola- 
tioM  hy  inc^Hiis  of  capitals,  more  properly 
initials  of  ilie  names  of  numlxfrs,  and  were 
UHnl  111  iiiscriptKiiis,  a!<  I  for  ia,or  ^ta,  I, 
77  for  iin-Ti,i,£^  lor  5ixa,  10,  &«•  The 
Riim.tii  niitntiiiii,  which  is  still  used  in 
■  marking  ilaiea,  and  niiinbering  chapters, 
&.C  consists  of  live  of  their  capiti.l  letters, 
namely,  1  <iiie,  V  five,  X  ten,  L  fifty, 
C  one  hiuiilred,  which  are  increased  in 
thU  manner:  the  re(ietilion  of  the  I's  in- 
creases numbers  by  units,  as  11  for  two. 
Hi  for  three,  ice;  that  of  X's  increases 
numbers  by  tens,  as  XX  for  twenty,  XXX 
fcr  thirty,  &c.;  and  that  of  (;'s  increases 
■umbers  by  Ininilreds,  as  CC  for  two  hun- 
dred, ecu  for  three  hundred,  &.C.;  also  a 
If  ss  character  before  a  greater  diminishes 
the  value  of  the  number,  as  I  before  V, 
thus,  IV,  makes  it  four,  I  before  X,  thus, 
iX,  makes  it  nine :  on  the  other  hand,  a 
less  character  after  a  greater  increases  the 
value  of  the  number,  as  1  after  V,  thus,  VI, 
makes  it  six,  and  I  after  X,  thus,  XI,  makes 
it  eleven.  In  what  manner  the  Komans 
performed  their  arithmeticiil  o(<eration8  is 
not  known  -,  but  it  is  most  probable  that, 
as  il»ey  were  nut  a  commercial  nation,  they 
followed  the  simplest  forms  of  calculation  : 
we  must  therefore  look  for  further  informa- 
tion on  this  subject  to  the  period  when  the 
Arabs  or  Saracens  introduced  into  Europe 
their  mode  of  notation,  which  is  not  only 
distinguished  from  the  others  by  the  pecu- 
liarity of  the  characters,  but  also  by  their 
value  and  dis|K>sition.  Althoush  this  nota- 
tion consists  of  only  nine  digits,  with  the 
cipher  0,  yet,  by  giving  a  local  power  to 
these  fi{;iires,  namely,  that  of  units,  tens, 
hundre<ls,thousands,  &.c.  they  may  be  made 
to  express  numbers  to  an  indefinite  extent. 
Besides,  this  mode  also  presents  many  ad- 
vantages by  the  additional  facility  with 
which  all  arithmetical  operations  are  thus 
performed.  15y  what  nation  this  improve- 
ment was  first  made  is  not  known.  The 
Greeks,  as  tiefore  observed,  were  making 
a>!vances  towards  it  by  giving  a  local  value 
to  certain  periods  of  four  numbers  each, 
but  it  dues  not  appear  that  they  proceeded 
any  further.  Tlie  Arabs  introduced  it  into 
Europe  aUmt  eight  hundred  years  back, 
whence  it  soon  circulated  among  the  dif- 
ferent Euro|iean  nations  ;  but  although  the 
first  use  of  this  scale  is  commonly  ascribed 
to  them,  yet  they  acknowledge  themselves 
indebted  t4i  the  Indians  for  it ;  and  as  this 
latter  people  w  ire  in  many  respects  very 
Ingenious,  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that 
tliey  were  the  authors  of  the  invention. 
TIh9  cultivation  of  arithmetic  ia  Europe 


ARM 


9\ 


may  be  dated  from  the  thirteenth  century 
when  Jordanus  of  \aniur,  the  first  wrila» 
on  the  subject  that  we  know  of,  flourished 
His  arithmetic  was  published  with  illustra- 
tions, by  Joannes  Fal>er  Stapiilensis,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  but  was  less  perfect  than 
the  treatises  of  Lucas  de  Burgo  and  Nicholas 
de  Tartagl  ia  in  that  and  the  subse<pient  cen- 
turies. In  France,  the  subject  of  arithmetic 
was  handled  about  the  same  time  by  C'la- 
vius  and  Ramus;  in  Germany,  oy  Sturmiiis, 
Stifelius,  and  Ilenischius;  and  in  England 
by  Recorde,  Diggs,  and  Buckley.  After 
that  period  the  writers  on  arithmetic  be- 
came t(Ki  numerous  to  be  particularly  spe- 
cified, but  the  names  of  Brings,  Emerson, 
Napier,  Maclaurin,  Hutton,  and  Bonny- 
castle,  are  entitled  to  notice  for  liaviug 
systematized,  enlarged,  and  in  many  |iar- 
ticulars  simplified  the  science. 

ARK.  The  floating  vessel  in  which  Noa^ 
and  his  family  were  g.-ived  from  the  flood 
It  was  5O0  feet  long,  90  broad,  and  50  high 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENANI',  or  .Mo- 
ses' Ark.  The  chest  in  which  the  stone 
tables  of  the  ten  commandments,  wrilteii 
by  the  hand  of  God,  were  laid  up. 

AR.MAUII^EA.  A  quadru|*ed,  a  native 
of  Brazil  and  the  West  lii'Mes,  with  (ho 
snout  of  a  pig,  the  tail  of  a  .izard,  and  the 
feet  of  a  hedgehog.  lie  is  armed  with  a 
coat  of  impenetrable  scales,  under  whicil 
he  retire*  >ike  a  tortoise. 


ARMILLARY  SPHERE  (in  Astro 
noniy).  An  artificial  sphere,  comimsed  of 
a  number  of  circles,  of  metal,  w<ki(1,  ot 
paper,  representing  the  several  circles  of 
the  sphere  of  the  world  p«n  together  in 
their  natural  order.  Tlie  annillary  spliei« 
revolves  upon  an  axis  within  a  silvered 
horizon,  which  is  divided  into  degrees,  aiu 
moveableevery  way  upon  a  brass  supporter- 
In  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  there  is  an 
armillary  sphere  constructed  by  Dr.  Long, 
which  is  eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  will 
contain  more  than  thirty  persons  sitting 
within  it,  to  view,  as  from  a  centre,  the 
representation  of  the  celestial  spheres.  That 
part  of  the  sphere  which  is  not  visible  1m 
England  is  cut  off;  and  the  whole  ia  ao 
contrived,  that,  by  being  turned  rouiKi,  tt 


S2 


ARR 


9ihibtuall  the  phenomena  of  the  heavenly 

lOdlM. 


ARMORY.  A  branch  of  the  ncience  of 
henlilry,  congistins  in  the  knowlediie  of 
Rrnioniil  hearinjis  or  coats  of  arms,  which 
«ier\'e  to  distinguish  the  quality  of  the 
bearer. 

ARMOUR.  All  siicli  habiliments  as  oerve 
to  defend  the  body  from  wounds  inflicted 
by  darts,  swords",  lances,  &c. 

ARMY.  A  bjdy  of  soldiers  consisting  of 
horse  and  foot,  under  the  command  of  a 
general  and  sulmrdinate  olticers,  and  aim- 
pletelyequip|>ed  and  disciplined  for  sen-ice. 
An  army  is  generally  divided  into  a  certain 
number  of  coriM,eaeh  consisting  ofliripades, 
regiments,  batliil  ions,  and  squadrims;  when 
Ml  the  field,  it  is  formed  into  lines  ;  the  first 
line  is  called  the  vaniniard,  the  second  the 
main  body,  the  third  the  rear<;uard,orbody 
of  reserve.  'I'he  middle  of  e.acli  line  is  oc- 
cupied hy  the  fool,  the  cavalry  forms  the 
right  and  left  wins:  of  each  line,  and  some- 
times squadrons  of  horse  are  placed  in  the 
Intervals  l>etween  the  battalions. 

AttOMA.  A  general  name  for  all  sweet 
Rpices,  but  (larticularly  myrrh  ;  also  the 
odoriferous  principle  which  produces  the 
fragrance  peculiar  to  some  plants. 

ARRAC.  A  spirituous  liquor  distilled  In 
India  from  the  cocoa  tree,  rice,  or  sugar 
it  is  very  strong,  and  intoxicates  more  than 
mm  or  brandy. 

ARRAIGNMEXT  (in  l^w).  The  brlng- 
tng  a  prisoner  forth,  reading  the  indictment 
to  him,  and  putting  tlie  question  of  guiUy 
or  not  guilty. 

ARRAY.  The  drawing  up  of  soldiera  in 
•rder  of  battle. 

ARRRARS.  Money  unpaid  at  the  du« 
Ume,  as  rent,  moneys  in  hand.  Ice. 

ARRKKT  {in  Law).  The  apprehending 
•nd  restraining  a  man's  person  in  order  to 


ART 

cniT  pel  him  to  be  obedient  to  the  law 
Thij,  in  all  c.Tses  except  treason,  felony 
or  breach  of  the  peace,  must  be  dtme  by 
the  lawful  warrant  of  some  court  of  record 
or  officer  of  justice.  Arrest  of  judgment  is 
the  staying  of  judgment,  or  not  proceeding 
to  judgment. 

ARRCJW.  A  missile  weapon,  which  is 
commonly  discharged  from  a  Ih  vr  When 
this  weapon  is  borne  in  coiits  of  arms,  it 
is  said  to  he  bartted  and  feathered. 

ARROW-ROOT.   An   Indian  root,    n^ 
which  starch   is  made     It  is  also  used 
medicinally. 

ARSENAL.  A  public  storehouse  for 
anns  and  all  sorts  of  anmiunition. 

ARSENIATE.  A  sort  of  salts  formed 
by  the  combination  of  arsenic  acid  with 
different  bases,  as  the  arseniate  of  ammo- 
nia, &c 

ARSENIC.  A  ponderous  mineral  body 
It  is  yellow,  white,  and  red.  Yellow  arsenic 
is  the  native  arsenic  dug  out  of  the  mines, 
otherwise  called  Arsenic  Ore.  White 
arsenic  is  drawn  from  the  yellow  by  sub- 
limating ;  and  is  reduced  to  powder  by  the 
mixture  of  oxygen,  or  exposure  to  the  air 
This  is  sometimes  used  in  medicine  in 
small  quantities,  but  is  otherwise  a  deadly 
(Hiison.  Red  arsenic  is  the  yellow  arsenic 
rubified  by  fire,  when  it  is  called  realgal. 

ARSENITE.  A  sort  of  salts  formed  by 
the  combination  of  arscnious  acid  with 
different  bases. 

ARSIS  (in  Grammar).  The  elevation  of 
the  voice,  in  distinction  from  thesis  or  the 
depression  of  the  voice.  Arsis  and  thesis 
in  Ancient  Music,  is  applied  to  the  raising 
and  falling  of  the  hand  in  beating  of  time. 

ARTERY.  A  hollow,  fistulous,  conica 
canal,  which  serves  to  receive  the  blood 
from  the  ventricles  of  the  heart,  and  t« 
distribute  it  to  all  parts  of  tha  body. 


ART.  The  cnntnvance  and  dm oTthtnp 
by  the  help  of  thuugiit  and  ezpenencs. 


ART 

a»i  uiot>nrd\nfi  to  prescrttied  niles,  so  as  to 
make  them  serve  the  |i(ir(Mise8  t'ur  which 
they  were  designed.  Liberal  or  fine  arts 
\re  those  which  are  nohle  and  worthy  to 
be  cultivated  without  regard  to  lucre,  as 
pnintiii<;,  poetry,  music,  &.C.  Mechanic  arts 
are  those  wherein  the  hand  and  btnly  are 
more  concerned  tlian  the  mind.  Terms 
of  art  are  sucli  words  as  are  used  in  re- 
gard to  any  particular  art,  profession,  or 
science. 

AKTICHOKE  A  plant  very  like  the 
thistle,  with  scaly  heads  similar  to  tiiecune 
of  llie  pine  tree.  At  the  bottom  of  each 
scale,  as  also  at  the  bottom  of  each  floret, 
is  the  well  known  tieshy  edible  suhsutno«. 
The  Jenisalem  Artich.Ke  is  a  plant,  the 
ttKit  of  which  resembles  a  potatoe,  having 
the  taste  of  the  artichoke 

ARTICLE  (in  Law).  The  clause  or  con- 
dition in  a  covenant. 

AKTICLE  (in  Grammar)  A  particle, 
which  in  most  langiia<:es  serves  to  denote 
the  gender  and  case  of  nouns  ;  and  in  lan- 
guages which  have  not  diiTcrent  termina- 
ticms  it  serves  to  particularize  the  object 
referred  to. 

ARTICULATION  (In  Anatomy).  The 
junction  of  two  bones  intended  for  motion. 
There  are  two  kinds ;  the  diarthrosis, 
which  has  a  manifest  motion,  and  synar- 
tlirosis,  which  lias  only  an  obscure  motion. 

ARTICULATION.  The  articulate  or 
<iistinct  utterance  of  everj'  letter,  syllable, 
or  word,  r<i  as  to  make  oneself  intelligible. 

ARTIFICERS.  Persons  employed  in 
4ie  performance  of  mechanical  arts. 

ARTILLERY.  A  collective  name  de- 
noting all  engines  of  war,  but  particularly 
cannon,  mortars,  and  other  large  pieces, 
for  the  discharge  of  shot  and  Bhelis.  It  is 
aJso  employed  to  denote  the  science  which 
teaches  all  things  relating  to  the  artillery, 
as  the  cotislniction  of  all  engines  of  war, 
the  arrangement,  movement,  and  manage- 
ment of  cannon  and  all  sorts  of  ordn<ince, 
used  either  in  the  field,  or  the  camp,  or  at 
■ieges,  &.C. 

ARTIODACTTL.V.  A  division  of  the 
hoofed  quarrupeda,  in  which  ea<;h  foot 
has  an  even  number  of  toes,  as  two  or 
four. 

ARTOCAEPTJS.  The  bread  fruit  tree 
of  the  South-Sea  Islands. 

ARTISTE.  A  term  of  extensive  nse 
among  the  French,  to  denote  one  who 
is  particularly  dextrous  in  the  art  which 
he  practises,  of  whatever  nature  it  may 
be,  as  an  opera-dancer,  a  hair-dresser, 
cook,  ete^ 

AETOTYEITE.  One  of  a  sect  of  her- 
etics, in  the  primitive  church,  who  cele- 
brated the  eucharist  with  bread  ana 
cheese. 


ASP 


ARTIST.     A  proficient  m  th    fine  arts, 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES.  Ancient 
marbles  illustrative  of  the  history  and  niy- 
tholcigy  of  the  ancients,  so  called  Irom  the 
Earl  of  Arundel,  by  whom  they  were  trans- 
ported from  the  island  of  Paros  into  Eng- 
land. They  contain  a  chronicle ol  the  city 
ol  Athens,  supposed  to  have  been  inscribed 
thereon  2()4  years  before  Christ. 

ASA-FCETI UA.  A  gum  resin  of  a  very 
fetid  smelt,  obtained  from  the  leruia  asu 
fxtida,  a  perennial  plant,  which  is  a  native 
of  Persia.  It  comes  into  this  country  in 
small  grains  of  ditferent  colours,  hard  and 
brittle. 

ASBESTOS.  A  mineral  substance,  of 
which  Amiiinthus  is  one  of  its  principal 
species.  Tins  consists  of  elastic  fibres, 
somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch,  and 
slightly  translucent.  The  ancients  manu- 
factured cloth  from  the  fibres  of  the  asbes- 
tos for  the  purpose,  as  is  said,  of  wrapping 
up  the  bodies  of  the  dead  when  ex|Kised  on 
the  funeral  pile  ;  it  being  incombustible  in 
its  nature.  It  is  found  in  many  places  in 
Asia  and  Europe. 

ASCARIUES.  Worms  that  infest  th«> 
intestiniim  rectum,  and  cause  a  violent 
itching  ;  also  a  kind  ot  worms  which  inlVsi 
the  intestines  of  all  animals. 

ASCENSION  (in  Astronomy).  That  de- 
gree of  the  equator  reckoned  from  the  first 
of  Aries  eastward,  which  rises  with  the  sun 
or  a  star.  This  is  either  right  or  oblique, 
according  as  it  rises  in  a  right  or  an  iil»- 
liqiie  sphere. 

ASCENSIONAL  DIFFERENCE  The 
difierence  between  the  right  and  the  ob- 
lique ascension  lu  any  point  ot  the  heav- 
ens. 

ASCENT.  The  rising  of  fluids  in  a  glass 
tube  or  any  vessel  above  the  surface  of  llielr 
own  level. 

ASH.  A  well  known  tree,  the  timber  of 
which  is  next  to  the  oak  in  value,  being 
used  in  every  sort  of  handicraft. 

ASHES.  The  earthy  subst-iiices  remaii»- 
ing  after  combustion,  which  contain  an 
alkaline  salt ;  also  the  skimmings  of  uitlaj 
among  the  letter-founders. 

ASH-VVEDNESUAY.  The  first  day  m 
Lent,  so  called  from  the  custom  of  fasting 
in  sackcloth  and  aslies 

ASP.  A  very  small  kind  of  serj'ent,  pe- 
culiarto  Eg}  pt  and  Libya, the  bite  uf  which 
is  deadly.  Us  poison  is  so  quick  in  its  op 
emtions,  that  it  kills  without  a  possibility 
of  applying  any  remedy.  Those  that  ar« 
bitten  by  it  are  said  to  die  within  thre« 
hours,  by  means  of  sleep  and  letha  gy 


M 


ASS 


without  aaj  pain;  wherefore  Cleopatra 
eboHe  it  as  the  easiest  way  of  dispatching 
herself. 

ASPARAGUS.  A  valuable  esculent 
plant,  which  requires  three  years  at  least  lo 
bring  it  to  maturity  from  tlie  time  of  sow- 
ing llie  seed,  and  will  not  yield  vigorously 
witliout  a  continual  supply  of  manure. 

ASI'EN-TREE.  A  kind  of  while  poplar, 
Die  leaves  uf  which  are  small,  and  always 
tremliliug. 

ASPHALTUM,  or  Jews' Pitch  A  solid, 
brittle,  ponderous  substance,  which  breaks 
with  a  polish,  aud  melts  easily,  ft  is  found 
in  a  soft  or  liquid  state  on  the  surface  of 
Ilia  Dead  ?ea,  a  lake  in  Judea,  and  by 
time  grows  dry  and  hard.  The  Egyptians 
used  asphaltum  in  embalming,  wliich  Ihey 
called  numia  mineralis 

ASS.  A  well  known  useful  qnadniped, 
remarkable  for  its  patience,  hardiness,  and 
long  life.  The  milk  of  the  female  is  highly 
esteemed  for  its  light  and  nutritious  quality, 
and  for  that  reason  recomnMnded  for  coo- 
SNinptive  persons. 

ASPERGIIX.US.  Tho  brush  Bsed  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  chnrch  to  sprinSle 
holy  water  on  the  people.  In  Botaity 
a  genus  of  fungi. 

ASPHODEL.  A  name  of  the  day-lily, 
kind's  spear,  and  other  elegant  plants 
of  the  (?enus  asphodelus. 

ASPHURELATA,  or  ASPHURELATE3. 
A  series  of  eemi-metalUc  fossils,  includ- 
ing bismnth,  antimony,  cobalt,  zinc. 
and  quicksilver  ;  thus  called  because  in 
their  purest  state  they  are  not  malle- 
able. 

ASS.  A  well-known  quadruped  of  the 
equine  genus  ;  figuratively,  a  dull, 
btupid  fellow  ;  a  dolt. 

Assagay.  A  tall  tree  of  South  Africa, 
of  wliich  tho  natives  make  javelins  or 
spears  ;  a  spear  made  of  this  wood. 

ASSASSINS.  A  tribe  or  clan  caUed  Is- 
raaelians,  who  settled  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Lebanon,  about  1090,  and  be- 
came remarkable  for  their  assassina- 
tions. 

ASSETS.  The  stock  in  trade  and  en- 
tire property  of  a  merchant  or  of  a  trad- 
ing association  ;  goods  or  estate  of  a 
deceased  person  subject  to  the  pay- 
ment of  his  debts  ;  the  property  of  an 
insolvent  debtor. 

ASSIDEANS.  A  name  given  in  the  first 
book  of  Maccabees,  ii.  42,  to  a  sect  of 
Jews,  who  armed  themselves  under 
Mattathias  to  resist  the  introduction  of 
the  Grecian  manners  and  idolatries  in- 
to Judea. 

ASSIENTO.  A  contract  formerly  en- 
tered into  between  the  kings  of  Spain 
and  foreign  merchants,  relative  to  tho 
Importation  of  negro  slaves  into  the 
Spanish  dominions  in  South  America. 
ASSAM  TEA.  In  botany,  a  valuabla 
kind  of  tea,  raised  and  manufarctured  in 
Ihe  upper  district  of  India.  ' 


.ftSS 

I  ASPHYXIA,  or  ASPHYXY.  In  pst)ioI»> 
Igy,  the  state  of  the  body  in  which  tho 
pulse  is  so  low  as  not  to  be  felt:  but 
Inow  applied  by  the  faculty  to  th» 
symptoms  of  suffocation  produced  by 
an  aocumnlation  of  carbonic  acid  in  tho 
blood;  the  vital  phenomena  being  sus- 
pended, but  life  not  extinct. 

ASSAYINO.  The  p.irticular  mo<le  of 
trying  ores  or  nii.xed  metals  by  means  of 
proper  tluxes,  in  order  to  discover  the  pro- 
portion of  metnl,  as  also  of  the  otlier  ingre- 
dients, as  alum,  sulphur,  vitriol,  and  the 
like,  which  are  contained  in  them.  Gold 
is  obtained  pure  by  dissolving  it  in  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  when  the  metal  may  be  pr»- 
cipitated  by  dropping  in  a  diluted  solution 
of  sulphate  of  iron  ;  the  precipit.ite  which 
is  in  the  form  of  a  powder  is  pure  gold. 
Silver  is  obtained  pure  by  dissolving  it  iu 
nitric  acid,  and  preci|iitating  it  with  a  di- 
luted solution  of  sulphate  of  iron. 

ASSIDENT.  In  pathology,  an  epithet 
applied  to  symptoms  that  acoornpauy 
disease.  Assident  signs  aro  those  par>- 
ticular  indications Avliieh  attend  disease. 

ASSIGNATS.  Paper  money  issued  by 
the  Frenfh  Govermaent  during  tba 
first  BeyoIutiOQ. 

ASSIGN  (in  Law).  One  to  whom  any 
thing  is  assigned  or  made  over,  as  an  exe- 
cutor, &c. ;  also  an  assignee  or  assign  to  a 
bankrupt's  estate. 

ASSIGNMENT.  A  transfer  or  making 
over  lo  another  the  right  one  has  in  any 
estate,  usually  a|>plied  to  an  estate  for  lite 
or  years.  It  ditlers  from  a  lease  in  this, 
that  by  an  assignment  one  parts  with  tli* 
whole  interest  one  has  in  the  thing,  bnt  by 
a  lease  he  reserves  himself  a  reversion. 

ASSIMILATID.N  (in  Physics).  The  pro- 
cess  in  the  animal  economy  by  which  the 
food  is  converted  into  nourishment  for  the 
bo<ly. 

ASSIZE  (In  Law).  An  assembly  of 
knights  and  other  substantial  men,  who^ 
with  the  justices,  met  at  a  certain  time 
and  in  a  certain  place  for  the  due  admi- 
nistration of  justice.  In  the  modern  appli- 
cation it  signities  a  sitting  of  Die  judges  by 
virtue  of  a  coinntission,  to  hear  and  de 
termine  causes.  The  assixes  are  genrnif 
when  the  justices  go  their  circuits,  willi 
commission  to  take  all  assizes,  that  is, 
hear  all  causes  j  titey  are  s)iecial  when 
special  commissions  are  granted  to  nea' 
particular  causes. 

ASSOCIATION.  The  connexion  ofideaa 
in  the  human  mind  which  forthemoct  pan 
immediately  ftillow  one  anolhtr,  witelher 
there  is  any  natural  lelauon  bet  ween  them 
or  not. 


AST 

ASSUMrSIT  (ill  I«iw).  A  voluntary 
promise  by  which  a  innii  biiiil''  liunsilt'  to 
pay  any  thing  tu  another,  or  to  <to  luiy 
Work. 

ASSURANCE,  or  INSURANCE.  An 
enc.iB^iii'T.t  by  which  ii  (•Krsiin  lircoines 
btiiiixl  for  a  «|iecili«d8ui!i,  k'mI  I'ura  iiiuited 
perliHt,  to  indemnify  another  for  any  losses 
wliicli  his  pro^M-rty  may  susuiii  from  fire 
or  shipwreck,  &c. 

ASTliHISK.  A  star  (♦)  used  in  printing 
as  n  mark  of  reference. 

ASTEROID.  A  name  given  to  four  plan 
ets  betwc'ja  the  orbits  of  Miirs  and  Jupi- 
ter, viz.,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta, 

A:5TII.MA.  A  painful,  (limnili,  and  lu- 
borioUK  respiration,  with  a  sense  nf  stricture 
acrorv:^  the  t>reasl,that  suiiietniies  approacties 
'.u  sulf'ociition. 

ASTKAGAL  (in  Anatomy).  The  ankle 
bone;  In  Architecture,  a  small  round  monld- 
iMi:  serviiij;  as  an  ornaiueul  to  the  tups  and 
bullunis  of  columns. 


AST 


85, 


(L 


ASTRAGAL  (in  Gunnerj).  A  small 
nonlitinc  encoinp.i8s!ng  a  cannon. 

ASTROLABE.  An  instrument  fortaking 
the  allitnde  of  the  sun  or  stars  at  sea. 

A!*'I'1U)L()GY.  An  art  formerly  much 
cnltiv.-ited,  but  now  exploded,  of  judging 
or  predicting  human  event*  from  the  sitii- 
ttion  and  ditfereiil  as|iecl8  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 

\STRONOMV.  The  science  which  treats 
e  the  sun,  moon,  earth,  planets,  and  other 
heavenly  bodies  ^howin;:  their  niagnitiides, 
onter.  and  distances  from  each  other,  mea- 
BurinE  and  marking  tlieir  risings,  settings, 
motions,  appearances,  the  timesand  (|uan- 
tities  of  (heir  eclipses,  &c.  It  comprehends 
what  was  anciently  called  the  doctrine  of 
the  sphere,  and  is  a  mixed  mathematical 
Bcienc«. 

ASTRONOMY,  Hutort  of.  Of  all  the 
sciences  which  have  encaged  the  attention 
(tf  mankind,  nime  apiiears  to  have  been 
cultivated  so  early  as  that  of  a.stn>noiiiy, 
which  treats  of  tite  noblest  and  most  inter- 
estini;  objects  of  contemplation.  Josephus 
tnfonns  iis  that  Se:h,  the  son  of  Adam,  is 
said  In  have  laid  the  l<>unitatlons  of  this 
science,  and  th-it  his  posterity,  understand- 
ing fiom  a  prediction  of  Adam  that  there 
WorUd  he  a  general  destruction  cfallthlncs, 
once  liy  the  r.ige  of  fire  and  once  by  the 
▼iolence  » -'d  multitude  of  waters,  made  two 
pillars,  on^  of  brick  and  the  other  of  stone, 
aiitt  eiisravrd  their  inventions  on  each,  that 
If  the  pillar  of  brick  bat|i|iened  t<i  be  over- 
thrown by  the  flood,  that  of  stone  might 


remaui ;  wh.ch  latter  pillar,  Josepbuvadds, 
was  lo  l>e  seen  in  his  day.  lleiilM>iii>crit)ea 
to  the  antediluvians  a  knowledge  of  ths 
astronomical  cycle  of  600  years,  but  upon 
what  authority  we  are  not  informed. 

The  account  is,  however,  not  improbable; 
for  historians  generally  agree  in  assi<:iiing 
the  origin  of  astronomy  to  the  (.'haUleans 
siHinalYer  the  deluge,  when,  for  the  puriHise 
of  making  their  astrological  predictions,  to 
tvhich  they  were  mnch  addicted,  as  also 
for  that  of  Rdvanciii!!  the  science  of  astnw 
iioniy ,  they  devoted  themselves  to  the  study 
of  the  heavenly  iKidies.  The  Chaldeans 
were  in  fact  a  trilie  of  Babylonians,  who 
constituted  the  jinests,  philosophers,  a.stro- 
nomers,  astrologers,  and  soothsayers  of  this 
people,  whence  a  Chaldean  and  a  stHtth- 
sayer  became  synonymous  terms.  Tlies« 
Chaldeans  discovered  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  ;  and,  from  their  supposed 
intliiences  on  human  affairs,  pretended  to 
predict  what  was  to  come.  The  planets 
they  called  their  interpreters,  ascribing  to 
Salurn  the  highest  rank  ;  the  next  in  emi- 
nence was  Sol,  the  sun;  then  Mars,  Venus, 
Mercury,  and  Jupiter.  By  the  motions  and 
as|>ects  of  all  these  they  foretold  storms  of 
wind  and  of  rain,  or  excessive  droughts,  as 
also  the  appearance  of  comets,  eclipses  of 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  other  phenomena. 
They  also  marked  out  thirty-six  constella- 
tions, twelve  of  which  they  placed  in  the 
zodiac,  assigning  to  each  a  month  in  the 
year,  and  thus  dividing  the  zodiac  into 
twelve  signs,  through  which  they  taught 
that  the  several  planets  performed  their 
revolutions.  They  ap|iear  not  to  have  had 
much  idea  of  the  immense  distance  of  some 
of  the  planets  from  the  sun,  but  accounled 
for  the  time  they  took  in  performing  their 
re  volutions  by  the  slow  nessof  tlieir  motions. 
They,  however,  held  that  the  mcK)n  com- 
pleted her  course  the  soonest  of  any,  not 
because  of  her  extraordinary  velocity,  hut 
because  her  orbit,  as  it  would  now  be  called, 
was  '.ess  than  that  nf  any  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  They  taught  that  she  shone  with  » 
light  not  her  own,  and  that  when  eclipsed 
she  was  immersed  in  the  shadow  of  the 
earth.  Of  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  they  ap- 
pear to  have  had  no  just  idea,  nor  could 
tliey  fix  the  time  when  they  should  ha(ipen. 
Their  ideas  of  the  earth  as  a  celestial  body 
were  also  crude  and  im|ierfect. 

Astroiu.niy  was  cultivated  in  Egj'pt  nearly 
about  the  same  time  as  among  the  Chal- 
deans ;  and,  accordine  to  the  opinions  of 
some,  the  honour  of  the  invention  is  due 
to  them  :  but  the  most  probable  coinliisioB 
is,  that  as  these  two  nations  were  coeval, 
anu  *"<h  addicted  to  the  arts  and  science* 


ASTUONOMY. 


they  cultivnu><)  aftrnnnmv  at  the  same  time. 
The  Kg>  piiiin*  Uail  sii  a  very  early  |>erii>il 
their  colleue  <>1  (iriesw,  \vlu>  were  all  nccu- 
rate  observt-rx  ol'  Hie  siara,  ami  kept,  as 
DiixtxriiM  obverves,  res;)»lers  ul'llieir  i>l>ser- 
valioiitf  for  an  iiicreitilile  niiiiil>er  uf  years. 
It  l»  ».-il(l,  tliiit  ill  Hie  iiKiiiiiiiieiit  of  Usy- 
maiiiiyiM  tliere  wii!#  a  ^itlijen  circle  uf  3ti5 
ciiltllii  III  circuiiilereiii'e  and  one  ciihit  thick, 
divided  into  3lo  parts,  aiiNWeriii)!  to  Die 
dayx  of  the  year,  &.c.  TJie  Ksypliaiis  dis- 
covered that  the  stars  liail  an  annual  nuitiiin 
of  .*)<•"  ,y"'  ,45""  ill  tlie  )  ear;  and  Macrohitis 
OKxerts  tliat  they  made  llie  planet.-)  revolve 
al>out  the  Klin  in  tlie  same  <irder  as  we  do. 
From  t'haldea  and  Kgypt  astronomy  (Kissed 
int»  riicKnicia.  where  it  was  applied  by  that 
trndin<!|>eoplelothepiir|Misesof  navij^ation. 
Tlie  Arabians  als4i,  one  of  tlie  most  ancient 
nations  in  the  world,  ciiltivaied  astronomy 
as  far  as  was  needful  to  answer  Ibe  ends  of 
their  (Kisloral  life,  by  ol»servins!  the  stars, 
their  iNisition.aiiitiiiHuence  on  the  weather. 
In  tnivetiing  tliroii;:li  ihe  desert,  we  are 
informed  that,  at  a  very  early  period,  they 
used  to  direct  tlieir  course  by  the  Great 
and  Little  Hear,  as  is  done  at  sea  to  this 
day.  They  also  pive  names  to  the  stiurs, 
mostly  in  allusmn  to  their  Docks  and  herds ; 
and  they  were  so  nice  in  tills  matter  that 
no  lanpiase  aliounds  with  so  many  names 
of  stars  and  nstensms  as  the  Arabic. 

As  to  the  Indians  and  Cliine.se  there  is 
no  doubt  but  that  they  cultivated  astronomy 
at  a  very  early  [leriod,  and  that  the  Brah- 
mins of  the  fo-mer  I'eople,  being  altogetlier 
devoted  to  S[)eciila»ive  sciences,  made  ad- 
vances in  th.it  of  .tsirimomy  enual  to  any 
of  the  nations  of  antiipiity.  Al.  Bailly  in- 
forms us,  in  his  history,  that  he  examined 
and  coni|)ared  four  different  sets  of  astro- 
nomical tables  of  the  Indian  philosophers, 
namely,  that  of  the  Siamese  explained  by 
M.  Cassnii  in  l(Wy  ;  that  broiiglii  from  India 
by  .M.IeUentil.ofthe  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  two  other  mami.script  tables,  found 
Hiiioni!  the  paiiers  of  the  late  M.  de  Lisle  ; 
all  of  which  he  found  to  accord  with  one 
another,  referring  to  the  meridian  of  Be- 
Oares.  Itap|)earsthatlhe  Indians  date  tlieir 
astronomy  from  a  remarkable  cunjunctlon 
of  the  sun  and  moon  which  taok  place  at 
Ihe  distance  of  :W)a  yeare  before  Christ ; 
and  M.  Itouilly  concludes  that,  from  our 
nMwt  accurate  a.stroiiomical  tables,  such  a 
c<mjunctlon  did  take  place.  The  Indians 
calculate  ecli|»»e»  by  the  mean  motions  of 
Ihe  sun  and  moon,c(mimencing  at  a  period 
five  ihoiisand  years  distant ;  but,  without 
giving  them  credit  for  an  antiipiity  which 
taatvnriance  wthall  historical  documents, 
•acred  and  pru:\uie,  it  •uffices  here  to  ob- 1 


serve  tliat  tliey  have  ai'oirted  the  cycle  of 
nineteen  years,  and  Hal  Iherr  astronomy 
agrees  with  modern  discoveries  in  many 
particulars,;»siotlieoUliipiUy  of  the  ecliptic, 
and  an  acceleration  of  the  motion  of  llM 
equinoctial  |Kiinls.  'I'liey  also  assign  iii» 
ijualities  to  the  motions  ol  tlie  planets,  aa 
sweriiig  very  well  to  the  annual  parallar, 
and  the  eijuation  of  the  centre. 

'J'he  Greeks,  without  doubt. derived  theur 
astronomical  knowledgefromthe  Egy |>tians 
and  riiu-iiiciunsby  means  of  several  ofiliei* 
Countrymen,  particularly  Tliales  the  Mile 
sian,  wliu,  about  64(1  years  before  Christ 
travelled  into  Cg>'pt,  and  brought  from 
thence  the  chief  principles  of  the  science 
lie  was  the  tirst  among  the  Greeks  who 
I  tbserved  the  stars,  the  sidstices,  the  eel :  paes 
of  the  sun  and  motm,  and  proceeded  tuifai 
as  to  piedict  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  It 
apiiears,  however,  that,  before  his  time, 
many  of  the  constellations  were  known, 
for  we  tliid  mention  of  them  in  llesiodand 
Homer,  two  of  their  earliest  writers.  Allei 
1'hales,  Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  Amu 
agoras,  but  above  all,  I'ythagor.-is,  disiii> 
guished  themselves  among  the  number  oi* 
those  wiiocultivated  astronomy.  'I'he  latter, 
after  having  resided  a  hmg  time  in  Egypt 
and  other  foreign  (Kirts,  established  a  sect 
of  philosophers  in  his  own  country,  known 
by  the  name  of  I'ythagoreans.  lie  taught, 
among  other  things,  that  the  sun  was  ia 
the  centre  of  the  universe  and  immovable; 
that  the  earth  was  round,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants were  anti|Mides  to  each  other;  that  the 
moon  rellected  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  waa 
inhabited  like  the  earth  ;  that  comets  were 
wandering  stars  ;  that  the  milky  way  was 
an  assemblage  of  stars,  which  derived  its 
white  colour  from  the  brightness  of  Mieir 
light;  besides  a  number  of  other  inrticiilars, 
some  of  which  are  admitted  in  the  present 
day.  Phibilaus,  a  Tythagorean,  maintain- 
ed the  doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  roumi 
the  sun,  4.'>ll  years  before  Christ,  and  llice- 
tiis,  a  Syracusan,  taught,  a  hundred  year* 
after,  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  on  its 
own  axis  ;  also  Melon,  the  inventor  of  the 
Melonic cycle,  and  Ciictemon, oliserved  the 
summer  solstice  -t^lS  years  before  Christ,  lie- 
sides  tne  risings  and  settings  of  the  slaro, 
and  what  seasons  they  answered  to  The 
same  subject  was  treated  of  at  large  by 
Aratiis  in  his  poem  entitled  rtiienoniena. 
Eratosthenes,  a  Cyrenian,  who  was  Wvm 
in  271  B.  c.  measured  the  circumference  of 
the  earth  ;and,  being  invited  to  the  court  of 
IMolemy  Evergeles  at  Alexandria,  he  waa 
made  keeper  of  the  royal  library,  and  set 
up  there  the  armillary  spheres  which  iliiv 
parchus  and  Ptuleuiy  aAerwurda  uaei  n 


ASTRONOMY 


•7 


•flee  aally.  ITe  also  determined  tlie  dis- 
Udc«  between  the  tropics  to  l>e  11-83  of  llie 
whole  meridian  circle,  which  makes  the 
obliquity  ofUie  ecliptic  in  his  time  to  be  33 
degrees,  51  miniite:)  and  one-third.  Ar- 
ehiuiedes  is  said  to  have  constructed  a 
planetarium  to  represent  the  phenomena 
and  motions  of  tiie  lieavenly  bodies  ;  and 
many  others  added  to  the  stock  of  astro- 
nomical knowle(l(;e,  hut  none  so  much  as 
Hipparchus,  who  flourished  about  140 years 
B.  c.  and  surpassed  all  that  had  gone  be- 
fore him  in  the  i!Xtent  of  his  researches- 
He  showed  that  the  orbits  of  the  planets 
were  eccentric,  and  that  the  iiimm  moved 
•lower  in  her  apofiee  than  in  her  perigee. 
He  constructed  tables  of  the  motions  of 
the  sun  and  moun  ;  collected  accounts  of 
eclipses  that  had  been  computed  by  the 
Chaldeans  and  Ecyptians  ;  and  calculated 
such  as  would  hap|ien  for  six  hundred 
years  to  come;  liesides  correcting  the  er- 
rors of  Eratosthenes  in  his  nie;isurement 
of  the  earth's  circumference,  and  compu- 
ting the  sun's  distance  more  acrunilely. 
lie  is,  however,  most  distinguished  by  his 
catalogue  of  the  ti.xed  stars  to  the  number 
of  a  thousand  and  twenty-two,  with  their 
latitudes  and  longitudes,  and  ap|>arent 
niagiiiludes.  These  and  most  other  of  liis 
o)iser>'ations  are  preserved  by  his  illustri- 
ous successor  I'tolemy. 

From  the  lime  of  Hipparchus  to  that  of 
Ptol«-my,  an  interval  of  upwards  of  two 
centuries,  few  or  no  advances  were  made 
in  a.'<Ironiimy.  Claudius  Ptolkiny,  who 
was  born  at  i'eliisium  in  Eg}'pt,  in  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  is  well  known 
as  the  author  of  a  great  work  on  astronomy, 
entitled  his  Almasest,  which  contains  a 
complete  system  of  ;istr<inoiny  drawn  from 
the  olwervations  of  all  preceding  astrono- 
mers in  union  with  his  own.  lie  iiiaiiitaln- 
ed  the  generally  received  opinion  of  the 
sun's  motion,  wiicli  continued  to  be  uni- 
versally held  iinlil  the  lime  of  Co|iernicus. 
The  work  of  I'lulymy  being  preserved  from 
the  grievous  coiiH.'igration  that  consumed 
the  .\lexanilriaii  library  duringthe  ravages  j 
of  the  Saracens,  was  translated  out  of  the 
Greek  into  the  Arabic,  a.  d.  827  ;  and,  by 
*he  help  of  this  tninslation,  the  Arabians, 
who  now  addicted  themselves  to  the  study 
of  astronomy,  cultivated  it  with  great  ad- 
vantace  under  the  patronage  <if  the  caliphs, 
particularly  Al  .Mamon,  who  was  himself 
a.i  astronomer,  and  made  many  accurate 
obsert'ations  by  the  help  of  instruments, 
whi:h  he  himself  constructed.  He  deter- 
mined the  oliliqi  ity  of  the  ecliptic  in  his 
lime  to  be  93  degrees,  Xt  minuies.  Among 
Ute  Arabian  aothnrs  of  this  period  wan  Al- 


fnigan,  who  wrote  his  Elements  of  Astro- 
nomy, and  Allieleeiiius,  who  nourished 
about  BtiU.  This  latter  com^Kired  his  own 
observations  with  those  of  I'tolemy,  and 
computed  the  motion  of  the  sun's  apogea 
from  Ptolemy's  time  to  bis  own.  He  also 
compo.ied  tables  lor  the  meridian  of  Arabia, 
which  were  much  esteemed  by  Ins  coiiiitry- 
iiien.  Aller  this,  Ebn  Vounis,  astronomer 
to  the  caliph  of  Eg>'pt,  observed  some 
eclipses,  by  means  of  which  the  quantity 
of  the  moon's  acceleration  since  that  time 
has  been  determined ;  also  Arzechel,  a 
MiHir  of  Spain,  oliserved  theobliipilty  ofthe 
ecliptic  ;  and  Alhazen  his  contemporary, 
wrote  on  the  twilight,  the  height  of  the 
clouds,  and  the  phenomena  of  the  horizon- 
tal moon.  He  likewise  lirst  employed  the 
optical  science  in  astronomical  observb- 
tions,  and  showed  the  importance  of  the 
theory  of  refraction  in  astronomy. 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  astrogomy,  as 
well  as  other  arts  and  sciences,  began  to 
revive  in  Eurojie,  particularly  under  the 
auspices  of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.; 
who,  besides  restoring  some  decayed  uni- 
versities, founded  a  new  one,  and  in  12^(0 
caused  the  works  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Al- 
magest of  Ptolemy  to  be  translated  into 
Latin.  Two  years  after  this,  John  de  Sacro 
Bosco,  or  John  of  Halifax,  published  his 
work  Ue  Sphtera,  a  compendium  of  astro- 
nomy drawn  from  the  works  of  Ptolemy, 
Alfrdgan,  Albetegnius,  and  others.  This 
was  held  in  high  estimalioii  for  some  cen- 
turies, and  was  honoured  with  acommen- 
tarj'  from  the  pen  of  Clavius  and  other 
learned  men.  In  I24U,  Alplionsus  kingof 
Castile,  a  gre.it  astroiuuiier  himself,  and  an 
encoiirager  of  astronomers,  corrected  with 
their  assistance  the  tables  of  Ptolemy, 
which,  from  him,  were  called  the  Alplum- 
sine  tables.  About  the  same  time  Roger 
Bacon  published  his  tracts  on  aatrimomy 
and  shortly  after  Vitellio,  a  Polander,  in 
his  treatise  on  optics,  showed,  in  accora- 
anee  with  Alliazen,  the  use  of  refrar'ion 
in  astronomy.  Nearly  two  centuries  elap- 
sed from  this  period  before  any  farther 
progress  was  maile  in  the  science,  when 
Purbach  com|K>8ed  new  tables  of  sines  for 
ever>'  ten  minutes,  coiisinicled  spheres 
and  globes,  wrote  commentaries  on  Ptole- 
my's .'Mmagest,  corrected  the  tables  of  tne 
planets  and  the  Alphonsine  tables,  deter- 
mined the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  al  23 
degrees,  33  minuies  and  a  half,  ami  liegiin, 
al  his  death,  a  new  series  of  tables  for  com- 
puting ecli|>se3.  He  was  siirreeiled  by 
John  Muller,  commonly  called  Regio- 
montanus,  Bernard  Waliher,  John  Werner, 
and  others     John  Weruershowvd  that  tiM 


ASTRONOMY" 


mntlonofthr  flTed  Jtam,  «1nre  calli-u  llie 
prrCMMiixi  of  111*  eiiiiiiioxes,  was  n)«>ut  1 
d«(;re«,  10  minutes,  iii  a  liiiiulreil  yeiirs. 
The  celfliraCtfd  Uoiii-riiicus  came  next  in 
orilT,  Willi  ilistinunished  liiniseil'  by  calling 
tn  qiiestiiin  tlie  I'tdleniaic  system  of  Hie 
nnlverse,  siiid  reviving  that  «f  Pytliagoras. 
Alter  making  a  series  ofcvservalKms,  and 
roniiing  new  tallies,  lie  coiii|ileled  in  15;i0 
lii»  wiirk,  rirst  piiblislied  niider  tlie  title  ut' 
De  lleviilutiunilius  Cieicstiuiii  Orliiuin,  and 
afterwards  under  tliat  of  Astnimimia  In- 
Btaiirata,  in  which  he  set  forth  the  system 
•iiice  known  by  the  name  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem, in  which  all  the  planets  are  c<m3ider- 
ed  as  revolving  round  the  suii  as  their 
immovable  centre. 

The  science  of  astronomy  henceforth 
cotiliniied  to  receive  regular  accessions  and 
improvements  by  a  series  of  writers,  iis 
Schoner,  Noiinlus,  Appian,  Cfeiiiina  Frisi- 
us,  Byrgiiis,  &c.  Besides,  VVilliam  IV., 
landcrave  of  Hesse  Cassel,  applying  him- 
self to  the  study,  formed,  hy  the  help  of  the 
best  instruments  then  to  be  procured,  a 
CRtalogiie  of  four  hundred  stars,  with  their 
latitudes  and  longitudes  adapted  to  ths  be- 
ginning of  the  year  I5U3.  About  this  time 
the  Copernican  system  found  a  strenxious 
though  unsuccessful  opponent  in  Tycho 
Brahe,  a  Danish  nobleman,  who,  toobvints 
the  objections  against  the  I'toleniaic  8ji- 
teiii,  nilvanced  an  hypothesis  of  his  own, 
which  added  less  to  Ins  reputation  thnn 
tlie  accurate  observations  which  he  made 
by  the  help  of  iiiiprovod  instruments  in  \ 
new  observatory  built  for  him  by  order  o.' 
the  king  of  Oenmark.  His  friend  Keplei, 
who  enjoyed  the  title  of  mathematician  t  > 
the  eni|ieior,  finished  his  tables  after  hi  i 
death,  and  published  them  under  the  tit)  < 
of  Rhodolpliine  tables.  This  latter  astror  - 
onier  discovered  that  all  the  planets  revolv  i 
round  the  sun,  not  in  circular  but  in  ellip- 
tical orbits ;  that  their  motions  are  not  eqii:  - 
ble,  but  tpiicker  and  slower  as  they  ai* 
nearer  to  the  sun  or  farther  from  hini ;  b» 
•Ides  a  niiiiiher  of  other  observations  on  the 
motions  and  distances  of  the  planets.  He 
also  concluded,  from  his  observations  on 
the  comets,  that  they  are  freely  carried 
about  among  the  orbits  of  the  pl&nets  in 
paths  that  are  nearly  rectilinear.  To  the 
ajtronomers  of  this  age  may  tt  ddued  Hay- 
er,  who.  III  his  l-'ran-imetria,  has  given  a 
representation  of  all  the  u)ru^»'ialii,ni, 
with  the  stars  marked  on  ih«r»,  and  acci  m- 
pnnied  with  the  (Jreisk  leUtn  for  ihe  ccn. 
»enicnce  of  reference 

The  M!ve<it»«r.ir,  <e-wry  eJf'e'l  rn-.n/ 
freal  nam*-*  •.«  ht«  -.w.  ol  usinrirmer.,  nk 
SaJileo   V-yferM,  0»j«.p»,  Iie/eitUfl,  Se't- 


toii,  and  Flamstead,  tc.  As  the  Cop«ra  - 
can  system  hud  met  with  an  op|H>iient  IB 
one  that  ranked  high  in  the  science,  It 
found  a  defender  in  (Galileo,  an  Italian  no- 
bleman, who  III  his  IJialogi,  iu  Ili^U,  drew 
a  comparison  between  the  I'toleniaic  and 
Copernican  system,  much  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  latter,  for  which  he  incurred  the 
censures  of  the  church,  as  the  doctrine  of 
the  sun's  iniiiiobility  was  Uutked  U|Hm  as 
directly  opjKised  to  the  express  language  ol 
Scripture.  Although  Galileo  professed  to 
recant  In  order  to  obtain  his  libei\.i(<n  fr(uii 
prison,  yet  the  system  daily  gained  ground, 
and  became  at  length  estiiblished.  Ualileo 
besides  made  many  accurate  observations 
in  astronomy,  and  was  one  of  Ihe  first  who, 
hy  improving  the  new  invention  o(  the 
lelesco|ie,  was  enabled  to  employ  them  in 
advancing  his  favourite  scu-nce.  Hy  this 
means  he  is  said  to  have  discovered  inequa- 
lities in  the  moon's  surface,  Jupiter's  satel- 
lites, and  the  ring  of  :;atiirn  ;  so  likewise 
s|Kits  in  the  surface  of  the  sun,  by  which 
he  found  out  the  revoliiticm  of  tliat  luininary 
on  its  own  axis.  He  also  ascertained  whet 
Pythagoras  had  conjectured,  that  the  milky 
way  and  the  nebulx  consisted  of  innunier- 
able  small  stars.  Harriot  made  siinilardis- 
coveries  in  England  atthe  same  time,  if  iiui 
earlier.  Heveliiis,  by  means  of  his  obse  - 
vations,  formed  a  catalogue  of  fixed  sf  rs 
much  more  complete  than  that  of  Tychj's. 
Huygens  and  Cassini  discovered  the  satel- 
lites of  Saturn,  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  de- 
monstrated, from  physical  considerations, 
the  laws  which  regulated  the  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  and  set  bounds  to  tlie 
planetaryorb8,determining  their  excursions 
from  the  sun,  and  their  nearest  approaches 
to  him  ;  he  also  explained  the  jirinciple 
which  occasioned  that  ciuistaiit  and  regular 
proportion,  observed  both  by  the  primary 
and  sectiiidary  planets  in  their  revolutions 
round  their  central  bodies,  and  llieir  dis- 
tances compared  with  their  pi-ri(HN.  1 1  is 
theory  of  the  moon,  grounded  on  the  la»s 
of  gravity  and  mechanics,  has  also  been 
found  to  account  for  all  her  irregularities. 
Mr  Flamstead  tilled  the  ottice  of  Astrono- 
mer R<iyal  at  Greenwich  from  1(175  until 
his  death  in  1729,  during  which  time  he 
was  constantly  employed  in  making  obset 
vations  on  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens 
As  the  result  of  his  labours  he  published  a 
catalogue  of  three  thousand  stars,  w  ith  their 
places  to  the  year  Hi**!);  also  new  solar 
tables,  and  a  theory  of  the  moon  according 
to  llorrox.  fill  his  tables  was  constructed 
Newton's  theory  of  the  iniMin,  as  also  the 
tables  of  '^.  llalley,  w  ho  succeeded  hiin 
VI  bis  .   In    172'J      Besides  composiiL| 


ASTRONOM  » 


imble*  *f  the  bud,  moon,  and  planeu,  Dr. 
Halley  Htlued  to  the  list  o(  astrotioiiiical 
dNcoveries,  being  the  tirst  wlioiliHcovemt 
Dm* acreleri:icii  ofthe  iikmiii's  mean  motion. 
tie  also  contrived  a  uirlliod  fur  liuding  her 
puxullax  by  llirre  observed  places  of  a  solar 
erlipMi,  and  .sliowed  the  iisr  that  nii^lit  l>« 
maile  of  the  appro-'ichtii"  transit  of  V'enii!) 
Ill  ITiil,  in  determining  tlir  distance  of  the 
gun  I'runi  the  earth,  and  recommended  tlie 
Dietiutd  of  determining  the  longitude  by  the 
"lodii's  distance  from  the  s.in  and  certain 
fixed  stars,  which  wan  aflei  wards  success- 
fully adopted  by  Dr.  Maskel"'ie,  Astrono- 
mer Royal. 

It  was  about  this  period  that  the  qupstior. 
respecting  the  figure  of  the  earth  appears 
to  have  been  satisfactorily  decided,  and  in 
favour  of  .Newton's  theor>'.  M.  Cassini 
concluded,  from  the  measurement  of  M. 
Picard,  tliat  it  was  an  oblong  spheroid, 
but  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  from  a  considera- 
tion of  tlie  laws  of  gravity,  and  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth,  had  determined  its 
fipiire  to  be  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid  flat- 
tened at  the  |>oles,  and  protuberant  at  the 
e<)uator.  To  determine  this  point  Louis  XV. 
ordered  two  degrees  ofthe  meridian  to  be 
niea.sured,  one  under  or  near  the  equator, 
the  other  as  near  as  possible  to  the  poles ; 
the  eX|>edition  to  the  north  being  intrusted 
t4>  .Messni.  .Maii|H-rtuis  and  Clairaiit,  thai  to 
tlie  south  to  .Messrs.  Condamine,  Bouguer, 
and  Don  L'IUki.  .\nioiig  the  many  obser- 
vations made  by  those  who  went  on  this 
exjiedition,  it  was  found  by  those  who 
Went  to  Itie  south  that  the  attraction  ofthe 
niouiiiain  of  IVru  had  a  sensible  effect  on 
the  plumb  lines  of  their  large  instruments, 
which  issu|i|Mised  to  afford  an  experimental 
priMif  uf  the  Newtonian  doctrine  of  gravita- 
tion. A  similar  observation  has  since  been 
nia<le  by  Dc  Maskelyne  on  the  mountain 
Schehallien  in  Scotland. 

The  eigliteenth  century  was  marked  by 
thediscoverlesof  Dr.  Br;\dley,thesuccess<ir 
to  Dr.  Halley  as  .\stronoiiier  Koyal,  and 
Dr.  Herschel,  who  also  filled  the  same  jiost 
so  honourably  to  himself.  Dr.  Bradley  dis- 
covered the  ahernition  of  light,  and  the 
mutation  ofthe  earth's  axis,  besides  having 
formed  new  and  accurate  tables  ofthe  miv 
tions  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  and  the  most 
correct  table  of  refractions  that  is  extant : 
also  with  a  large  transit  instrument,  and  a 
new  mural  quadrant  of  eight  feet  radius, 
he  made  obser\-ations  for  determining  the 
places  of  all  the  stars  in  the  British  cauv 
loirue,  and  likewise  nearly  a  hundred  and 
fifty  places  ofthe  mixm.  Dr.  Herschel,  by 
Bfignieiiling  the  iK>wen"  of  the  telescope 
b«vc:.^  .<'iy  ihinji  Hxistlng  bofore    or  ewa 


thought  r,  succeeded  in  discoverir.g  a  new 
plaiiel,whicli  lieimnied  thetieorgiuiicsidug; 
he  also  discovered  two  additional  satellites 
to  Saturn,  besides  those  of  his  uwn  planet 
Among  those  who  cultivated  the  lii^lier 
branches  ofthe  science,  ami  distiugiiisliej 
themselves  by  their  researches,  Di.  .Mask«- 
lyne,tlie  predecessor  of  Dr.  Herschel,  nuiks 
the  foremost,  having  been  the  originator  of 
the  .Nautical  Almanac,  and  brought  into  iis* 
the  lunar  method  of  determining  the  longi- 
'  de,  &,c.  besides  making  the  requisite  ta- 
iles.  The  theoreticiU  part  of  the  science 
was  indebted  to  I'lairaiit,  Euler,  Simpson, 
de  la  Caille,  Kiel,  Gregory,  Leadbetler,  for 
many  oirrect  observ.ttions  and  elucida- 
tions. 'J'he  practical  part  actpiired  a  system- 
atic form  and  many  iniprovenients  from  the 
pens  of  Liilande,  Ferguson.  Emerson,  Bon- 
nycaslle,  V'ince,  &.c.  The  historians  ofthe 
science  are  Weilder,  in  his  History  of 
Astronomy  ;  Uaillie,  in  his  History  of  An- 
cient and  .Modern  Astronomy  ;  .Monluccla, 
in  his  Hisloire  des  .Mathematiques  ;  and 
Lalaiide,  in  the  tirst  volume  of  his  Astri>- 
nomy. 

The  Ninteenth  Century  has  been  char, 
acterised  by  great  advances  in  the 
science.  Early  in  the  Century,  Cerea, 
Pallas,  Juno  and  Vesta  were  discovered, 
revolving  in  the  space  between  Mars 
and  Jupiter,  and  numbers  of  others 
have  been  added  since.  During  tha 
year  1878,  eleven  were  discovered,  ma- 
king altogether  191  Asteroids  or  minor 
planets.  The  discovery  or  practical  ap- 
phcation  of  spectrum  aualy.sig  by 
Bunsen  and  Kirchhoffin  Issy.'has  pro- 
duced marvelous  results.  The  inner- 
most secrets  of  the  solar  composition 
have  been  laid  bare,  whilst  the  great 
scientists  Lockyer,  Crova,  Crooke*. 
Huggins,  Draper  and  Young  are  etUl 
busily  at  work  in  investigating  and  ex- 
pounding solar  phenomenon. 

ASTROSCOPE.  An  a.strouomic»l  in- 
strumeut  for  making  observationa  of 
the  stars,  and  ascertaining  their  po- 
sition in  the  heavens. — Astroscopy  is 
the  art  of  examining  the  stars  by  the 
agency  of  telescopes. 

ASXROTHEMATIC.  The  places  of  the 
stars  in  an  astrological  scheme  of  the 
heavens. 

ASTIiOTHEOLOGY.  Theology  found- 
ed on  observation  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  presenting  proofs  of  the  exist- 
ence and  omniscience  of  a  Deitv. 

ASYMPTOTE.  In  mathematics,  a  right 
line  which  continually  approaches 
nearer  and  nearer  to  a  curve,  without 
cor  meeting  it. 

ATAC.VIMITE.  A  native  ore  of  copper, 
called  also  co^iiicr-.sand,  found  in  the 
desert  of  Atacama  between  Chiii  and 
Peru. 


10  ATO 

ATOMIC  THEORY.  In  chemistry,  the 
doctriuo  which  teaches  that  the  atoms 
of  olomeutary  substauces  become  com- 
bined iu  certain  definite  propurtiuun ; 
and  that  all  budieti  ai-e  composed  of 
ultimate  atomti,  their  weight  differing 
In  different  bodies.  The  relation  iu 
weight  among  the  molecules  of  bodies 
constitutes  the  basin  of  the  atomic 
theory,  which  establishes  the  important 
fact  tliat  bodies  do  not  combine  at  ran- 
dom, but  in  detiuite  proportions  by 
weight.  Thus,  admitting  the  principle 
that  all  atomic  weights  are  multiples  by 
whole  numbers  of  the  atomic  weight 
of  hydrogen,  it  follows  that  all  atomic 
weights  whatever  will  be  expressed 
in  whole  numbers ;  the  number  for 
hydrogeu  biiing  1.  Professor  Graham, 
iu  his  "  Elements  of  Chemistry,"  pre- 
sents a  tabular  view  of  the  different 
elementary  bodies,  with  the  symbols 
by  which  they  are  indicated.  In  this 
table  the  Ouemical  Symbols  and  Equiva- 
lents are  modes  of  expressing  by  letters 
ftud  figures  the  definite  jiroportions  in 
which  the  substances  chemically  com- 
bine with  one  another,  as  elucidati^diu 
the  annexed  table.  Thus  hydrogen  is 
represented  by  H  1 ;  Oxygen  by  O  8  ; 
and  water  by  U  O.  Iodine  being  denoted 
by  I,  and  Fluorine  by  F,  the  symbob-  H 
I  and  U  F  denote  hydriodic  and  hydro- 
fluoric acid  respectively.  It  happens, 
however,  that  many  of  the  elementary 
bodies  have  names  beginning  with  the 
same  letter.  In  such  cases  the  single 
letter  is  usually  appropriated  to  one  of 
them,  and  the  others  are  denoted  by 
that  letter  joined  with  some  other  letter 
of  their  names.  Thus  c:irbon  is  denoted 
by  C.  calcium  by  Ca,  cobalt  by  Co,  and 
chlorine  by  CI.  The  names  of  the  ele- 
ments in  the  different  languages  of 
Europe  not  always  beginning  with  the 
same  letter,  it  hiis  been  agreed  to  form 
them  from  the  Lutiu  names  of  the  ele- 
ments ;  thus  copper  (cuprum)  is  repre- 
sented by  Cu,  iron  (ferrum)  by  Fe,  tin 
(stannum)  by  8n,  &c.  The  great  advan- 
tage of  these  symbols  is,  that  they  en- 
able us  to  represent  chemical  decompo- 
sitions in  the  form  of  equations.  Thus, 
for  the  action  of  zinc  on  hydrochloric 
acid,  we  have — 

H  CI  +  Zn  =  Zn  CI  +  H, 
■which  means  that  hydrochloric  acid 
and  zinc,  when  placed  in  contact,  pro- 
duce chloride  of  ziucandfree  hydrogen. 
The  left-hand  side  ot  the  equation  re- 
presents the  state  of  things  before  the 
action,  and  the  right-hand  side  shows 
the  change  produced.  The  annexed 
table  contains  an  alphabetical  list  of  the 
elementary  bodies  at  present  known, 
together  with  their  symbols  and  their 
equivalents:  hydrogen  being  taken  as 
unity.  The  words  in  parentheses  are 
the  Latin  names  of  certain  elements,  as 
previously  explained  : — 

ELEMENTS.  6TMBOL8.      EQCIV. 

Aluminium Al 13  70 


ATfl 

Antimony  (Stibium) Sb 64-60 

Arsenic As 37.70 

Barium Ba 6870 

Bismuth Bi 7100 

Buron B 10-90 

Bromine Br 78-40 

Cadmium Cd 55-80 

Calci  u  m Ca 20-50 

Carbon C 6-12 

Cerium Ce 40-00 

Chlorine CI 3642 

Chromium Cr 28-00 

Cobal  t Co 29  50 

Columbium    [Tantalum).  .Ta 185-00 

Copper    (Cuprum) Cu 31-60 

Fl  uorine F 18-68 

Glucinium Q 26-50 

Gold   (Aurum) Au 19920 

Hydrogen H 100 

Iodine 1 126-30 

Iridium Ir 98-80 

Iron  (Ferrum) I-'e 28-00 

Lead  (Plumbum) Pb 103-60 

Lithi  um L 600 

Magnesium Mg 12-70 

Manganese Mn 27-70 

Mercury  (Hydrargyrum). Hg 202-00 

Molybdenum Mo 47-70 

Nickel Ni 29-60 

Ni  trogen N 14-15 

Osmium Os 9970 

Oxygen O 800 

Palladium Pd 53-30 

Phosphorus P 15-70 

Platinum PI 98-80 

Potassium   (Kalium) K 39-15 

Khodinm U 62-20 

Selenium 8e 39-60 

Silici  u  m Si 22-  60 

Silver  (Argentuni) Ag 10800 

Sodium  (Natrium) Na 23-30 

Strontium Sr 43-80 

Sulphur 8 16- 10 

Tellnrium Te 64-20 

1  h  ori  u  m Th 59-60 

Tin   (Staunum) Sn 57-00 

Titanium Tl 24-31/ 

Tungsten  (Wolfram) W 99-70 

Vanadium V 08-50 

Uranium tJ 21700 

Yttrium -Y ..32-20 

Zinc Zn 32-30 

Zirconium Zr 33-70 

Any  of  the  symbols  iu  the  table  exprcKS 
one  atom  ;  when  two  or  more  are  ex- 
pressed, it  is  2B  or  B2,  that  is,  two 
atoms  of  boron.  Fe  +  O,  or  FeO,  is 
one  equivalent  of  iron  united  to  one  of 
oxygen  ;  and  2Fe  +  30,  or  Fe203,  the 
combinations  of  two  atoms  of  iron  and 
three  of  oxygen. 

ATONIC.  In  pathology,  wanting  en- 
ergy. 

ATRABILARLVN.  In  pathology,  a 
term  applied  to  hypochondriasis,  or 
melancholy,  aiising  Itom  superabund- 
ance of  bile. 

ATROPHY.    A  wasting  away. 

ATROPI.\.  A  poisonous  vegetable 
alkali  obtained  from  the  Atropa  bella- 
donna, or  deadly  nightshade.   ,.- 


AT  T 


A*rT 


41 


ATHENiEtnVI  or  ATHENEUM.  In  an- 
tiquity, a  public  building  erected  lor 
rehearsals  and  lectures,  the  chief  of 
•which  was  at  Athens  ;  a  gymnasium. 
In  iiroseut  use,  a  public  establishment 
for  the  encouragement  of  literature  and 
the  sciences  ;  in  London,  a  famous-club 
house,  the  members  of  which  arc  all 
more  or  less  literary  or  scientific  men. 
ATHLKTiE.  The  wrestlers,  boxers, 
&e.,  who  contended  for  the  prizes  at  1  he 
Olympic,  Pythian,  and  other  games  of 
ancient  Greece  andKome. 

ATLAS.  A  collection  of  maps  in  a  vol- 
ume ;  a  kind  of  large-sized  paper  ;  a 
rich  kind  of  silk,  satin,  or  stuff,  manu- 
factured in  the  East.  In  anatomy,  the 
first  vertebra  of  the  neck.  In  mythol- 
ogy, one  of  the  Titans,  king  of  Maurit- 
ania, and  father  of  the  Hesperides  or 
Atlantides.  Having  assisted  the  giants 
in  their  war  against  tho  gods,  ho  was 
condemned  by  Jupiter  to  bear  the  vault 
of  heaven.  In  geography,  a  high  moun- 
tain of  Africa.  In  archreology,  a  column, 
or  halt  figure  of  a  man,  supporting  an 
entablature. 

ATMOLOGY.  The  doctrine  of  tho 
relations  of  heat  and  moisture. 

ATMOMETER.     An    instrument     to 

measure    the   quantity   of  exhalation 

from  a  humid  surface  in  a  given   time. 

ATMOSPllERE.   Tho  sphere  or  mass 

of  air  surrounding  tho  earth,  from  40 

to  50  miles  high.  

ATMOSPHEKIO  PRESSITRE.  The 
weight  of  tho  atmosphere  on  a  surface  ; 
the  mean  being  U'7  lbs.  to  the  square 
inch. 

ATMOSPHERIC  TIDES.  Certain 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  atmos- 
phere, caused  by  the  attraction  of  the 
sua  or  moon,  when  in  opposition  or 
conjunction. 

ATOM.  In  natural  philosophy,  a  par- 
ticle of  matter  which  can  no  longer. ba 
diminished  in  aize  ;  the  smallest  par- 
ticle of  which  W9  can  conceive  any  nat- 
ural substance  composed. 

AUGEAN  STABLE.  In  Grecian  myth- 
ology, a  stable  belonging  to  Augeus, 
king  of  Ellis,  in  which  he  kept  a  great 
number  of  oxen;  having  never  been 
cleaned,  it  was  regarded  as  almost  an 
impossibility  to  clean  it,  till  it  was  as- 
signed to  Hercules  as  one  of  his  labors: 
hence  what  is  impracticable  or  what 
would  be  very  difficult  to  clean. 

AUGITE.  A  niiueral  of  a  brown  or 
dark-green  color,  a  constituent  of 
volcanic  rocks.  It  consists  of  silica, 
protoxide  of  iron  and  manganese,  lime, 
magnesia,  and  alumina. 

ATTBACTIO.N.  In  a  peneral  sense,  the 
power  or  principle  hy  which  Ixxlies  mutu- 
ally tend  liiwar<lK  Mch  other,  which  varies 
according  to  the  naiiire  of  the  bodies  at- 
tracted, ami  the  ctrcmiisUuiceH  under  which 
this  attraction  taltes  place  ;  whence  attrac- 
tion 19  distiiigiiMlifd  into  the  Atlruclion  of 
Cobeaion,  AUractUm  of  Gravttaliuii.  Attrac- 


tion ofRlectricity,  Attraction  of  Magnettain, 
and  Chymic.-\1  Attraction. 

The  ArTRACTioN  okCohkbion  is  that  by 
which  tlie  niiaute  particle*  of  bodies  are 
held  together. 

Attbactio:»of  liHAViTtTioNiillie  prin 
ciple  by  which  bodies  at  a  distance  lend 
to  each  other;  on  this  principle  it  is  that 
two  leaden  balls,  having  each  a  snioolli 
surface,  if  coiiipresned  stronnly  lov'fllier 
will  cohere  almost  as  stron;;ly  as  if  unilt'd 
by  fusion  ;  and  even  two  plates  of  glass  if 
the  siirl'aces  are  dry  ami  even,  will  cohere 
so  as  to  reipiire  a  certain  force  to  separate 
Ihein  ;  which  is  8»p|«ised  to  be  a  universal 
principle  in  nature.     Uy  (travitation  n  stone 
and  all  heavy  bodies,  if  let  fall  I  roiii  a  lieisht, 
are  supiiosed  to  drop  to  the  earth.     All  ce- 
lestial bodies  are  suppnsed  to  have  not  only 
an  attraction  or  gravitalmn  towards  tlieit 
proper  centres,  but  that  tliey  iniilu.rtlly  at- 
tract each  other  within  their  splierj.    Tho 
planets  tend  towards  the  sun  and  towards 
each  other,  as  the  sun  does  Uiwards  ihein. 
The  satellites  of  Jupiter  lend  towards  Jiipi 
ter,  as  Jupiter  di*s  towards  his  satellites, 
and  the  same  with  ihe  salelliles  of  Saturn 
and  of  L)  ranus.    The  earth  and  inwin  tend 
likewise  reciprocally  towards  each.     By 
this  same  principle   of  gravity   heavenly 
bodies  are  kepi  in  tlieir  orbits,  and  terres- 
trial bodies  teml.as  is  supis  wed,  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earlh.     From  this  attraction 
all  the  motion,  and  conseipienlly  all  the 
changes  in  the  universe,  are  supiiosed  to 
arise,  the   rains  fall,  rivers  glide,  ocean 
swells,  projectiles  are  directed,  and  the  air 
presses  upon  di  tie  rent  bodies. 

Attraction  of  Maomktum  is  the  parti- 
cular tendency  of  certain  iMwlies  to  each 
other,a9tlial  of  the  magnet,  which  attracts 
iron  to  itself.  This  is  only  a  sort  of  attrac- 
tion of  grevitation,  acting  on  particular 
subi  'ance«. 

Attraction  of  Euectricitt  is  the  prin- 
ciple by  which  bodies,  when  excited  by 
friction,  tend  towards  each  other.  This 
8|>ecies  of  attraction  agrees  with  that  of 
gravitation  in  the  proi>erty  of  acting  upon 
iMHlies  at  a  distance  ;  but  it  differs  from  it 
inasmuch  as  these  bodies  require  to  be  in  a 
particular  state  in  order  U>  be  acted  upon. 
Chemical  Attraction  isthat  disposition 
which  some  bodies  in  solution  indicate  to 
nnite  with  some  diibstances  in  preferenc* 
to  others.  This  is  otherwise  called  affinity, 
and  is  considered  as  a  sort  of  aitraction  of 
cohesion,  acting  in  an  unresisting  medium, 
as  it  applies  peculiariy  to  such  bodies  as.  In 
solution,  indicateadisposition  tounite  with 
some  substances  in  preference  to  others 
ATTRIBUTE.'S.  Those  propertiesor  per 


It  AVE 

Vtfon*  which  are  attributed  to  the  Divine 
Being  only,  a8  bin  is«lf-«sisleiice,  iiniiiula- 
bUity,  eternity,  &c. 

AnKlBU'l»(ln  Logic).  The  predi- 
eatei  of  any  subject,  or  that  which  may  be 
affirmed  or  denied  of  a  thing,  as  '  man  is 
ao  animal.'  ■  man  is  nut  a  brute.' 

ATTKIBl.'TIiS  (in  I'auiting  and  Sculp- 
ttre)  Symbols  added  to  certain  figures,  to 
denote  their  othce  or  cliaracier,  as  tlie  ea^Ie 
added  to  the  figure  of  Jupiter,  to  denote 
bis  power;  a  club  to  Hercules,  to  deiiute 
his  prowess,  ice. 

A  VA  UANL'lins.  A  name  given  in  Savoy 
and  Switzerland  to  the  manges  of  snow, 
which  break  off  from  the  mountains  with 
a  noise  like  thunder,  and  sometimes  over- 
whelm whole  villages. 

AVAST.  A  term  vf  command  at  sea, 
■ignifying,  bold,  stop,  stay. 

AUCTION.  A  public  sale  of  goods  by 
persons  called  auctione«r8,wlio  are  licensed 
to  dispotw  of  fuMtda  to  the  highest  bidder 
on  certain  conditions,  called  the  conditions 
of  sale.  A  mock  auction  is  that  which  is 
conducted  by  unlicensed  persons  for  fraud- 
ulent purposes. 

AUDIKNCE.  The  ceremony  of  admit- 
ting ambassadors  and  public  ministers  to 
a  hearing  at  court. 

AUDIENCE  CDURT  (in  Iaw)  An  ec- 
clesiastical court  appertaining  to  tlie  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury. 

AUDIT.  A  regular  examination  of  ac- 
counts by  persons  duly  apfiointed. 

AURA.  A  vapor  of  exhalation,  defined 
by  the  early  cUeiiiists  as  a  pure 
esseuca  exuJing  from  animals  and 
plants,  aud  perceptible  ouly  by  its 
odor, — Aura  electrica  is  a  term  used 
In  electricity,  and  applied  to  the 
sensation  experieuced,  us  if  a  cold  wind 
vere  blowing  on  the  part  exposed  to 
electricity  when  received  from  a  sharp 
point.  In  pathology,  aura epileptica  is 
the  peculiar  sensation  felt  immediate- 
ly before  an  attack  ofepilepov. 

AVERAGB(in  Commerce). 'J'hedamage 
which  a  vessel,  with  the  goods  or  loading, 
sustains  from  the  time  of  its  departure  to 
its  return  ;  also  the  charges  or  contribution 
towards  defraying  such  diuiiages,  and  the 
quota  or  proportion  which  each  merchant 
or  proprietor  is  adjudged,  upon  a  re;ison- 
ahle  estimate,  to  contribute  to  a  common 
average. 

AVES.  Birds  ;  the  second  class  of  ani- 
mals in  the  Linniean  system.  This  class  of 
animals  is  distinguished  from  all  otiiers  by 
several  peculiarities  in  their  form,  having 
fealh.  ITS  for  their  covering,  two  feet,  and 
two  wings  formed  for  flight.  They  have, 
for  the  most  part,  the  mandible  protracted 
and  nakvd,  but  are  without  eiiemal  ears. 


AUR 

'  lips,  teeth,  strotum,  womb,  urinary  vessel 
or  hl.-idder,  epighitis.  corpus  callnsiim,  OI 
its  fornix  and  diaphragm.  They  are  djviiied 
in  the  Linnxan  system  into  six  orders: 
namely,  Accipitres,  or  the  falcon  and  eagle 
kind  ;  Pic:e,  the  pies  ;  Aiiseres,  the  got  so 
and  duck  kind  ;  Grallx,  tlie  criiie  kind  ; 
Gallinie,  the  poultry'  or  dmiit-stic  fow  ,  ard 
Pusseres,  the  sparrow  a.nd  Ihich  kind,  .vi'Jl 
all  the  smaller  birds. 

AUG  Ell.  A  wimble,  or  tool  for  boring. 

AUGaiENT(in  Grammar).  A  letler  or 
syllable  added  or  changed  in  Greek  verbs. 

AUGME.NTATION  (in  Heraldry).  A 
particular  mark  of  honour  borne  in  a  I 
escutcheon,  as  the  hand  in  the  arms  ot 
baronets. 

AtJGURY.  The  practice  of  divining  by 
the  flight  of  birds  or  from  iiis[iecting  their 
entrails.  The  augurs  were  a  principal 
order  of  priests  among  the  Komans. 

AUGUST.  The  eighth  month  oftlie  ye.-ir, 
called  alter  the  emperor  Aiicustus  Cn'sjir, 
who  entered  his  second  consulship  in  that 
month,  after  the  Actian  victory. 

AUGUSTAN  CONFESSION.  A  con 
fession  or  declaration  of  Christian  faith 
made  by  the  Protestants  at  Augusta  tr 
Augsburg  in  Germany,  a.  d.  l.'ioO. 

AUGUSTINES,  or  Ar»Tir«  Friars.  A 
religious  order,  so  called  from  St.  Aiigustin 
their  founder.  They  were  very  numerous 
in  England  before  the  Reformation. 

AVIARY.  A  place  set  apart  for  feeding 
and  propagating  birds. 

AUK.  A  bird,  otherwise  called  Penguin 
or  Razorbill,  an  inhabitant  of  the  arctic  oi 
northern  seas. 


AT7RELIA.  In  entomology,  the  first 
nietamorpho.«!is  of  the  maggot  of  an  in- 
sect, or  that  state  in  which  it  is  trans- 
formed from  the  caterpillar  to  the  per- 
fect winged  fly;  a  chrysalis. 

AURICLE.  That  part  of  the  ear  whicli 
Is  prominent  from  the  head.  The  auricles 
of  the  heart  are  appendages  at  the  base  of 
tlie  heart,  which  are  distinguished  into 
nght  and  left,  the  funuer  of  which  ia  pla 


AUT 

eed  li  thp  antprior,  lli*-  latter  In  the  hinder 
part.  Tlir!«e  are  mnsrular  hags,  which 
move  repilarly  with  Uie  heart,  but  in  an 
Inverted  nrrter. 

Al.'Rirt'LAR  CONFESSION.  A  mode 
of  coiifpssiiiii  aiming  Roman  Catholics,  by 
whispering  in  the  ears  of  their  fathers, 
confessors,  or  priests. 

AURORA  ItOREALIS,  1.  e.  the  North- 
t»n  Twilight.  An  extraordinar>'  meteor 
or  luminous  ap|>earance  visible  in  the  night 
time  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  heavens. 
The  aurora  boreaiis  apjiears  frequently  in 
the  form  of  an  arch,  chiefly  in  the  spring 
and  autumn,  after  a  dr>'  year.  Tliis  kind 
of  meteor  is  more  rarely  to  be  seen,  the 
nearer  we  approacli  the  equator,  hut  in 
the  polar  regions  it  is  very  constant  and 
brilliant.  In  the  Shetland  Isles  these  lights 
are  called  'the  merrj-  dancers.' 

AURUM  MUSICU.M,or  Mosaicum.  A 
combination  of  tin  and  sulphur,  used  by 
statuaries  and  painters,  for  giving  a  gold 
colour  to  their  figures. 

AUSI'tCES.  A  kind  of  soothsaying 
among  the  Romans,  by  the  flight  or  sing- 
ing of  birds. 

AUTO  D.\  FE,  or  Aw  Act  or  Faith. 
The  solemn  act  of  punishing  heretics,  for- 
merly in  use  among  the  Spaniards.  Upon 
a  Sunday  or  festival,  the  offender  hemj 
brought  from  prison  to  church,  dressed  in 
afl-ightful  manner,attended  divine  service, 
•fler  which  he  was  delivered  over  to  the 
civil  [Niwer  to  be  burnt. 

AUTOGRAPH.  An  epithet  applied  to 
whatever  is  written  in  a  |>erson'sown  hand 
writing,  as  an.autograph  letter,  a  letter  of 
one's  own  writing. 

AUTO.MATON.  A  self-moving  engine, 
more  particularly  the  figure  of  any  animal 
havingthe  principle  of  motion  witnin  itself 
by  means  of  wheels,  springs,  and  wei-ilits; 
those  in  the  figure  of  a  man  are  called 
androides,  as  the  mechanical  chess-player, 
ic.  (See  A>uii<iiOEii);  those  of  animals  are 
properly  called  automata.  It  is  said  that 
Arcliytas  of  Tarentum,  400  years  ijefore 
Christ,  made  a  wooden  pigeon  that  could 
fly  ;  and  that  Archimedes  made  similar 
automata.  Regiomontanus  made  a  wooden 
eagle,  that  flew  forth  from  the  city,  met  the 
emperor,  saluted  him,  and  returned  ;  also 
an  iron  fiy,  which  fiew  out  of  his  hand  at 
afeast,and  returned  again,after  flying  about 
the  room.  Dr.  Hooke  made  the  model  of 
a  flying  chariot,  capable  of  supporting  itself 
!n  the  air.  M.  Vaucanson  made  a  figure 
ll  a' played  on  the  flute  ;  also  a  duck  capable 
sfeitiiig,  drinking,  and  imitating  exactly 
the  voice  of  a  natural  one  j  and,  what  ia  | 


A  XI 


4S 


still  more  surprising,  the  food  it  swallowed 
was  evacuated  in  a  digested  .«tate  ;  also  the 
wings,  viscera,  and  bones  were  formed  so 
as  strongly  to  resemble  those  of  a  living 
duck.  M.  le  I)ro7.,  of  la  Chaux  de  Ponds, 
presented  a  clock  to  the  king  of  Spain, 
which  had,  ainongothercuriosities.asheep 
that  made  a  bleating  noise,  and  a  dog 
watching  a  basket',  that  snarled  and  harked 
when  any  one  offered  to  take  it  away. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  automata 
ever  in  vented,  was  that  of  the  Chess  Player, 
constructed  in  Germany  by  Baron  Keiiip- 
lin,  and  since  exhibited  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  and  ,\merica,  by  Mr.  Maelzel. 
It  represented  the  flgure  of  a  Turk,  who 
made  the  moves  on  tlie  ches8-b<«rd  with 
its  hand,  and  played  the  game  with  so 
much  skill  that  it  was  long  thiMight  never 
to  have  been  beaten.  It  was  Iiowever  fre- 
quently beaten  in  .America, and  is  now  gen- 
erally supposed  to  have  cimcealed  a  person 
of  small  size  within  the  engine,  which 
directed  the  moves.  The  ingenuity  of 
this  contrivance,  therefore,  lay  rather  in 
the  mode  of  concealing  the  real  player,  than 
in  the  mechanism. 

AUTU.MN.  The  third  season  In  the  year 
which  begins,  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
on  the  day  when  the  sun  enters  Libra,  that 
IS,  on  the  22d  of  September.  It  termi 
nates  about  the  same  day  in  December 
when  the  winter  commences. 

AUTUMNAL  SIGNS.  The  three  signs 
Libra,  Scorpio,  and  Sagittarius,  thr<iugh 
which  the  sun  passes  during  the  autumn 
season. 

AUXILIARY  VERBS  (In  Grammar). 
Such  verbs  as  help  to  form  or  conjug;ite 
others,  as,  in  English,  the  verbs  '  to  have 
and  '  to  be.' 

.\WL.  A  shoemaker's  tool,  with  whick 
holes  are  bored  in  the  leather,  for  the  ad- 
mission of  the  thread  in  stitchingand  sew 
ing.  The  blaiteof  the  awlis  mostly  a  litlla 
flattened  and  bent 


AWNING.  A  piece  of  tarpaulin  or  sal!, 
&.C.  hung  about  the  decks  or  any  other  part 
of  a  vessel,  to  screen  persons  from  the  sun 
and  rain. 

AUR.\NTIACE.E.  A  natural  order  of 
thalamiflorous  exogens,  consisting  of 
trees  aud  8hrul)s  of  great  utility  and 
beauty.  The  flowers  are  fragrint,  and 
the  fruit  juicy.  The  order  compre- 
hends the  orange,  lemon,  shaddock,  and 
lime,  which  have  been  divided  into  four* 
teen  genera. 


44 


AXA 


aXAYACATL.  a  Mexican  fly  whose 
eggs  are  used  as  a  sort  ot  Cin-iare. 

AXESTONE.  A  light  green  mineral, 
also  calleJ  jade,  or  nephrite,  found 
chiefly  in  New  Zealand  and  the  South 
Sea  Islands,  where  it  is  nsedliy  the  rude 
natives  lor  making  axes  and  other  in- 
Btrnments. 

AXINITE.  A  mineral  of  a  brown,  grey, 
black,  or  blue  color,  with  axe-shaped 
crystals,  and  consisting  of  silica,  alum- 
ina, lime,  oxide  of  iron,  and  oxide  of 
manganese. 

AXIS.  A  straight  line,  either  real  or 
imaginary,  passing  through  the  centre 
of  a  bodyon  which  it  may  be  supposed 
to  revolve  ;  a  pivot  on  which  anything 
turns. -In  the   sciences   and  the  me- 
chanical arts,  the  term  is  of  very  gen- 
eral application.— In  astronomy,  axis  is 
an  imaginary  line  supposed   to   pass 
through  the  centre  of  theearth  and  the 
heavenly  bodies,  about  which  they  per- 
form their  diurnal  revolutions.     In  ge- 
ometry, it  is  the  straight  line  in  a  plane 
figure,  about  which  it  revolves   to  pro- 
duce orgeneratea  solid.   In  mechanics, 
the  axis  of  a  balance  is  the  line  about 
which  it  moves,  or  rather  turns  about ; 
the  axis  of  osi'illation  is  a  right  line, 
parallel  to  the  horizon,  passing  through 
the  centre,  about  which  a  pendulum 
•vibrates  ;   the  wheel  and  axis  is  one  of 
the  mechanical  powers,  consisting  of  a 
wheel  concentric    with    the   base  of  a 
cylinder,  and  movable  together  with  it 
about  its  axis.     In  architecture  spiral 
axis  is  the  axis  of  a  twisted  column 
di-awn  spirally,  in  order  to  trace  the  cir- 
cumvolutions without  ;  the  axis  of  the 
Ionic  capitdl  is  a  line  passing  perpen- 
dicularly through  the  middle  of  the  eye 
of  the  volute     In  optics,  an  axis  is  that 
particular  r.iy  of  light,  comingfrom  any 
object,  which  falls  perpendicularly  on 
the  eye.     In  anatomy,  the  axis  is  the 
second  vertebra  of  the  neck;   it  has  a 
pro<;ess,  or  tooth,  which  goes  into  the 
first  vertebra,  and  this  by  some  is  cal- 
led the  axis.      .Tn  botany,  the  axis  is  a 
taper  column,  placed  in  the  centre  of 
some  flowers  or  catkins,  round  which 
the  other  parts  are  disposed  ;   or  it  sig- 
nifies the  stem  round  which  the  leaves, 
or  modified  leaves,  are  produced.     Axal 
is  au  epithet  relating  to  the  axis  ;  thus 
axal  section  is  a  section  through  any 
body,  whatever  shape  it  may  be. 

AXTNOMANCY.  In  antiquity,  a  species 
of  divination  performed  by  means  of  an 
axe  or  hatchet  which  was  fixed  on  a 
round  stake,  so  as  to  be  poised,  and 
then  the  names  of  those  susi>ected 
being  repeated,  he  at  whose  name  the 
axe  fell  was  pronounced  guilty, 

AXLE,  or  AXLE-TKEE.  A  piece  of 
timber,  or  bar  of  iron,  which  passes 
through  the  centre  of  a  wheel,  and  on 
which  it  revolves. 


AZY 

AXOLOTL.  A  water  lizard  found  in 
Mexico. 

AXOTOMOTJS.  In  mineralogy,  having 
a  cleavage  with  a  single  face,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis. 

AXMrXSTKK  CARPET.  In  the  arts, 
a  term  applied  to  carpets  manul'actured 
in  imitation  of  Turkey  carpets,  and 
noted  for  their  thick  and  solt  pile  ; 
they  are  woven  in  one  piece. 

AYAH.  The  name  given  in  India  to  a 
native  nurse  or  waiting  maid. 

AYE-AYE,  A  nocturnal  quadruped  of 
Ma lagascar,  about  the  size  of  a  hare, 
and  thus  named  from  its  peculiar  cry. 
It  is  the  Cheiromys  of  naturalists. 

ATMESTRT  LIMESTONE.  In  geol- 
ogy, one  of  the  calcareous  beds  ol  the 
Upper  Silurian  series,  which  has  been 
produced  by  coral  and  shell  a<-cumula- 
tions  amidst  the  masses  of  argillaceous 
sediments.  It  occurs  near  Ludlow, 
Malvern,  and  some  localities  in  Wales. 

AZALEA.  A  genus  of  beautiful  shrub- 
by plants,  having  richly-colored  trum- 
pet or  bell-shaped  flowers,  and,  in  some 
species,  highly  fragrant. 

AZETEO.  One  of  the  Azetecs,  an  early 
race  of  Mexico,  inhabiting  its  great 
plateaux  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  in- 
vasion, and  far  advanced  in  arts  and 
civilization. 

AZIMUTH.  In  astronomy,  an  arch  of 
the  horizon  intercepted  between  the 
meridian  of  the  place  and  the  azimuth, 
AZOIC.  In  natural  philosophy,  a  term 
applied  to  objects  entirely  destitute  of 
organic  life. 

AZOTE.  In  chemistry,  a  kind  of  gaa 
which  is  fatal  to  animal  li!o  ;  a  name 
for  nitrogen  gas.  Though  destructive 
to  animal  life  it  is  one  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  atmosphere,  of  bloo<l,  mus- 
cular fibre,  and  many  minerals.  The 
name,  nitrogen,  is  given  to  it  Irom  its 
being  the  base  of  nitre.  The  following 
are  some  of  its  compounds  :  Azoben- 
zide,  consisting  of  12  equivalents  of 
carbon,  5  of  hydrogen,  and  1  of  nitro- 
gen ;  Azobenzoide,  42  of  carbon,  16  3<  of 
hydrogen,  and  2.»i  of  nitrogen;  Azoben- 
zule,  42  of  carbon,  15  of  hydrogen,  and 
2  of  nitrogen.  Azotite  is  asaltformed 
of  nitrous  oxide,  &c. 

AZURITE,  or  AZURE  STOXE.  In 
mineralogy,  a  fine  azure  blue,  the  lazu- 
lite  or  lapis  lazuli  of  the  lapidaries  ; 
structure,  finely  granulated;  sp.  j^rl 
3-0;  hardness,  5 — <i.  its  constituent 
parts  are  phosphoric  acid,  alumina, 
magnesia,  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  silica,  and 
water. 

AZYGOS.  In  anatomy,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  various  muscles,  bones,  and 
veins,  which  occur  singly,  and  not  ia 
pairs. 

AZY5IOUS.  A  term  applied  to  tm- 
leavened  or  uafermeuted  dough. 


DAC 


BAl 


40 


B 


B,  the  Mcond  letter  of  the  atpliahet.  Is  often 
■ised  as  an  ahhrevialinn  for  Bachelor,  as 
B.  A.  Bachelor  of  Arts,  B.  D.  Bachelor  of 
Divinity  iic,  B  as  a  numeral  among  the 
Konians  stood  for  300,  and  with  a  dash  over 
H  thus,  g.  fof  3000.  B,  in  clironoiopy, 
■ta.ids  foroneof  the  Dnminical  letters, and 
in  iiiusie  for  the  seventh  note  in  the  gamut. 

BAAL.  A  pod  of  the  Phtpnicians  and 
Canaanites,  which  is  supposed  to  represent 
(he  sun,  and  to  he  the  same  as  the  Bel  or 
Belus  of  the  Greeks. 

BABOON.  A  large  kind  of  ape  with  a 
short  tail,  which  forms  one  division  of  the 
genus  Simia  in  the  LinoKan  system. 


BACCHANALIANS.  Those  who  per- 
forined  the  rites  at  the  Bacchanals  in  hon- 
our of  Bacchus. 

BACCHANALS.  A  festival  at  Rome  in 
honour  of  Bacchus,  wliich,  for  their  licen- 
tiousness, were  suppressed  by  a  solemn 
decree  of  the  senate. 

BACCHLTS.  The  gnd  of  wine  in  the 
heathen  mythology,  was  the  epn  of  Jupiter 
and  Seiiiete.  He  was  the  Osiris  of  the 
Egyptians,  from  whom  the  fables  respecting 
him  were  takri  by  the  GreeKS. 

BACCIFER^.  Berry-hearing  nianu. 

BACHELOR.  One  of  the  nrsl  degrees 
.n  the  liberal  arts  conferred  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

BACKGAMMON.  A  particular  game 
played  by  two  persons  with  tlie  help  of 
dice,  on  a  board  or  table  divided  into  parts, 

■>ereon  are  twenty-four  black  and  white 

.»ces  called  points. 
'  BACKPAINTING.    The    method    of 
painting  mezzotinto  prints  pasted  on  glass, 
with  oil  colours. 

BACKSTAFF.  An  instrument  formerly 
ised  in  taking  the  sun's  altitude.     It  was  I 
•o  called  because  the  back  of  the  observer 
Is  turned  towards  the  sun  when  he  makes  | 


the  observation.  This  quadrant  is  now 
su[>errieded  liy  more  accurate  instruments. 

BADGE.  An  exterior  oriiaii<eiilof  acoat 
of  arms,  originally  worn  by  tlie  retainers  or 
attendants  of  the  nobility.  It  fell  intodi*- 
use  ill  tlie  reign  of  Queen  Eli/iabeth. 

BADGER.  An  animal  ranked  by  Liit- 
nsus  under  the  Bear  tribe,  which  lives  in 
holes  by  tlie  sides  of  rivers,  or  in  the  delta 
of  rocks.  It  feeds  on  insects  or  berries 
burrows  during  winter,  hunts  by  night. and 
lies  conceaied  by  day 


BAG  (in  Commerce).  A  determinate 
quantity  of  goods  contained  in  a  bag,  vary- 
ing in  size,  according  to  the  article  or  the 
place,  from  three  to  four  hundred  weii:lit. 

BAGNIO.  Italian  for  a  bathing  liouse, 
with  conveniences  for  bathing,  sweating, 
and  otherwise  cleansing  the  body. 

BAGPIPE.  A  favourite  wind  instrument 
among  the  Highlanders.  It  consists  of  two 
parts  ;  namely,  a  leathern  bag,  and  pipes 
for  admitting  and  ejecting  the  air.  One  of 
the  pipes  called  the  drone,  witli  which  the 
base  part  is  played,  never  varies  its  tone. 
The  third  pipe  w  played  on  by  compressing 
the  bag  under  the  arm. 

BAIL  (in  Law).  Sureties  given  for  tlie 
appearance,  when  required,  of  a  person  in 
custody.  Common  Bail  is  in  common  con- 
cernment, where  any  sureties  jiay  be  ta- 
ken; but  Special  Bail  is  in  matters  of  greater 
importance,  where  special  surety  of  two  or 
more  persons  must  be  taken  according  to 
the  value  of  the  cause. 

B.\ILEE  (in  Law).  The  person  to  whom 
the  goods  of  the  one  that  is  bailed  are  de- 
livered. 

BAILIFF.  A  subordinate  magistrate  or 
officer  appointed  within  a  particular  ph>- 
vince  or  district,  as  bailifTs  of  hundreds, 
liberties,  courts  baron,  &.C.  Sheriffs'  bailiffn 
are  officers  appointed  by  the  sheriff  to  ex- 
ecute writs.  These,  being  hound  in  boad 
to  tlie  sheriff  for  the  due  execution  of  tiieic 


46 


RAl. 


o«ce,  are  called  buuiid  bailiffs,  vulgarly 
bum  ImililTM. 

B  A I M  \V  ICK.  The  hundred  or  any  other 

dwlrict  wli«rein  a  bailiff  has  a  jurisdiction. 

OAILMENT.  The  delivery  of  goods  in 

(nml  upon  a  contract  expressed  or  implied 

BAI.AINA.  The  whale  ;  a  geinis  of  the 

cliiss  iMaiiiinalia,  and  of  the  order  Ceti. 

BALANCE.  One  of  the  sini|>le  powers 
hi  mechanics  wliich  serves  to  find  out  the 
e<|uality  or  difference  of  \\-eight  in  heavy 
Ixidies.  it  is  a  peculiar  application  of  the 
lever  to  this  particular  purpose.  Tlie  com- 
mon baliince  consists  of  a  lever  with  equal 
arms,  at  tlie  extremity  of  each  of  which  is 
attacliud  a  scale.  Before  loading  it  with 
any  weights,  the  whole  ought  to  preserve 
a  perfect  equilibrium  ;  and  tliis  eqailibrhim 
must  arise  from  an  exact  distribution  of  the 
weight  of  each  arm  and  scale  of  llie  balance, 
as  well  as  from  the  equal  length  of  the 
former ;  for  on  this  depends  the  correctness 
of  its  action.  The  Assay-Ualarice  is  a  very 
delicate  kind  of  iialance,  used  fur  determine 
ing  the  exact  tsv^ight  of  minute  bodies.  It 
is  so  called  because  it  Is  particularly  used 
in  the  different  pntcesses  of  assaying  ;  it  is 
also  frequently  used  in  chymical  analysis. 
Balances  also  vary  in  their  furm,as  the  Re  iit- 
Ixiver  Balance,  the  Compound  Balance, 
consisting  of  a  combination  of  balances 
used  in  weighing  very  heavy  bodies  ;  also 
the  Danish  Balance,  a  kind  of  steel-yard. 
BALANCE  OF  TKADE.  A  term  in 
commerce,  denoting  the  e<iuallty  between 
the  value  of  the  commodities  bought  of 
tiireigners,  and  the  value  of  the  native  pro- 
ductions transported  into  other  countries. 
Balaucc  in  a  merchant's  account  is  when 
the  debtor  and  creditor  account  are  made 
even. 

BALE  (In  Commerce).  A  quantity  of 
merchandise  packed  up  in  cloth.  A  bale 
of  cotton  yaiin  is  from  three  to  four  hun- 
dred weight ;  of  raw  silk,  from  one  to  four 
hundred. 

BA LISTER,  or  File-Fi»h.  A  fish  bo 
called  from  the  resemblance  of  its  back- 
b(uie  to  a  (He.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
brilliancy  of  its  colours. 

BALL  AND  SOCKET.  An  instrument 
of  brass  with  a  [lerpetual  screw,  construc- 
ted to  move  in  any  direction.  It  is  used  in 
the  management  of  surveying,  and  astro- 
nomical nislrumerrts. 

BALLAST.  Gravel,  aand,orany  weighty 

matter,  put  into  a  ship's  hold,  to  poise  her 

•nJ  brills  hersufKciently  tow  in  the  water. 

BALLET.   A   theatrical  representation, 

eoni^istiiie  of  music  and  dancing. 

BALLET-MAHTER.  The  artist  whore- 


BAL 

giilates  the  performance  and  represent* 
tioii  of  the  ballet. 

BALLISTA.  A  warlike  engine  used  bv 
the  ancients  in  besieging  cities,  to  Uirow 
large  stones,  darts,  and  javelin*. 


BALLOON.  A  glolje  commonly  made 
of  lutestring,  and  covered  with  an  ehistic 
varnish,  to  render  the  substance  impervioua 
by  the  gas  When  filled  with  hydrogen  gas, 
from  ten  to  thirteen  times  lighter  than  at- 
mospheric air,  tlie  balloon  will  ascend,  and 
convey  heavy  bodies  suspended  to  it.  The 
weight  which  the  balloon  is  capable  of 
raising  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  (iiamelet 
of  tiie  sphere.  From  experiments  it  has  been 
found  that  a  cubic  foot  of  hydrogen  gag 
will  raise  about  one  ounce  avoirdu;>ois. 


BALLOT.  A  little  ball ;  alnothe  mannei 
of  giving  votes  at  an  election  by  putting 
little  balls,  black  or  white,  into  a  box. 

BALLUSTRADE.  A  series  or  row  of 
ballusters  or  small  pillars,  serving  as  ■ 
gimrd  or  fence  to  balconies  or  staircases. 

BALM,  or  BALSA.M.  A  liquid  resin  of 
a  whitish  or  yellow  colour,  a  fragrant  smeu 
and  a  |ienetrating  aromatic  taste.  It  flowi 
from  the  balsam  tree,  and  is  much  utett  k» 
the  femalai  io  Turkey  ai  a  cosmeiie. 


BAN 

BAt.M,  or  HALM  MINT.  A  perennial, 
•o  allied  from  the  fragrunce  of  iu  smell, 
ivhicli  reseiiililes  that  of  ItuUam. 

BALSAM  TREE.  A  tree  growing  in 
AntbiaaiiJ  Egypt,  the  bark  of  which  yields 
til**  balm  or  baUaiii  altiiveiiieiilioiied. 

BAl>tiAMiCS.  SdfUtning,  healing,  and 
c(ea  using, medicines. 

llA.\lBUO,  or  BAMBU.  An  Indian  reed 
with  larger  knots  than  the  common  reed. 
The  poorer  inhabitants  of  India  make  their 
dwellings  of  this  reed  :  paper  is  aSsu  made 
ot  tlie  same  ntaterial,  by  bruising  it  and 
tteeping  it  in  water  until  it  be  reduced  to 
a  paste. 

BA.\A.\A.  See  Plantain  Tree. 

BAND  (in  Architecture).  -Any  flat,  low 
member  or  moulding,  which  is  broad  but 
not  deep. 

BA.VDAXA  HA.NDKERCHIEFS.  A 
kind  of  silk  handkerchiefs  niaiiufnclured, 
in  India,  of  silk  and  cotton 

BA.\UEROLL  A  sea  term  for  a  little 
flag  in  form  of  a  gridiron,  that  used  to  be 
hung  on  the  masts  of  vessels. 

BAND  OF  PENSIONERS.  A  parti- 
cular company  of  gentlemen  bearing  hal- 
berds, and  nttendiiig  upon  the  person  of 
the  king  upon  S4.>lentii  occasions.  . 

BANDITTI.  A  band  of  outlawed  rob- 
bers, most  frequent  in  Italy 

BANDOLEER,  or  BANDOLIER.  A 
large  leathern  belt,  formerly  worn  over  the 
nght  shoulder,  and  hanging  under  the  le(X 
ana,  to  carry  some  warlike  weapon. 

BANDROL.  A  little  flag  or  streamer. 

BANDS.  Two  pieces  of  iron  nailed  upon 
liie  bows  of  the  saddle,  to  hold  them  tight. 

BANERET.  A  knight  made  in  the  held, 
whose  standard  was  converted  into  a  ban- 
Ber  which  he  could  display  in  the  king's 
army  as  the  barons  did. 

BANIAN  TREE  See  Isdian  Fig 

BANISII.MENT.  A  quitting  the  realm, 
either  voluntarily,  as  by  abjuration  ;  or 
compulsorily,  as  by  transportation. 

BANK  (in  Commerce).  An  establishment 
for  the  receiving  of  moneys  and  letting 
them  out  on  interest.  Banks  are  general- 
ly fomied  by  a  number  of  moneyed  per- 
sons, who,  for  carrying  on  the  business  of 
negotiating  bills  of  exchange,  and  dealing 
in  bullion,  &.C.  advance  a  considerable  sum 
as  ajoint  capital.  The  first  bank  was  es- 
tablished iM  Venice  about  1157,  and  the 
name  of  Banco  was  given  tn  it  in  Italian, 
from  the  bench  which  the  money-changers 
or  bankers  used  toiiit  upon  in  their  courses 
or  exchanges.  The  bank  of  Genoa  was 
Mtablished  in  13-45;  that  of  Amsterdam,  in 
t09  ;  that  of  Hambrug,  in  1619  ;  that  of 
Rotterdam,  in  16X     The  Bank  uf  £n(- 


BAN 


47 


land,  one  of  the  hist,  but  at  present  tha 
greatest  of  its  kind,  was  eslablished  by 
charter  in  the  reign  of  William  and  .Mary^ 
into  a  corporate  bi<dy,  by  the  title  of  Um 
Governor  and  Company  of  the  Bank  nt 
England.  Its  notes  form  the  currency  of 
the  kingdom  to  a  certain  extent,  and 
amount  to  between  twenty  and  thirty  mil- 
lions. The  Bank  of  England  is  also  the 
Government  Bank,  and  pays  the  interest 
of  the  national  debt. 

BANKER.  A  person  who  traffics  in 
money,  by  receiving  the  current  cash  of 
individuals  free  of  interest,  and  negoti.il- 
ing  with  it,  either  in  tlie  discount  of  bills 
or  the  advance  of  money  on  sufficient  s«- 
curities. 

BANKING-HOUSE.  Any  mercantile 
house  which  carries  on  tlie  business  c^T  a 
private  banker,  as  distinguished  from  we 
Bank,  by  which  is  understood  the  Bank 
of  England. 

BANKRUPT.  A  trader  who  fails  ox 
breaks,  so  as  to  be  unable  to  carry  on  his 
business  or  pay  his  debts.  In  Law,  a  bank- 
rupt is  one  who  has  committed  an  act  of 
bankruptcy,  so  as  to  bring  him  under  tlie 
protection  of  the  bankrupt  laws,  wliich  is 
allowed  to  none  but  actual  traders,  or  hiicIi 
as  buy  and  sell,  and  gain  a  livelihood  by 
so  doing.  It  is  derived  from  bancuni,  a 
bench,  and  rumpere,  to  break,  because  ihe 
bench  of  the  Italian  banker  or  money- 
changer is  said  to  have  been  broken  by 
way  of  infamy  when  he  failed. 

BANNER.  A  flag  or  standard  at  the 
end  of  a  lance. 

BA.WIANS.  A  religions  sect  among 
the  HindcKis,  who  believe  in  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls,  and  therefore  absta.'n  from 
eating  the  flesh  of  animals,  which  they 
carefully  preserve.  They  are  socaulioua 
of  having  coininuiiicalion  with  any  but 
their  own  caste,  that  if  any  of  another  na- 
tion or  tribe  has  drunk  out  of  or  touclted 
their  cup,  they  break  it. 

BA.N'NOCK.  A  sort  of  oaten  cake  in 
the  nortli  of  England,  baked  in  the  einliers 
or  on  a  hot  stone. 

BANNS  OF  MATRIMONV.  The  piib- 
lishing  of  marriage  contracts  in  the  church 
before  the  performance  of  the  marrii^ge 
ceremony.  By  the  ordinances  of  the 
church,  when  persons  are  to  be  married, 
the  banns  of  matrimony  shall  be  puhli^hed 
in  the  church  where  they  dwell  three 
several  Sundays  or  holydays  in  the  tim« 
of  Divine  Service  ;  and  if,  at  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  their  marriage,  any  man  do 
allege  any  impediment  or  precontract, 
consanguinity  or  affinity,  want  of  pirent't 
consent,  infancy,  ^c   why  ibey  liMmM 


48  BAR 

not  be  married  (and  become  bound  with 
nirelies  to  prove  Una  alleaiilion),  then  llie 
•oleiniiizalion  must  be  deferred  until  the 
inith  is  tried. 

BANTAM  The  name  of  a  domestic 
fowl  of  the  hen  tribe,  having  short  legs, 
and  the  shanks  well  leathered 


BAPTISM.  A  gacramenlof  the  Christian 

church,  adiniiiistered  either  by  immersion, 
that  is,  dipping  in  water,  or  by  sprinkling 
with  water. 

BAPTISTS.  A  denomination  of  profess- 
ing Christians,  who  practice  adult  baptism 
instead  of  that  of  children,  and  by  immer- 
■ion  rather  than  by  sprinkling. 

BAR  (in  Courts  of  Law).  The  place 
parted  off  by  a  bar  or  railing,  within  which 
counsellnrs  stand  to  piead  ;  also  the  pro- 
fesxion  of  a  barrister  or  pleader. 

BAR.  A  sea  term  for  a  rock  lying  before 
the  harliour  in  such  a  mariner  that  ships 
cannot  sail  over  except  upon  the  flood. 

BAR  (in  Music).  A  line  which  divides 
the  notes  into  equal  portions  in  re8|>ect  to 
iheir  duration. 

BAR  (in  Heraldry).  Oneof  the  honour- 
able ordinaries,  consisting  of  two  horizon- 
ai  lines  drawn  across  the  escutclieon. 


RARALtPTOX.  An  arbitrary  name 
among  logicians  for  an  indirect  mode  of 
the  first  Agure  of  syllogisms. 

BARATRY  (in  Commerce).  A  term 
med  when  the  master  of  a  vessel  or  the 
Hianners  cheat  the  owners  by  embezzling 
(keit goods, or  runnins  away  with  theship. 

BARB.  The  ptnnta  that  sUnd  back  in 


BAR 

the  head  of  an  arrow  or  fishing-hook,  to 
prevent  them  from  being  drawn  outeasilfj 
also  the  name  of  a  horse  of  the  Barbary 
breed,  remarkable  for  its  swiftness. 

BARBARA.  An  arbitrary  name  among 
logicians  for  the  first  mode  of  the  first  fig- 
ure of  syllogisms,  consisting  of  three  uni- 
versal propositions:  as,  'all  animals  are 
endued  with  sense  ;  all  men  are  aniniaU  ; 
ergo,  all  men  are  endued  with  sense.' 

BARBARISM.  A  rude  kind  of  language 
used  only  by  the  savage  or  unleiteibd  per- 
son. 

BARBEL  A  fish  of  the  carp  kind,  which 
lies  in  holes  near  the  banks,  and  feeds  on 
testaceous  animals,  worms,  &c.  It  has  its 
name  from  the  beards  or  wattles  under  iU 
nose. 


BARBER  One  who  follows  the  traue 
of  shaving  and  dressing  hair,  and  anciently 
also  that  of  bleeding,  whence  barbers  were 
called  Barber-Chiiuigeons,  and  used  a  pole 
as  a  sign  to  represent  the  staff  which  per- 
sons used  to  hold  when  they  were  bled. 
The  barbers  were  separated  from  the  sur- 
geons by  a  statute  in  the  reign  of  George 
the  Second. 

BARBERRY.  A  tart  berry,  the  fruit  of 
the  barberry  tree  ;  a  prickly  shrub. 

BARBICAN.  An  outer  defence  or  forti- 
fication to  a  city  or  castle,  used  as  a  fence, 
and  also  as  a  watchtower,  to  descry  the 
approach  of  an  enemy 

BARD.  A  sort  of  poets  among  the  Cauls, 
who  used  to  set  forth  the  deeds  of  heroea 
and  great  men. 

BARGAIN  AND  SALE  (in  Law).  An 
instniment  whereby  the  property  of  lands 
and  tenements  is,  for  valuable  considera- 
tion, transferred  from  one  person  to  anoth- 
er. It  is  called  a  real  contract  upon  a  val- 
uable consideration  for  (htssing  of  lands, 
tenements,  and  hereditaments,  by  deed 
indented  and  enrolled. 

BARGE.  A  very  large  boat  used  on  riven 
either  for  pleasure  and  st.ite,  as  the  royal 
barge  ;  or  for  trade,  as  the  coal  barge,  &.e. 

BARILLA.  A  kind  of  Spanish  alkalina 
salt  used  in  the  glass  trade. 


BAR 

«ARITO»  0.  A  low  pilch  of  ue  voice 
IM;lwe<>ii  bass  and  lennr. 

BARII'M.  A  rii«-i;il  gn  c.ill<^  by  Sir  H. 
Davy  tiled i!«ov«;rer,  which  Is (>(>lained  by 
llie  chymical  drcnm|insiti(>ii  of  baryles. 

BARK.  'I'lie.  likiM  or  covering  of  a  ligne- 
ous pUnl.  Uark-biiiiling  is  a  disease  in 
trees  cured  by  slitciiii;  the  bark. 

BARK  (in  Coimiierce).  A  sltifT  inanu- 
factiired  iii  India  of  the  bark  of  trees  ;  al^o 
the  Perttvian  or  Jesuit's  bark,  which  is 
procured  fnittt  tlie  Ciiicbolia  tree  growing 
ill  Quirii. 

BARK.  A  sea  term  for  a  sniall  vessel, 
oarticultirly  one  currjing  three  iuat<ts. 

BARKl.MJ.  'I'lie  process  of  |»eellng  tlie 
bark  oflf  the  trees,  wliicii  must  l>e  done  in 
tlie  moiiiii  af  May. 

B.VRLBY.  Asortof  corn  or  grain  which 
is  sown  in  March,  .April,  or  May,  and  suc- 
ceeds best  in  light  dry  8<iii«.  From  barley, 
wlieii  converted  into  malt,  beer  is  made. 

BARljIiY,  or  Peahl-Bablbv.  Barley 
•tripped  of  its  iirst  coal,  and  usedinmak- 
ine  a  diet  drink. 

BARLEYCORN.  The  least  of  otir  long 
laeitsures.  Iteing  the  third  of  ao  inch. 

BARLF.Y-MoW.  Tlie  place  where 
reaped  barley  is  laid  up. 

BARl-EY  WATER.  A  decoction  of 
^arl-ltariey. 

B.ARM,  or  Veait.  The  head  or  working 
out  of  beer,  which  is  used  as  a  ferment  to 
lighten  bread. 

BAR.V.  A  storehouse  for  grain,  in  which 
it  is  deposited  and  threshed. 

B.AR.V.ACLE.  A  species  of  shell-fiiih 
which  sticks  to  the  bottom  of  ships, 
rocks,  &c. 

BARM.ACLE-GOOSn.  A  large  water- 
Ciwl,  with  a  broad  flat  bill. 


BAR 


45 


BAROUTE.  A  store  of  the  pondemus 
order,  called  also  the  carbonite  of  barytes. 

BAR(IMKTi:i!.  An  instrument  for  mea- 
suring the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  in- 
vented by  Torricelli.  The  common  h.a- 
ronieter  is  a  glass  tulie  hermetically  sealed 
At  •^iie  eud,  and  tilled  with  mercury  so  as 


to  have  no  air  over.  Then  tli»  maker,  put- 
ting his  linger  on  the  open  end,  immersea 
it  in  a  b^soii  of  quicksilver  or  water  ;  auif 
on  his  removing  his  (iiiger,  the  miicksilver 
in  the  tiitie  endeavours,  by  its  own  weight, 
to  descend  into  the  t>ason,  but  by  the  preK- 
siire  of  the  external  air  on  tlie  surface  of 
the  fluid  in  the  bason,  and  no  air  lieing  io 
the  tulte  at  the  top,  the  quicksilver  will 
rise  from  26  to  31  inches  in  mercury,  and 
from  3n  to  33  inches  in  water.  In  dry 
weather,  the  air,  being  free  from  vapours, 
is  consequently  heavy,  and  presses  up  the 
quicksilver-,  but  in  moist  rtiiiy  weallier, 
tlie  atmosphere  being  charged  with  clouds 
and  fogs,  the  air  is  lighter,  and  presses 
with  less  force  on  the  quicksilver.  In 
high  winds  the  alniospliere  is  licht,  and 
tiie  quicksilver  low  ;  it  also  rises  binltei 
in  cold  weather  than  in  warm. 


BAROX.  In  England,  a  degree  of  nouiti- 
ty  next  to  a  viscount.  All  barons  are 
lords  of  parliament  and  peers  of  the  realm. 
Barims  were  originally  so  by  tenure,  that 
is,  by  virtue  of  the  baruuy  annexed  Ic 
their  lands  or  office. 

BARO.N  AND  FEME.  A  term  in  Law 
for  husband  and  wife,  who  ar«  de<'med  tnil 
one  person. 

BARON'S  CORONET  On  a  gold  circle 


six  pearls,  which  were  assi^ed  to  baroaf 

by  Kins  I'liarles  II.  alter  the  Restoration 

BARONET.  The  Iom  est  degree  of  here 


60 


V^ 


BAS 


lltary  hnniiKr  erentert  l»y  letters  patent. 
Ft  was  fiiuiided  by  .lames  I.  in  l(>U>. 

HAK(i.\«?  UF  Tilt;  KXftlE(lI)f;R. 
In  Kngl.iiiil  the  four  judges  whu  officiiilc  in 
the  Court  vt  exchequer   at  VAeslnnn.ster. 

R\lti).VY.  In  England,  the  hmioiir  and 
Urritury  which  gave  title  tn  a  Utrun,  in 
dinting  the  fees  and  lands  uf  Inrds,  both 
triiipiiral  and  spiritual. 

I!  VURACK."^.  I'liices  erected  for  the 
arcoinmodation  of  both  men  and  horses  in 
the  army. 

n ARP  AS.  A  substance  consisting  of  re- 
f>r>  ar.'l  oil,  which  exudes  from  the  wounds 
III  Hr  trees  in  winter. 

UARRATOR  (in  Law).  A  common 
mover  of  suits  and  quarrels,either  in  courts 
or  elsewhere. 

HARREL.  A  cask  or  veesel  for  holding 
liquor,  that  is,  thiriy-op.e  and  a  h;itf  gallons 
«f»viie,&c.  and  thirty -two  gallons  of  beer. 

IIAHREL.  The  cylinder  of  a  watch, 
•bou'  which  the  spiring  is  wrupped. 

BARRIER.  A  kin«  of  fpnce,  composed 
of  great  stakes,  and  serving  to  defsnd  the 
eiilrtiice  cf  i  passitge. 

RARRISTER.  In  Eng,«nd  a  counsellor 
ailniiiii-d  to  plead  at  ib«  ^ar.  An  inner 
l!;irris!er  is  one  who  ii^merJMtnt,  or  king's 
ciiiiMsel,  and  is  admitted  to  plead  within 
(lie  liiir ;  but  an  outer  hamster  is  one  who 
pteuils  without  the  bar. 

HARROW  ^ln  Ilusbjindry).  An  iinple- 
liieiit  of  conveyance  with  a  single  wheel, 
anil  driven  with  the  two  hands.  It  is 
made  of  different  forms,  according  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  i;:  intended  ;  the  com- 
mon liarrow,  called  the  wheelbarrow,  is 
rrpre.-*eiited  uiiderne:Ah. 


BARROW.  A  large  hillock  or  mound, 
•f  which  many  are  to  be  met  with  In  rtif 
frrenf  parts  of  England,  and  are  supfxised 
•nf>e  the  tumuli  or  toinhs  of  the  Romans. 

BARTER.  The  exchiincins  oiifcommo- 
dily  tor  another  ;  also  the  rule  in  Arithnie- 
•jc  by  which  the  proportionate  value  of 
coiiimodilies  is  found. 

^B«AR  YTES.  A  sort  of  ponderous  earth, 
very  biitlle,  ami  jierfeclty  «oliilile  in  boil- 
ing siilpliiiric  and.  It  is  cnm|Miunded  of 
nxygen  and  barium. 

BASAI/r  A  >"ri  of  arnilla-eous  earth. 
CiMiaisting  cf  sihi'u,  with  n  rcrtain  portion 
•(  alumina  and  oxyd<;  of  iron,  lime,  anil 


BAS 

nmcnesla.    It  is  always  found  neat  ?« 

canoes. 

BASE  (In  Architecture)  The  fool  cf  • 
pillar,  b>  which  it  is  sustained  ;  in  Geome- 
try, the  base  of  a  ligiire  is  the  lowest  plaia 
side,  or  that  on  which  it  stands. 

U.VSE  (ill  L'hyniistry).  The  ineit  sub- 
stance which  coinliines  with,  and  is  acted 
upon,  by  the  more  volatile  and  active  men- 
strua, a.s  the  alkalies,  earths,  and  metallic 
OTydes,  which  are  the  principal  ingredi- 
ents in  the  formation  of  salts. 

BASE  LINE  (in  I'ersjtective).  The 
Ciiminon  section  of  a  picture,  and  the  geo- 
metrical plane. 

BASEME.NT.  A  coiitiniini  base  ex- 
tended atinig  any  building,  as  the  base- 
ment or  lower  story  of  a  house. 

B.ASE  TE.M'RE,  or  B.*»e  Estatb  (IB 
Law).  A  holding  by  villaiiage,  or  other 
customary  service. 

BASHAW,  or  Pacha.  The  title  given 
to  the  grand  officers  of  the  court  at  Con- 
stantinople -,  as  the  capudan  bashaw,  the 
adiniral  or  commander  at  .«ea  ;  bostangi 
bashaw,  the  chief  oBicer  of  the  garden,&c 
Their  decrees  of  dignity  were  marked  by 
their  bearing  one,  two,  or  three  horses  tails. 
The  ruler  ofTri|M)li  is  called  Bashaw. 

BASIL.  The  sloping  edge  of  a  chisel 
or  of  the  iron  of  a  plane. 

B.ASI  L.  A  plant  which  has  an  aromatic 
smell. 

BASILICON.  An  ointment,  consistins 
of  resin,  pilch,  oil,  wax,  &c. 

BASILISK.  A  serpent  of  the  lizard 
tribe,  with  remarkably  piercing  eyes,  and 
a  white  spot  on  its  head,  resembling  a 
diamond.  It  was  formerly  called  acock^ 
trice,  and  fabled  to  be  produced  from  the 
eggs  of  a  cock. 

B.ASIN.  Any  hollow  place  capable  of 
holding  liipiids.  Basin  of  a  dock,  a  place 
where  the  water  is  confined  by  double 
tlooduates.  'I'tie  basin  of  a  haven  is  thai 
part  which  oi>ens  from  a  narrow  passage 
into  a  sp.irions  rece|Uatle.  The  basin  of  a 
river,  inrlndes  the  whole  valley  whicil 
empties  its  waters  into  the  river  or  ita 
brtinches. 

BASKET.  A  vessel  made  either  of  ruslK 
es,  splinters,  willows,  osiers,  or  any  othei 
flexible  material  th.-»t  can  be  inlerwov»H. 
To  render  osiers  fit  for  use,  they  must  be 
stKikeil  for  some  time.  I'hcse  Ihnt  are  in- 
tended forthe  finer  kindof  work,  as  wasb- 
iiig  bsiskets  or  niurkel  baskets,  and  the 
like,  must  be  pet-led  while  they  are  green, 
and  then  siee|u-d.  Ilnmjiers,  and  the 
courser  kind  of  work,  iti>  not  require  that 
preparaliim  :  basket  makine  was  one  of 
the  arts  that  was  earned  to  a  c«iii8iderabU 


BAT 

degree  of  perfection  aznong  the  ancient 
Britons. 

BASKING  SHARK.  A  species  of  the 
■hark,  winch  lies  much  on  ihe  .■<iirl';ice  of 
the  water,  ba-<king  in  the  sun.  It  grows  to 
a  prodigiiMis  size,  bnt  is  imt  very  lierce. 

BAS-KKLIEF.  S^ee  IJa«<o  Kelikvo. 

B.\^^S.  A  sort  of  ciisliioii  niaile  of  rush 
or  straw. 

BASS  (in  Music).  The  low<'st  or  ileepest 
part  of  any  composition.  'I'liis  note  is  play- 
ed on  the  largest  pipes  or  >lrings  of  instru- 
ments of  the  common  size,  as  the  organ, 
;me,  ice,  or  on  the  largest  kind  of  instru- 
ments. The  hxss  is  tile  principal  part  of  a 
musical  composition,  and  the  foniidatiim 
of  harmony,  whence  it  is  called  the  fun- 
damental lnLss.  Thorongli  liass  is  that 
which  includes  the  funilaniental  rules  of 
composition.  Ground  hxss  is  that  which 
c<miniences  with  some  suhject  of  its  own, 
that  is  continually  repe.ated  throughout 
the  niovenient,  whilst  the  upiter  parts 
pursue  a  separate  air. 

BASS  CLl  1"K,  or  F  Cli  kf  The  charac- 
ter marked  thus, 


•nd  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  stave  In 
which  the  bass  or  lower  notes  are  placed. 

BASSO  RELIF.VO.  In  English,  baas- 
relief,  a  sort  of  sculpture  in  which  the 
figures  are  represented,  as  projecting  not 
far  above  the  plane  on  which  they  are 
formed.  Figures  cut,  are  said  to  be  done 
in  relief,  and  when  the  work  is  low  or  flat 
it  is  called  bass-relief,  »ir  basso  relievo,  in 
distinction  from  alto  re'ievo.  and  mezzo 
relievo. 

BASSOON.  A  musical  wind  ins'~-'inr>»nt 
blown  with  a  reed,  and  has  eleven  hoies. 
It  serves  to  play  tiie  bass  part  in  concerts. 

BASS  VIOL.  A  stringed  musical  in- 
itrninent  of  the  same  shape  as  a  violin,  but 
much  larger. 

BASS  VOICE.  The  gravest  and  deepest 
of  the  male  voices. 

BASTARD  (in  I,aw).  One  bom  out  of 
wedlock,  who  cannot  inherit. 

BASTILE.  A  fortress  in  Paris,  which 
was  used  as  a  prison,  and  destroyed  during 
the  French  revolution. 

BASTINADO.  A  mode  of  punishment 
usual  among  the  Turks,  of  beating  the 
offender  on  the  soles  of  the  feet. 

BASTION.  A  large  nnuss  of  earth,  stand- 
ing out  frem  a  riinpart,  of  which  it  forms 
tile  prin:ipal  part. 

BAT.  An  animal  resemhling  both  abird 


B.\T 


81 


and  a  mouse.  It  has  wing4  ^  -t  of  feather*, 
bnt  of  a  skin  distended,  and  flies  only  at 
niglil.  It  lays  no  eggs,  liut  brings  forth 
its  y  lung  alive,  and  suckles  them. 


RATABLE  GROUND.  Land  formerly 
so  called,  vvhi-h  lay  between  England  and 
Scotland,  and  was  the  subject  of  debate  to 
whom  it  belonged. 

BA  TE.MENT  (inP-r^ntry).  The  wast- 
ing of  stutf,  in  cutting  it  for  the  purpose 
designed. 

BAT-FOWLING.  A  mode  of  catching 
birds  at  night,  when  they  are  at  roost. 

BATH.  Any  receptacle  for  water  whiih 
is  convenient  for  bathing  ;  also  any  artifi- 
cial contrivance  which  is  to  supply  the 
place  of  a  bath,  as  a  shower  bath,  or  iin 
apparatus  for  applying  water  to  the  body 
In  the  form  of  a  shower  ;  a  vapour  bath, 
or  a  mode  of  conveying  moisture  to  the 
body  by  means  of  steam  ;  a  medicinal 
bath  is  that  in  which  certain  chemical 
preparations  are  mingled. 

BATH  (in  Chemistry).  A  contrivance  bj 
which  heat  Is  conveyed  to  any  substance ; 
also  in  the  refining  of  metals,  the  fusion  of 
the  metallic  matter  is  called  a  hath. 

BATH,  KNIGHTS  OF  TIIE.  In  Eng- 
land, a  military  order  of  knighthood,  re- 
-itored,  if  not  instiliiled,  by  Henry  IV 
These  knights  wear  a  red  ribbon,  and  their 
motto  is,  Triajuncta  in  uno,alludiiigtolhe 
three  cardinal  virtues,  faith,  ho[»e,  and 
charity,  which  every  knight  ought  to 
possess. 

B.ATON.  The  stafl^or  truncheon,  given 
as  a  symbol  of  authority,  to  generals  in  the 
French  anny. 

BATTA.  Allowances  made  to  tro.  ps  in 
India.  Dry  batta  is  money  given  in  lieu  of 
rations  ;  wet  batta,  what  is  given  in  kind 

BATTALION.  A  body  of  foot  soldiers 
of  from  fiOn  to  800  men. 

BATRACHIA.  An  order  of  animal.", 
including  frogs,  toads,  salamauder«,  ami 
other  reptiles  having  a  naked  body  wi  h 
two  or  four  feet. 

UATTE-N'.  A  scantling  or  piece  of  wood- 
en stuff,  from  two  to  four  inches  broad,  and 
one  inch  thick. 

BATTERING.  A  cannonade  of  heavy 
ordriiuice  against  any  fortress  or  winks. 

HATTr.RING-RA.M  A  military  n^ 
chine,  with  whicb  the  ancient*  efTecte^ 


52 


BAT 


breaches  in  fortifications.  These  engines 
were  variously  c«.nstriicte(l,and  (if  different 
■izes.  Plutarch  iitfnrins  us  that  Marc  An- 
tony, in  tlie  i'arthiaii  war,  used  a  ram  of 
B(>  feet  long  ;  and,  according  to  Vitruvius, 
they  were  sometimes  lOti,  and  even  120 
feet  long,  and  weighed  100,00(J  His.  Tills 
engine  was  frequently  used  in  tlie  four- 
teenth century,  and  occasionally  for  other 
purposes  besides  that  of  war  in  later  \ten- 
mis.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  is  said  to  have 
employed  ii  in  demolishing  the  walls  of 
Ute  old  church  of  St.  i'aul,  previously  to 
tiia  rebuilding  it. 


BATTERY  (in  L.aw).The8triking,beat- 
Ing,  or  offering  any  violence  to  the  person 
of  another,  as  hy  spitting  in  his  face,  or 
any  way  touching  him  in  anger,  or  vio- 
lently jostling  against  him.  It  is  distin- 
guislied  from  an  assault,  inasmuch  as  the 
latter  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  hitting, 
or  blow.  There  may  be  an  assault  with- 
out battery,  but  there  cannot  be  a  battery 
without  an  assault. 

BATTERY  (in  Military  Affairs).  Any 
raised  place  on  which  cannon  are  placed. 
Batteries  are  of  different  kinds,  as  open 
batlerios,  which  are  exposed  to  view  •, 
masked  batteries,  which  are  hidden  by  a 
breastwork  ;  cross  batteries,  two  batteriM 
firing  alhwart  each  other  on  the  same  ob- 
ject, &.C.  A  floating  battery  is  a  battery 
erected  on  simple  rafts,  or  the  hulls  ofships 

BA'I'TERY  (in  Electricity).  A  comblna. 
tien  of  coated  surfaces  of  glass  jars,  so 
cobnerted,  that  they  may  be  charged  at 
once,  and  discharged  by  a  common  con- 
ductor. A  battery  or  pile,  is  also  an  ap|ia- 
ratUK  employed  for  accumulating  the  elec- 
tricity <if  galvanism. 

BATTLEDORE.  An  instrument  used 
«lther  with  a  shuttlecock,  or  a  tennis  ball. 

BATTLEME.N'TS.  Notches  or  inden- 
ture! in  the  top  ol  a  wall  or  building  like 
•mtiraaunM,  to  V>ok  liiruugh. 


BE  A 

BATl'LE  AXE.  An  «inclent  sort  of 
weapon,  having  an  axe  and  a  pol4t  at  lh» 
end,  for  cutting  or  thiusting 


BATTON.  A  staff  or  truncheon,  us«<l 
hy  the  English  in  coaU  of  arma,  tn  denote 
illegitiiaacy 


BAWLING  The  noiM  of  dofs  in  sport- 
ing, who  are  too  busy  before  they  find  ih« 
scent. 

BAY.  Any  inlet  of  the  sea  between  two 
capes,  or  promontories,  where  ships  may 
ride  ;  it  is  defined  in  geography,  an  arm 
of  tlie  sea  stretching  inland. 

BAY,  or  Ba  V  Tree.  'I'he  female  laurel 
tree,  an  evergreen,  which  grows  wild  in 
Italy  and  France. 

BAY.  A  colour  in  hoiaea  resembling  the 
dried  bay  leaf. 

BAYONET.  A  short  triangular  daeijer, 
made  to  fix  on  tiie  muzzle  of  a  firelock  or 
musket. 

BAY-SALT.  A  salt  which  is  made  from 
seawater  in  France,  by  letting  the  water 
into  pits  or  basins,  where,  hy  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  it  is  evaporated,  and  the  residue 
is  converted  into  crystals  of  salt. 

BA/AAR.  A  place  mostly  covered,  and 
fitted  up  with  shops  in  Eastern  countries  . 

BAZA,  or  BAZAT.  Jerusalem  cotton,  a 
flnc-Kimu  cotton,  grown  iu  Palestine. 

BDELLIUM.  The  gum  of  an  Arabian 
tree  abo\it  the  size  of  an  olive  tree.  The 
gum  resembles  wax,  and  consists  of  resin, 
gum,  cerasin,  and  volatile  oil. 

BEACH.  The  seashore,  or  margin  ot  the 
sea,  which  is  wa.*lied  by  the  tides. 

BEACON.  A  signal  by  fire,  placed  on 
some  eminence,  to  prevent  shipwrecks,  or 
give  some  alarm. 

BEAD  (in  Architecture).  A  rt  und  mould- 
ing, carved  in  short  embossments,  like  the 
bead  of  a  necklace. 

BEADLE,  or  BEDEL.  In  England  an 
officer  of  a  court,  of  the  university,  or  of 


BEA 

any  corporate  body,  who  acts  as  a  mes- 
senger and  atleiidd  to  keep  order. 

BEAU  PROOF.  A  iiieiliod  of  deter- 
mining the  slrentrih  of  spirituuud  liigiiurs, 
from  the  continuance  of  Uie  bubliles  or 
beadri  on  the  surface. 

BEAU  TKEE.  A  shrub,  the  fruit  of 
which  IS  a  nut,  that  is  iHired  through,  and 
strung  a.s  beads  by  the  Koiiiaii  Catholics 
in  Spain  and  Tortugal. 
BE.^GEE.  A  sort  of  hjniing  dog. 
BEAK,  or  Beak-head  or  a  Ship.  That 
part  of  it,  which  is  without  before  the  fore- 
castle, and  serves  by  way  of  ornament. 
Among  the  ancients  it  w:is  a  piece  of 
brass,  like  a  bird's  beak. 

BEAM.  The  largest  piece  of  wood  in  a 
building,  which  is  its  main  supiHirt ;  in 
Naval  Architecture,  beams  are  tiie  large 
main  timbers  tliat  stretch  across  a  ship  to 
tupport  a  deck. 

BEA.M  COMP.VSS.  An  instrument  con- 
•isting  of  a  square  wooden  or  brass  beam, 
having  sliding  sockets,  used  for  describing 
large  circli». 

BEAM-TREE.  A  tree  which  prows  to 
the  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  so  called, 
because  it  is  particutrirly  fitted  for  making 
axletreesand  the  like. 

BEAN.  An  edible  pulse,  of  which  there 
are  several  sorts,  as  the  kidney  or  French 
bean,  the  broad  Windsor  bean,  the  horse 
bean,  &c. 

BE.AR.  A  wild  beast,  covered  with 
slia&gy  hair,  and  liavinc  booked  claws  for 
climbing  trees.  It  feeds  on  honey,  insects, 
and  carcasses,  and  lies  torpid  during  the 
winter.  The  black  bear  is  a  native  of  the 
north  of  Europe,  Asia  and  America  ;  but 
the  polar  Iwar,  which  is  wli'le,  iives  with- 
in tlie  arctic  circle.  Tne  brown  bear  is 
found  in  Europe,  but  not  in  America. 
Asia  has  several  varie'-es  ol  the  bfar. 
The  gtisly  bear  figured  bsiow,  is  found 
only  near  the  Rocky  mountains  in  the 
United  Slates. 


BEA 


U 


BEAR'SBREECn  An  herb,  from  the 
irnooth  leaved  sort  of  which,  is  extracted 
%  mucilaee. 

BEARU  (with  Botanists'!.  Theiinderlip 
•t  a  labiated  Aower,  and  in  corn  and  grass, 
5* 


that  hair  nr  bristle  which  serve*  to  defend 
the  ear,  as  in  barley,  Tye,  wTieat,  and  oat» 

BEAKUOF  A  COMET  (in  Astronomy). 
Tlie  rays  which  a  comet  emits  towards 
that  part  of  the  heavens,  to  which  its 
course  seems  to  direct  it. 

BEARD  OF  A  lloRSE  (in  Farriery). 
The  chuck,  or  that  part  under  tlie  lower 
jaw,  on  the  outside,  and  alHwe  the  chin, 
whicli  lieurs  ,.,»■  curb  of  the  bridle. 

BEAR-GARUE.\.  A  place  formerly  set 
apart  in  England  for  the  baiting  of  bears 

BEARER  OF  A  BILI.  (in  Commerce). 
The  person  in  whose  hands  the  bill  is,  and 
in  favour  of  whom  the  last  indorsement 
was  made. 

BEARERS.  Posts  or  brick  walls,  which 
are  trimmed  up  between  two  ends  of  a 
piece  of  tinilier,  to  shorleii  itsl>eariiig,or  to 
prevent  its  l>earing  Willi  the  whole  weight 
at  the  ends  only. 

BEARING  (in  Architecture).  The  dis- 
tance between  the  bearer,  or  support,  aiid 
each  end  of  tlie  timber. 

BEARING.  A  sea  term,  to  denote  the 
situation  of  any  distant  object  with  regard 
to  the  ship's  position,  whether  alie.-id, 
astern,  or  abreast,  &c. 

BEARING  (in  Heraldry).  Whatever  is 
borne  in,  or  fills  the  escutcheon. 

BEAT.  The  walk  or  round,  which  a 
watchman  has  to  take  at  stated  intervals, 

BEATING  TI.ME  (in  Music).  That  mo- 
tion of  t)ie  hand  or  foot,  by  which  some 
|>erson  marks  and  regulates  the  movements 
of  the  performers. 

BEATS  (in  a  Clock  or  Watch).  The 
strokes  made  by  the  pallets  or  fangs  of  the 
spindle. 

BEAVER.  An  amphibious  four  footed 
animal,  that  lives  on  the  hanks  of  rivers 
and  unfrequeuted  lakes,  and  is  remarkable 


for  its  insennity  in  building  its  habitation. 
It  walks  slowly,  swims  dexterously,  eats 
sitting  on  its  hniinches,  and  conveys  ita 
food  to  its  mouth  with  its  fore  paws.  This 
animal  is  valued  Inith  for  its  fur  and  for 
the  oil  which  it  yields,  called  castor  oil. 


54 


BEE 


BEAVER.  That  part  ofllielielmct  which 
ietetuU  Ihe  siiiht,  and  (ipetis  in  front. 

BEAU  AlUAUE.  'Ihe  g.iy  fashionable 
world. 

BKUdnOunnery).  Alhick  plank  which 
Uea  under  a  piece  uf  urdiiance,  on  the  car- 
riage. 

BED  (in  Maaonry).  A  range  or  course 
of  at(>ne8. 

BED  (in  Mineralogy).  A  stratum  or 
layer  of  any  earth  or  stone 

BEUOKA  RIVEU.  'Ihe  bottom  of  a 
channel,  in  which  the  slreiini  or  current 
uaually  Aows. 

BEE.  An  insect  which  carries  on  the 
operation  of  ni:il<in|!  honey  and  wax.  Beeg 
begin  to  swarm,  tliut  is  to  furni  new  colo- 
nies, in  May  or  June,  according  to  llie  state 
of  the  weatlier.  The  swarm  consists  of  a 
female,  calleil  the  queen,  who  is  distin- 
guished by  her  size  ;  the  drones,  who  are 
supposed  to  be  males,  that  do  not  work  *, 
and  the  mules,  or  common  bees,  who  are 
of  iieiilier  msx,  aud  do  the  work  uf  the  hive. 


BEEHIVE.    A  particular  kind  of  box 
or  basket  In  which  been  are  kepi. 


^^F.ER.  A  drink  made  of  malt  and  hops 
ky  the  process  of  brewing  ;  it  is  of  three 
kin.ls,  namely,  stnmg  beer,  ale,  and  table 
beer,  or  small  beer. 

REESTINOS.  A  tenn  in  tlushandry 
for  the  first  milk  taken  from  a  cow  after 
•he  calvKS. 

BEET.  A  carden  herb  and  root,  which 
b  thick  and  fleshy.  The  leaves  are  used 
as  potherbs,  and  the  root  is  boiled  for  the 
table. 


BEL 

BEETLE.  The  scarabieusof  Linnaua 
well  ktiown  insect,  produced  from  the  lar 
va:  or  grubs  tliat   live  under   ground.     It 
h:is  six  feet,  is  hairy  at  one  end,  and  Uvea 
In  dry  decayed  wood,  Sec, 


BEETLE.  A  large  wooden  hammer  (vt 

driving  palisadoes. 

BELFRY.  ■]  hat  part  ofa  church steepie 
in  which  the  bells  are  hung. 

BELL.  The  well  known  metallic  ma- 
chine, which  is  ranked  among  mufical 
instniments  ;  it  consists  of  three  parts,  the 
body,  or  barrel,  the  clai>per,  and  the  ear, 
or  cannon.  'I'lie  use  of  bells  in  churr'ies 
was  introduced  into  England,  in«l'«  "^'•^th 
century.  They  were  cimimonly  tt^t**!"**! 
before  they  were  hung 


BEl,LE55  LETTRES.    A  French  tern 

for  polite  literature. 

BELI.ICEIiKNT.  An  epithet  appliei 
to  states  that  are  at  war. 

BELL  METAL.  A  metal  employed  ii 
the  manut'acture  of  bells,  which  usnall) 
consists  of  tliree  parts  of  copper  and  one  ol 
tin. 

BELLO.NA.  The  goddess  of  war,  an« 
sister  of  Mars. 

BELLOWtS.  A  machine  fur  blowing  th« 
fire.  This  machine  is  so  contrived  as  u, 
expire  and  respire  the  air  alternately,  by 
enlarging  and  contracting  its  capacity 
The  air  which  enters  the  bellows  is  com 
pressed  when  they  are  closed,  and  flowa 
out  of  the  pipe  with  a  velocity  proportion 
ed  to  the  force  by  which  it  is  compressed. 
Tlie  bellows  of  smith i  aud  founders  are 
worked  by  a  rocker. 


BEN 

BELLOWS  OF  AN  OR(J.\.\.  The 
pneumatic  pari  nf  the  iniichiiie,  by  which 
It  is  supplied  wuh  wiinl.  The  belldwsuf 
I  lari;e  urg.tii  are  worked  by  a  man  called 
the  blower  ;  those  ul' smaller  or^aiid  by  the 
ftw'  -.if  the  player. 

HKLI..Uili.  The  sixth  order  nf  aiiiinaU 
in  the  Lliwiifaii  system,  liav  !;■>;  tlieu  I'eet 
hoofed,  as  the  eipius,  or  horse  i  sus,  the 
swine  ;   the  hi|>p<vp<itamiis,  and  the  tapir. 

BCLT.  A  girdle  for  hanging  a  swurd  or 
any  other  weapon  in. 

BKLT  (in  Heraldry).  A  badge  of  the 
knightly  order,  given  to  a  person  wtiea  be 
was  raised  to  the  knighthood. 

BELT  tin  Surgery).  A  bandage  applied 
rniind  the  body. 

BELT  (ill  .Ma-sonry).  A  range  or  course 
of  bricks  projecting  from  the  rest. 

BELTEIN.  An  ancient  festival  in  Ire- 
land, celebrated  on  the  '21st  of  June,  the 
gununer  solstice,  when  lires  were  madeon 
•he  hips  of  the  hills. 

BELTS,  or  Faicijc.  Two  zones  or 
girdles  round  the  planet  Jupiter,  more 
lucid  than  the  other  parts  of  his  body,  and 
terminated  by  parallel  straiiilit  lines,  some- 
times broader  and  sometimes  nairower, 
varying  both  in  magnitude  and  position. 
These  belts  were  tirst  observed  at  Na- 
ples, by  Zuppi  and  Bartidi,  two  Jesuits. 

BE.N'CH.  A  seat  of  justices,  or  judges, 
as  the  King's  Bench,  at  Westminster,  Eng. 

BENCHER.  In  England,  a  lawyer  of 
the  oldest  standiiis  in  the  inns  of  court 

BEND  (III  Heraldry).  One  of  the  ten 
honounible  ordinaries,  drawn  from  the 
dexter,  or  right  corner,  at  the  top  of  the 
escutcheon,  to  the  sinister  base,  or  left 
corner,  at  the  bottom.  It  is  supposed  to 
represent  a  shoulder  belt,  or  scarf,  and  to 
ihow  the  wearer  to  be  valiant  in  war.  It 
is  sometimes  called  a  bend  dexter,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  bend  sinister,  which  is 
irawn  from  the  left  side  of  the  sliield  to 
be  right. 


BER 


Si 


BEND.  A  sea  term  for  the  knot,  hy 
which  one  rope  is  fastened  to  another  or 
to  an  ancnnr. 

BE.\I)I.\(;.  A  sea  term,  for  the  tying 
wo  ci.bles  or  ropes  together,  >r  to  anything 
•Ise 


BENDING  (in  Physiology,.  The  reduc- 
ing a  body  to  a  curved  or  crooked  form 
The  bendin>;  of  boards,  planks,  &c.  is 
effected  by  means  of  heal,  whellier  by  boil- 
ing or  otherwise,  by  which  the  fibres  be- 
come relaxed  and  flexible. 

BENUS  IN  A  ^JI1I^.  The  outermost 
timbers  of  the  side,  to  set  the  foot  on  iu 
climbing  up  the  side.  They  are  reckoned 
from  the  water,  tirst,  second,  and  third 
bend,  and  are  of  great  service  in  strength- 
ening the  ship,  as  into  them  the  beams, 
knees,  and  foothooks  are  bolted. 

BE.NEFICE.  In  England,  any  ecclesias- 
tical living,  but  piirticularly  rectories  and 
vicarages. 

BEN  EFIT  OF  CLERGY.  In  England, 
a  privilege  in  law,  at  first  peculiar  to  the 
clergy,  but  in  after  times  made  common  to 
the  laity.  When  any  one  was  convicted 
ofcert<-tiii  crimes,  he  had  a  book  given  him 
to  read,  and  if  the  ordinary  or  his  deputy 
pronounced  these  words,  '  l^egit  ut  cleri- 
cus,  he  reads  like  a  clergyman,  or  scho- 
lar,' he  was  oiilv  burnt  in  the  hand,  and 
set  free  for  the  tirst  offence,  otherwise  he 
wa.<<  to  suffer  death. 

BEN/ol.\  A  dry  solid  resin,  of  a 
fragrant  sme'.l,  produced  by  incision  from 
the  styrax,  an  Indian  tree.  It  is  brought 
to  us  from  the  East  Indies,  particularly 
Siamand  the  islands  of  Java  anil  .'Sumatra, 
in  masses  of  various  si/.es,  composed  of 
small  granules  of  a  whitish  or  yellowish 
colour,  with  a  purple  cast  on  the  surface. 
It  Is  very  intlammahle,  and  ditrnses  a  Ira- 
grant  smell  while  biiriiiii!!,  and  so  in  like 
manner  when  rubbed  in  llieli:ilid.  \\  hen 
the  lieiizoiii  tree  is  six  years  old,  the  na- 
tives cut  it  in  several  places,  in  an  ob- 
lique direction,  and  the  lirii/.oin  tlowa 
from  the  woumls.  Ben/.oin  is  used  by 
perrniners  in  inakiiig  sweet  Unas,  6lc.  and 
was  formerly  very  much  esteemed  «s  ar 
expectorant.  1'he  tree  was  introduced 
from  Virginia  into  England. 

BEHI'EST.  A  legacy  ;  whtit  is  be- 
qiie.-ithed  or  left  by  will. 

BEKENICE't;  ilAlR.  A  constellation 
in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

BERGAMOT.  A  line  sort  of  pear 
which  is  of  two  sorts,  namely,  the  sum- 
mer berganiot  and  the  Hutnmii  liergamot. 

BERGAMOT  (in  Chemistry).  A  fragrant 
essence,  extracted  from  a  I'niit  which  is 
produced  by  ingraftinca  linini  li  ofalrmon 
tree,  upon  the  stork  of  a  tieruann.t  pear. 
This  essence  is  got  by  cutting  the  external 
rind  of  the  fruit  Into  small  pieces,  and 
sipiee/.ing  ilieiii  into  a  elass  vessel,  in  tn« 
same  <naiiiier  as  ilie  juice  of  a  lemun  la 


r» 


BIB 


•queezed  out,  Ity  which  means  nn  a't'ierial 
oil  is  procured  of  a  very  fragrant  smell. 

BERRY.  A  round  fruit,  for  the  most 
part  soft,  and  covered  will)  a  thin  skin, 
containing  seeds  in  a  |iul|iy  substance. 

RERYL..  A  precious  stone,  which,  in 
tU  purity,  is  of  a  perfectly  seagreen  colour, 
and  on  that  account  called  aqua  marina. 
Beryl  is  also  (in  Painting)  the  seagreen 
colour,  in  imitation  of  this  stone. 

BETA.  The  sexond  letter  in  the  Greek 
alphabet. 

BETEIj.  a  «ort  of  pepper  plant,  the 
leaf  of  which  is  universally  chewed  by  the 
Couthern  Asiatics,  to  sweeten  the  breath 
and  strengthen  the  stomach.  It  is  a  slen- 
d^r-siemined  climbing  plant. 

BEVEl^.  An  instrument  with  a  mov- 
able tongue,  to  itrike  angles  of  a  greater 
or  Itsea  inagailude. 


BEVELLING  (in  Carpentry).  Hewing 
timner  with  a  proper  or  regular  curve. 

BEY.  An  olficer  of  high  rank  among 
the  TurKs,  inferior  to  none  but  the  pacha. 
The  ruler  of  Tunis,  liai;  this  title. 

BE/ANTS.  Round  flat  pieces  of  bul- 
lion wiinout  any  impression,  which  are 
supiMtsed  to  have  been  the  current  coin  of 
Byzantium.  This  coin  was  probably  in- 
troduced into  coat  armour  by  those  who 
went  to  tne  wars. 


rr 


r  i-  f 


BEZOAX.  A  medicinal  stone,  hrouglit 
from  the  East  and  West  Indies,  which  was 
formerly  reckoned  a  sovereign  antidote 
against  poisons.  It  is  found  to  be  a  morbid 
concretion  in  the  intestines  of  some  ani- 
mals. 

BIBLE,  The  collection  of  the  l>ook8  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament.  The  Old 
Testament  was  first  translated  by  the  72 
Interpreters,  and  thence  called  theSeptiia- 
flnt:  of  the  Latin  versions,  that  of  .''t.  Je- 
rome ws«  confirmed  by  the  nmnril  of 
I'MBt  (<H  vulg.ir  use,  and  tlience  gut  the 


BIL 

name  of  the  Vulgate  1  lie  Bible  wat 
trunslaled  into  the  i?axun  tongue  about  tba 
year  940  •,  and  into  the  English,  by  Wil- 
liam 'I'indal,  in  tlie  twtnty-first  year  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  when  it 
was  printed.  'I'lie  present  authorized 
English  version  of  the  Holy  Scriplunis 
was  completed  in  the  reign  of  James  tlie 
First,  about  the  year  1611. 

BIBLIOGRAl'IIER.  A  person  conver- 
sant with  books. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  The  knowledge  of 
books  as  totheir  several  editions,  time,  and 
form  of  being  printed,  type,  and  other  par- 
ticulars connected  with  their  publication. 
BIBLIO.V1ANIA.  A  rage  for  scarce  and 
old  editions  of  books. 

BICE  (in  Painting).  A  blue  colour  pre- 
pared from  the  lapis  armenus  ;  it  bears  the 
best  body  of  all  bright  blues  used  in  com- 
mon work. 

BIENNIALS.  Plants  that  flourish  for 
two  years,  and  seldom  more. 

BIGAMY.  Double  niarriiige,  or  the  mar- 
rying of  two  wives  or  two  husbands  while 
the  first  is  alive,  which  is  felony  hy  statute. 
Bigamy,  in  the  Civil  Law,  is  the  marrying 
a  plurality  of  wives  or  husbands. 

BIGHT.  The  double  part  of  a  rope 
where  it  is  folded,  in  distinction  from  the 
end. 

BILBOES.  A  term  at  sea,  for  the  long 
bars  of  iron  with  which  the  feet  of  offen- 
ders are  confined,  the  irons  being  more  or 
less  heavy,  according  to  tlie  nature  of  the 
offence. 

'  BILE.  A  bitter  fluid  secreted  in  the 
glaiidular  substance  of  the  liver,  and  pass- 
ing through  the  gall  bladder  and  the  porus 
biliariiis,  is  discharged  into  the  duodenum, 
where  it  converts  the  chyme  into  chyle 
and  excrement.  The  constituent  parts  of 
bile  are  water,  soda  in  a  caustic  state, 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  a  resinous  albu- 
minous principle. 

BILGE.  A  sea  term,  for  the  bottom  of 
the  flfMir  of  a  ship,  the  compass  or  breadth 
of  its  bottom.  A  veilsel  is  said  to  bilge 
when  she  has  strne^  off  some  of  her  tim- 
ber against  a  rock. 

BILL.  An  edged  tool,  or  hatchet,  with 
a  hooked  point,  for  lopping  of  trees  and 
making  hedges  :  if  it  have  a  short  handle 
it  is  a  handbill  ;  if  a  long  handle,  a  liedg 
ingbill. 

BILL  fin  Lawl.  A  declaration  In  writ- 
ing expressing  any  grievance  or  wnmg 
which  one  person  has  suffered  from  an 
other;  also  an  msliumeiit  drawn  up  bj 
any  memtwri»nd  preseiiied  to  a  Icgislatiwa 
fur  Its  approbation  ur  rejection. 


IMP 

Bll.r,  f«P  EXCHA.Nf^K  (in  ^nmmerceV 
A  iioce  Oiiii'diiiiig  an  unler  for  the  |>ay- 
ineiit  of  .-I  sum  iif  iiiiiiiey,  li>  :i  persiin  cull- 
ed tlie  ilrawer,  win.  wlit-ii  he  luus  signed  it 
with  his  name,  itiiil  writleii  the  word  ac- 
cepted, he  IS  culled  the  acceptor.  Tlje 
persiiii  In  whuse  lavnitr  it  is  drawn,  or  to 
wlidiu  it  is  ordered  to  be  paiil,  is  called  the 
drawee,  or  payej;,  who,  when  he  has  in- 
dorsed it,  is  allied  the  Indorser.  lie,  who 
is  ill  iKissession  of  the  hill,  is  the  holder. 

HILL  OF  KARK.  An  account  of  such 
provisions  aj  are  in  season,  or  are  to  be 
supplied  for  the  table. 

lUl.L  OF  LAIH.NfJ,  or  Ihtoice.  A 
deed  signed  by  the  master  of  a  ship,  by 
which  he  acknowledges  the  receipt  of  the 
nicrrhaiit's  giHids,  and  obliges  himself  to 
Jeliver  them  at  the  place  to  which  they 
are  consigned. 

HILL  OF  PARCF.I.S.  A  tradenman's 
account  of  goods  sold  and  delivered. 

BILLET.  A  ticket  for  i|uarteniig  80«- 
diers  :  also  a  small  paper,  or  note,  folded 
up  as  a  billet  doux,  or  love-letter. 

KILLET.  A  small  log  of  wood  ;  also  in 
Heraldry,  a  bearing  in  the  forniof  as»piare, 
supposed  to  represent  cloth  of  gold  and 
•ilver. 

BILLETI^*}  (in  Miliury  Affairs). 
Ordering .  -ts  to  be  quartered  in  par- 
ticular hoi    ^  by  a  billet  or  small  ticket. 

BILLIARDS.  A  game  played  on  an 
"liliiiig  table,  exactly  level,  and  covered 
with  cloth,  by  the  means  of  ivory  bails, 
which  are  struck  or  driven  with  sticks, 
made  bending,  so  as  to  drive  the  aiit.ago- 
nitit's  ball  into  holes,  called  hazards  or 
puckets,  at  the  corners  or  by  the  sides  of 
the  table.  'I'he  art  of  the  game  lies  in 
(Xicketing  your  antagonist's  ball  without 
putting  in  your  own. 

BILLION  The  sum  of  a  million  mil- 
lions. 

BILLS  OF  MORTALITY,  Annual  re- 

isters  of  the  deaths  and   burials,  which 

ake  place  in  the  different  parishes  in  and 

uear  London.    The  term  is  also  applied  to 

a  register  of  deaths,  in  any  town. 

BINDING  OF  BOOKS.  The  art  of 
doing  up  hooks  in  leather  or  vellum,  as 
distinguished  from  those  done  up  in  boards 
or  only  sewed. 

BINNACLE.  A  wooden  case,  contain- 
ing the  compasses,  log  glasses,  watch  glas- 
ses, &c. 

BINOiMI,\L.  A  term  in  algebra  for  any 
quantity  consisting nftwo  names, or  terms, 
connected  together  by  the  sign  -J-,  or  — , 
as  a  -(-  6 

BIPED.  An  animal  with  only  two  legs, 
M  men  and  birds 


BIS 


57 


Biai'ADRATlC.  The  square  squared, 
or  the  fourth  power  of  any  quantity. 

BIKL'H  IREE.  A  tree  with  leaves  like 
the  poplar,  the  fruit  of  which  isasquamos* 
Cone.     The  timber  is  used  for  hop-|>oles. 

BIRD-BOLT.  A  small  arrow  with  thiea 
heads,  which  was  discharged  at  birds  from 
a  cross-bow.  The  bird-txilt  is  still  used 
in  England  as  a  bearing  in  coat  armour. 

BIKDC.-VLL.  A  whistle  or  pipe  to  decoy 
birds. 

BIRDCATCHING.  The  art  of  taking 
birds  or  (vild  fowl,  by  birdlime,  nets,  and 
decoys,  which,  as  resjiects  the  more  artful 
modes  of  catching  birds,  is  called  fowling. 
In  the  western  islands  of  Scotland,  where 
the  birds  live  in  rocks,  a  dangerous  mode 
of  bird  catching  is  in  use. 

BIRDLIME.  A  glutinous  siilistance, 
madeof  tn«  bark  of  holly,  which  is  spread 
»H  the  twi^s  of  trees  in  catch  birds. 

BIRD  OF  PARADISE.  See  Pabadise, 
Bird  of. 

BIRTH.  A  sea  term  for  the  station  in 
which  a  ship  rides  at  anchoring  ground,  as 
a  good  hirth,  for  a  good  anchoring  ground. 

BIRTHRIGHT  (in  Law).  Honour  or 
estate  belonging  to  a  person  by  right  of 
his  birth. 

BIRTIIWORT.  A  herb  having  a  peien 
nial  root. 

BISCUIT  (from  hiscoctus,  twice  baked). 
A  sort  of  bread  much  dried  in  baking;  sea 
biscuit  is  dried  harder  than  any  other,  that 
it  may  be  better  preserved. 

BISECTION.  The  cutting  any  quantity, 
as  a  line  or  angle,  into  two  equal  parts. 

BISO.N'.  A  variety  of  the  ox,  which  has 
its  horns  bent  forwards,  back  gibbous,  and 
mane  long.  It  is  very  co:iimon  in  the 
western  prairies.  Herds  of  ten  thousand 
are  sometimes  seen  together.  It  is  im- 
pro|>erly  called  Buffalo,  in  the  United 
Sute«. 


BISHOP.  A  dignitary  in  tbe  Creek 
Romish  and  English  churches.  Inthelal- 
ter  he  presides  over  the  clergy  within  A 
certain  district,  called    his  diocesa     Bl 


S8 


BIT 


■ho|M  In  Er.glaiid  are  suffragans,  or  assist- 
BMls,  1(1  llie  arclibiahop,  wlio  is  the  chief 
of  tlie  clergy  iii  his  prtiviiice.  The  bishop 
issaiil  to  he  iiisUlletl,  the  urchhishop  to  he 
riilhroiied.  In  America  tliere  is  no  arch- 
bishop. 

BIs^llOPRlC  The  dincess,  or  dislricl, 
over  which  h  bishop  presides. 

BISMUTH.  A  iiieliil  of  a  yellowish  or 
rwddish  white  colour.  It  is  rather  harder 
than  lead,  and  scarcely  if  at  all  malleable, 
being  very  brittle  ;  il  melts  eiusily,  and  is 
■oluble  in  acids. 

BISSliXTI  LK,  or  Leap  Vb»r.  A  year 
consisting  of  306  days,  liy  the  addition  of 
a  day  in  the  month  of  February,  when 
that  year  consists  of  21)  instead  u{-2S  days. 
This  happens  every  fourtli  year.  The  day 
thus  added  is  also  called  Bissextile,  and 
3di  this  account,  that  Cxsar  appointed  it 
to  be  introduced  by  reckoiniisj;  llie  twenty- 
fourth  of  February  twice,  and  iis  tliat  day 
was  the  same  as  the  sixth  of  the  calends 
of  .March,  a  day  celebrated  among  the 
Romans  on  account  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Tarquiiis,  it  was  called  bis  sextuscalenda- 
rum  Martii,  and  afterwards  Bissextile.  By 
the  Stat.  21  Hen.  111.  I)e  Anno  Bissextile, 
to  prevent  misiiiiderstaiidin:;s,  the  inter- 
calary day  and  that  next  before  it,  are  to 
be  accounted  as  one  day. 

BISTER.  A  Colour  made  of  chimney 
soot  lioiled  and  diluted. 

BISTOURV.  A  small  surgical  knife  of 
various  forms,  according  to  the  purpose 
for  wnich  it  is  inieiided. 

BIT  (in Carpentry).  A  btiring  instrument 
so  constructed  as  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
handle. 

BIT,  orBiTT  or  a  bridle.  The  Iron 
attached  to  the  bridle,  which  is  put  into 
the  horse's  mouth. 

BITT.  A  sea  term  for  the  two  pieces  of 
timber  to  which  the  anchor  cables  are 
attached. 

Bl  TTER.  A  sea  term  for  the  turn  of  the 
cable  round  the  bitts. 

BITTER  AL.MOM).  A  sort  of  almond 
tree,  the  fruit  of  which  is  bitter. 

It;l  TER-APPLK.  See  CoLoquiNTiDA. 

BITTER  PRI.NCIPLE.  The  bitter  parts 
of  vegetable  siilistances,  which  maybe  ex- 
tracted by  a  chemical  process.  Artificial 
bitter  is  any  bitter  formed  by  the  actum 
of  nitric  acid  on  vegetable  and  other  sub- 
stances. 

BITTER-SWEET.  A  so.-i  of  sotanum, 
a  perennial. 

BnTCRN,or  BITTOl'R.  A  bird  of  the 
heron  kind,  of  retired  habits,  that  conceals 
Itself  in  the  reedH  and  marshes.  It  sends 
totXA  a  croaking  note  when  it  is  disturbed. 


BLA 

The  .American  Bittern  differs  from  that  el 
Europe  which  is  here  figured 


BITUMEN.  A  sort  of  mineral  substance 
easily  combustible  with  flame,  greasy  to 
the  touch,  and  when  ignited  emits  a  strong 
odour.  Naphtha  is  a  fluid  bitumen,  asphal 
a  hard  species,  and  petrolium  a  viscia 
species  of  the  bitumen. 

BIV.-MA'ES.  One  of  tlie  three  gent-ra. 
classes  of  shellfish,  the  shells  of  wliicli  ure 
composed  of  two  pieces,  joined  togetlier  by 
a  hinge. 

BLACK.  A  colour  which  is  supposed  tc 
be  produced  by  the  peculiar  texture  ol 
bodies,  which  deaden  as  it  were  the  liplu 
falling  upon  them,  and  reflect  n(me,or  very 
little  of  it,  outwards  towards  the  eye. 

BLACK.  A  Colour  or  dye,  as  lamp  black, 
the  smoke  of  resin,  prepared  by  nieltine  :t 
in  iron  vessels  ;  ivory  black,  made  of  burnt 
ivory,  and  used  in  miniatures  ;  f^paiiisb 
black,  made  of  burnt  cork,  and  first  used 
by  the  Spaniards. 

BLACKBIRD.  A  well  known  bird  of 
a  beautiful  black  colour  and  an  exipiisite 
note.  It  sings  in  the  spring,  and  makes 
its  nest  of  moss  and  grass.  We  have  no 
bird  in  .Vnierica  precisely  similar  to  the 
European  bird  which  ia  here  described. 


Our  crow  blackbird  resemble*  it,  bit  it 
larger. 


BLA 

BLACKnERRV.  The  fiait  of  the  bram- 
ble, or  lilacklierry  bush. 

BLACK  ll(K)K  {in  England).  A  book 
kept  in  the  Exchequer,  which  contains  tlie 
orders  of  that  court. 

BLACKCAP.  A  little  bird  with  a  fine 
black  crown  on  it^  head. 

BLACK  IIUI.E.  .\  place  of  confinement 
for  soldiers. 

BLACK  LRAn.  A  mineral,  the  plum- 
bago or  graohilea  oT  Liiinsiis.  It  is  found 
in  lead  mines,  and  is  fusilile  only  by  a 
violent  heal.  Lead  pencils  and  crucibles 
are  made  of  it. 

BLACK  LETTER.  A  sort  of  old  English 
elphalHit. 

BLADDER.  A  thin  membranous  sub- 
■tance,  which  serves  as  the  receptacle  of 
some  fiuid,  as  the  urinary  bladder,  and 
the  gall  bladder. 

BLADDER-\UT.  A  tree,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  contained  in  a  membrane  inflat- 
ed like  a  bladder. 

BLADDER  SE.NNA.  A  shnib  which 
yields  a  papilionaceous  flower,  that  is  suc- 
ceeded by  pods  resembling  the  inflated 
bladder  of  fishes. 

BL.\DE.  The  flat  part  of  a  sword  or 
knife,  resembling  the  blade  or  leaf  of 
grass  in  shape. 

BI^ADEi;O.VE.   The  shoulder  bone. 

BLAIN  (in  Farriery).  A  distemper  in- 
cident to  animals,  being  a  bladder  at 
the  root  of  the  tongue,  which  stops  the 
breath. 

BLA.VCH  FAR.M  (in  English  Law).  A 
term  for  a  farm  where  the  rent  is  paid  in 
■ilver,  not  in  black  cattle. 

BLANCHl.NG.  The  art  of  making  any 
thing  white,  as  (in  horticultu.'e;  the  me- 
thod of  whitening  sal.uls.  Islanching  mo- 
ney is  the  annealing,  boiling,  and  cleans- 
ing it  when  it  is  coined.  Blanching  cop- 
per is  done  in  various  ways,  so  as  to  make 
it  resemble  silver.  Blanching  is  also  the 
operation  of  covering  iron  plates  with  a 
thin  coat  or  crust  of  tin.  Blanching  al- 
monds is  the  skinning  them  by  means  of 
'Slot  water. 

BLA.N'K.  A  void  space  in  any  writing 
or  printing 

BLA.NK  VERSE.  That  which  has  no 
rhymes. 

BLANKETS  (in  Printing).  Woollen 
cloths  to  lay  between  the  tympans  of  a 
printing  press,  in  order  to  produce  a  fair 
Impression. 

BLA.NK  ETS.  A  sea  term,  for  combus- 
tibles made  of  coarse  limwii  paper  steeped 
in  nitre,  dried,  and  then  steeped  again  in 
tallow,  resin,  and  sulphur  j  tbey  are  used 
tB  futsaaipt 


BLO  M 

BT^AST.  A  disease  in  grain  and  trees 
Killed  also  a  bliglit. 

BL.\STI.N'G  (among  Miners).  The 
teariiit;  up  rocks  by  the  force  of  gun 
powder. 

BLASTLNG- BELLOWS.  Bellows 
which  are  used  to  proiliice  a  more  than  or 
dinary  degree  of  heat  in  furnaces. 

IlLAZUNRY,  or  ilLA/oXING.  That 
branch  of  the  art  of  lieraldry  which  con- 
sists in  expressing  in  proper  terms  all  that 
behuigs  to  coats  of  arms.  The  word  comes 
from  the  German  blasen,  to  blow  ;  be- 
cause a  trumpet  used  to  be  blown  at  justs, 
&-C.  previously  to  the  her;iM's  recording 
the  achievements  of  (he  kniglits. 

BLE.ACHING.  'l"he  process  of  white- 
ning linen  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and 
airj  or,  as  is  now  more  commonly  in  u.^e, 
by  the  application  of  chemical  prepara 
tions. 

BLEMISH  (in  Farriery).  Any  imper- 
fection in  a  horse  which  impedes  a  sound 
warrant,  as  broken  knees,  cracked  heels, 
&.e. 

BLENDE.    The  ore  of  zinc. 

BLIGHT.  A  disease  incident  to  plants, 
which  consists  in  a  sort  of  fungus,  that 
converts  the  affected  part  into  a  sooty 
mass. 

BLINDS.  A  contrivance  to  prevent  any 
one  seeing  through  a  window  ;  in  Military 
Affairs,  bundles  of  osiers  used  at  the  heads 
of  trenches,  to  protect  the  men. 

BLINDWOR.M,  or  Slowworm.  A 
worm  so  called  from  the  sinallness  of  its 
eyes  and  the  slowness  of  its  motitm. 

BLISTER.  A  pustule  in  the  skin,  filled 
with  serum  ;  in  general,  any  swelling 
caused  by  the  separation  of  the  outer  in- 
tegument of  any  sul)stance  from  that 
which  is  underneath. 

BLISTER  (in  Medicine).  The  plas- 
ter or  application  that  raises  a  blister, 
mostly  made  of  the  canlharides,  or  Span- 
ish flies. 

BLOCK.  A  sea  term  for  a  pulley,  or 
series  of  jiulleys,  mounted  in  a  frame,  ci 
shell,  which  serves  to  facilitate  the  pai- 
sage  of  the  ropes.  Blocks  are  single,  dou 
ble,  treble,  &.c.  according  to  the  nunibe 
of  shivers  in  them  through  which  the  run 
ning  ropes  run. 

SINGLE  BLOCK. 


BLO 

DOUBLE  BLOCK. 


TMERLS  aiiOCC. 


BLOCKADE.  The  blocking  up  J*e 
roa<l8  and  avenues  to  a  |il;u:e,  hy  iiieniif  of 
•ulitiers,  so  as  lo  preveiil  uiiy  iiigres::  ur 
egresis. 

l!I<UOD.  A  warm  red  fluid,  of  a  salt- 
iah  taste  and  urinous  siiit-ll,  circulating 
tV rough  every  part  of  tlie  lio(iy  by  means 
of  arteries  and  veins.  Tlie  tilood  is  found 
to  contain  an  insipid  water,  whicli  soon 
becomes  putrid,  an  euipyreuuiutic  oil,  an 
ammontacal  spirit,  and  the  remainder  car- 
bon. 

BLOOD  (in  Law).  Is  regarded  in  de- 
icent  of  lands,  for  a  person  must  lie  next 
and  most  worthy  of  blood  in  order  to  in- 
herit his  ancestor's  estate. 

BLOOD-HORHE.  A  breed  of  horses 
originally  from  the  Arabian  stock,  the  ei- 
cellence  of  which  consist."  in  the  compact- 
ness of  his  fibre,  that  adds  to  his  strength 
without  increasing  his  bulk. 

BL<MJI)Hl)UM).  A  hunting  dog,  of 
such  exquisite  scent,  that  he  will  tbilow 
the  track  of  men  .-is  well  as  of  animals. 

BLOOn-RED-HOT.  Tlie  last  degree  of 
heat  given  by  smiths  to  their  iron  in  tlie 
forge. 

BLOODSHOT.  A  distemper  in  the  eyes, 
when  the  vessels  are  so  distended  as  to 
make  them  appear  red. 

BLOOD-STONE  A  stone  which  serves 
to  stop  bleeding. 

BLOODSUCKER.  A  leach  which  sncks 
the  blood  of  aoy  animal  tu  winch  it  is  ap- 
plied. 

BLOWtNG  GLASS.  The  process  in 
glass  houses  of  forming  glass  into  various 
■hapes,  by  means  of  blowing  through  a 
btow-pipe  dipped  into  the  mehed  glass. 

BLOW-IMI'E.  A  wind  instrument, 
which  consist*  of  a  hollow  lube,  ending  in 
a  cavity  as  flee  as  a  wire,  through  which 
air  may  be  dir  tcted  with  ccmsiderable  force 
«gainst  a  flame,  so  as  to  heat  substances 


no  A 

with  great  rapidity.     It  is  us^d  by  f-by 
mists,  enametlers,  glassmakers,  &,c 


BLUBBER.  Tlie  fat  of  th*-  whale  be- 
fore it  is  iKiiled.  Sea  bitilmer,  the  viilfaf 
name  of  a  shellfish. 

BLUE.  One  of  tb»  seven  primiti»« 
colours  into  which  tlioyare  divided  when 
refracted  tliroiich  a  ginss  prism.  Blue,  !«• 
a  colour  in  painting,  is  distinguished  into 
ullramarine,  from  the  a/.ure  stone  ;  hliio 
ashes,  used  in  limiiiiig,  fresco,  aiid  minia- 
ture ;  blue  verditer,  a  blue  someivhat  in 
cliniiig  to  a  green  ;  Prussian  blue,  a  colour 
next  to  ultramarine  for  beauty. 

BLUE  BIRD.  A  beautiful  North  Ante 
rican  bird,  with  a  soH  warblini!  note, 
which  is  one  of  the  first  harbinge:s  of 
spring. 

BLUEBOTTLE.  An  animal,  having  a 
bellshapeil  flower.  The  flower  is  borne  in 
coats  of  arms. 

BLI'EBOTTLE.  A  large  Icind  of  fly 
with  a  blue  body. 

BLU  EL\(!.  Tlie  process  of  heating  iron 
and  other  metals  in  the  tire,  until  they 
assume  a  blue  coli.iir,  which  is  the  practice 
of  gilders  liefore  they  apply  the  gold  and 
silver  leaf  to  thi^m 

BLUFF.  A  se?  term  for  a  high  land 
projecting  alincit  per|>endicularly  into  tlie 
sea. 

BLUNDERBUSS.  A  short  brass  gun 
with  a  large  bore. 

BOA  CONSTRICTOR.  A  serpent  of 
immense  sixe  and  strength,  a  native  of 
Al'rica  and  India,  measuring  sometimes 
ten  yards  in  length.  Il  will  twist  itself 
round  the  bodies  of  oxen  ami  other  ani- 
mals, and,  breaking  their  bones,  swallow 
them  whole. 


BOAR.    The  male  of  the  swine.    Tim 

boar's  liend  is  often  borne  in  coats  ofariika- 

BOARD.     A  sea  term,  fur  tlie  space  ■ 


BuD 

htp  nins  ovrr  bt-lweeii  tach  anl  tack,  as 
to  m;ike  stmrl  lioarns,  tiat  la,  to  tack  fre- 
qiieiilly  ;  also  the  ship  itself,  as  to  go 
abo-'int,  tliat  is,  into  ttie  stiip  ;  so  board  and 
board  i.s  said  of  two  siiip^  coming  so  near 
to  eacJi  other  ;i>  to  touch  by  the  board  over 
tile  Suifj's  side. 

BDAKU  (in  Tarpeiitry).  Any  piece  of 
timber  sawed  to  a  less  thickness  than 
about  an  inch  ;  all  above  this  thickness 
are  planks. 

nuARI),  or  Pastbboabd  Layers  of 
pa|>er  so  pasted  together  as  to  make  a  sub- 
■tance  as  hard  as  a  board. 

BOARDI.N'G.  The  fixing  of  boards  for 
any  purpose,  as  a  floor  ;  liii  Navjil  Tactics) 
the  entering  a  ship  in  a  forcible  manner. 

KO.-\RliS,  or  by  way  of  contraction. 
Boa.  The  manner  of  doing  hooks  up  in 
pasteboard  covers,  without  leather. 

BOARD  WAGKS.  Money  given  to  ser- 
vants in  lieu  of  diet. 

BOAT.  A  small  open  vpjwel  worked  on 
rivers  or  email  waters  by  rowing  or  sailing. 


BOATBILL.  A  bird  of  South  America, 
having  a  bill  that  resembles  a  boat  in 
iha|ie.  It  lives  upon  fish,  and  darts  down 
up(m  them  as  they  are  swimming. 

BOATFLY.  An  insect  with  an  inflected 
snout,  tliat  lis'es  in  stagnant  waters. 

BOATt^U'AI.V.  A  sea  term,  for  the  offi- 
e«r  who  has  the  boats,  anchors,  ic.  in  his 
(harge. 

BOB.  The  metallic  weigh*,  attached  to 
a  pendulum. 

BOBBIN.    A  sort  of  tape. 

B0BH:NS.  Little  pins  of  wood  with  a 
notch,  on  K^iiich  thread,  &c.  is  wound. 

BODKIN.  A  long  sort  of  pin,  on  which 
women  used  to  roll  their  hair. 

BOnV  (inGeoiiu'lry;.  Any  solid  bavins 
three  dimensions,  length,  breailth,  and 
thickness.  Regular  bodies,  which  have 
L.  their  angles  and  sides  similar  and 
i^ial,  are  of  five  kinds,  namely,  tetrae- 
iron,  a  body  con>r.ined  under  four  equi- 
latenit  triangles  ;  iiejcaedruii,  a  body  con- 
taining six  s(|aare«;octaedron.a  body  hav- 
ing eight  triniiules  ;  dodecaedron,  a  body 
•oiitaining  twelve  penuigons  ;  icosaedron, 
a  body  ojnt.-i:ning  twenty  triangles.  Ir- 
regular jiidies  are  soliil:<  wlm  h  are  not 
t>nuiiJed  by  e  iual,  and  like  surtacei. 


BOM  6- 

BODY  (in  Physics)  An  extended  solid 
substance,  consisting  of  hard,  iiii|>enetra- 
ble.  moveable  particles.  It  is  a  hard  body 
when  its  parts  do  luH  easily  yield  to  any 
stroke  or  percussion  ;  a  soft  body  when  it 
yields  to  every  stroke,  and  thereby  under- 
goes a  change  -,  an  elastic  body,  thai 
changes  its  form  with  every  stroke,  hut  re- 
covers it  again  wlien  the  imj>el.^{  fotise  is 
removed. 

BODY.  In  the  phrase  '  to  bear  a  body,' 
a  term  applied  by  painters  to  any  colour 
which  is  of  a  nature  to  be  ground  so  free- 
ly, and  to  mix  with  oil  so  entirely,  as  to 
seem  one  thick  oil  of  the  same  colour. 

BODY.  (Jf  a  chpiiiical  vessel,  thai 
which  holds  the  matter  in  distillation. 
Body  of  a  pump,  the  thickest  part  of  tiie 
barrel  or  pi|ie.  Body,  in  an  army,  any 
number  of  forces  dnited  under  one  com 
maiider. 

BOIIEA  TEA  One  of  the  superior 
kinds  of  tea  that  comes  from  (v'hina. 

BOILING  POINT.  The  fixed  point  or 
degree  of  heat  required  to  produce  the 
ebullition  or  boiling  of  a  fluid.  Every  li- 
quid h:is  a  fixed  point  at  which  lM<iling 
commences,  and  this  is  called  the  boiling; 
point.  Thus  water  begins  to  boil  at  the 
temperature  of  2li°.  .After  a  liquid  haa 
begun  to  boil,  it  will  not  become  hotter, 
for  although  a  stronger  heat  makes  all  li- 
quids boil  more  nipidly,  yet  it  does  not  in- 
crease theirteni|»emture. 

BOLE.  .\  friable  earth  of  the  argillace- 
ous kind,  which  unil«s  with  water  so  as  to 
form  a  paste.  The  .Armenian  t«>le,  orliole 
armeniac,  is  a  bright  red  coloured  earth, 
so  called  from  Armenia,  the  country  from 
which  it  is  procured. 

BOLL.  A  measure  of  two  bushels. 

BOLOGNA  STONE.  A  phosphoric 
stone,  first  found  at  Bologna  in  Italy.  It 
is  a  gray  so(\  sulphureous  stone,  about  tlw; 
si/.e  of  a  large  walnut,  which  shines  in 
the  dark  after  calcination.  This  stone  is 
the  native  sulphate  of  carytes. 

BOLSTER.  A  soft  pillow  for  a  brokei. 
limb  ;  in  Farriery,  it  is  the  name  of  those 
parts  of  a  saddle  which  .-ire  rai.sed  iijinn 
the  bows  to  receive  the  rider's  thighs. 

BOLSTER.  A  sea  term,  for  a  piece  of 
timber  rut  and  placed  for  the  easement  of 
the  cable. 

BOLT.  An  iron  pin  used  for  strength 
ening  timber. 

BOLUS  An  internal  medicine,  of  >! 
consistency  thicker  than  honey. 

BO.MB  A  hollow  ball  of  cast  iron 
filled  with  combiistililes,  and  dischargm 
from  a  mortar  into  towns,  when,  by  aurtt- 
ing,  it  cau.ses  much  mtscbinf 


92 


BON 


BOMBAROMENT.  The  discharging  of 
bomb!)  into  <(  Itesieged  place. 

BOMUIC  A<:i().  An  acid  liquor  con- 
tained in  a  reservoir  near  the  anus  of  the 
•illtworni. 

BO.MIiKr.TCH.  A  small  vessel  built 
and  Ktr«nj!lliened  witli  large  beams,  for 
b«  uae  of  mortars  at  sea. 


BOMPERNICKEL.  A  name  given  in 
Jerision  to  the  German  rye-bread,  signify- 
ing, good  for  nothing. 

BO.N'A  FIUE.  With  good  faith  ;  with- 
out fraud  or  subterfuge. 

BOND  (iu  Law).  An  obligation  or 
covenant  in  writing  to  pay  any  sum,  or 
perform  any  contract. 

BOND  (in  Carpentry).  The  binding  of 
any  two  pieces  together  by  tenanting,'  mor- 
ticing, &.C.  In  Masonry,  it  is  the  disposi- 
tion of  stones  or  bricl(s  in  a  building,  so 
that  they  most  aptly  fit  together ;  stones 
naviiig  their  lengtli  placed  in  the  tllick- 
ness  of  the  wall  are  called  headers,  and 
those  whose  length  extends  along  the  face 
or  exterior  of  the  wall  are  called  stretchers. 

BONO-TIMBEKS.  The  horizontal  tim- 
bers bedded  in  stone  or  brick  walls,  for 
itrengthening  the  masonry. 

BONDSMAN.  One  bound  or  giving  se- 
curity for  another. 

BONE.  A  hard,  dry,  insensible  part  of 
the  body,  composed  of  a  spongy  reticular 
substance,  and  an  oily  matter  called  mar- 
niw.  There  is  also  a  considerable  portion 
of  phosphate  of  lime  that  enters  into  their 
oonipositiun.  The  bones  of  the  human 
9ody  are  in  numlier  about  250. 

BONE.  A  sea  term,  in  the  phrase  «  To 
tarry  a  bone  in  her  mouth,'  applied  to  a 
chip  whea  she  makes  the  water  foam  be- 
fore her  in  sailing. 

BONE-1.ACE.  Lace  made  of  bobbins 
that  are  farmed  from  bones. 

BONES.  A  sort  of  bobbins  made  of 
lrotler4iones,  for  weaving  bone  lace. 

BONES.  A  name  in  Mathemntics  given 
to  Lord  Napier's  rods  for  facilitating  arith- 
■Mtical  calculations. 

BONING    A  term  among  surveyors,  to 


BOO 

denote  the  laying  poles  up  n  the  grouna 
in  such  a  manner  thai  all  may  lie  in  a 
straight  line. 

BONNET  (in  Heraldry,.  A  cap  of  vel 
vet  Worn  without  a  coronet. 

BONNET.  A  sea  term,  for  the  additioq 
of  a  small  sail  made  to  fasten  wila  latch- 
ings  to  the  foot  of  the  other  sails. 

BONNET  (in  Fortification).  A  small 
Work  composed  of  two  faces,  usually  raised 
before  the  saliant  angle  of  the  counter- 
scarp. 

BONZE.  A  priest  in  China,  Japan,  and 
Farther  India  who  wears  a  chaplet  of 
beads  about  his  neck,  and  carries  a  staff, 
having  a  wooden  bird  at  one  end. 

BoOBy.  A  South  American  bird  of  the 
pelican  tribe. 

BOOK.  Any  folded  leaves  which  are 
or  may  be  written  up<m  ;  also  a  general 
name  for  any  literary  composition,  but 
more  particularly  any  composition  large 
enough  to  be  formed  into  a  volume.  Before 
the  use  of  books  or  volumes  things  were 
committed  to  writing  on  stone,  wood,  bark, 
&.C.  The  Decalogue  was  written  on  tables 
of  stone  ;  so  likewise,  as  we  learn  from 
Josejihus,  the  children  of  Seth  wrote  their 
inventions  and  astronomical  observations 
on  two  columns,  one  of  brick  and  the  other 
of  stone,  the  latter  of  which  was  standing 
in  his  day.  Ilesiod's  works  were  originally 
written  upon  tables  of  lead  ;  Solon's  laws 
upon  wooden  planks,  &c.  and  the  Parian 
Chronicle,  or  a  chronicle  of  the  affairs  of 
Athens,  on  marbles,  which  are  now  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Arundel lan.  The 
•Scythians,  Celts,  and  their  several  de- 
scendants, the  Goths,  Teiitones,  &.c.  also 
used  to  write  on  trees  whatever  they 
thought  worthy  to  preserve  in  writing. 
Tables  of  wood,  box,  and  ivory  were  also 
common  among  the  ancients  ;  but  we  find 
that  the  Romans  were  accustomed  to  write 
upon  tables  of  wax,  by  means  of  a  style 
or  bodkin,  so  contrived  that  they  could 
also  erase  what  they  pleased.  The  finest 
and  thinnest  p.arts  of  the  bark  of  trees,  as 
of  the  lime,  the  ash,  the  maple,  and  the 
elm,  were  also  employed,  whence  the  Lat- 
in name  liber  signifies  both  book  and  bark 
The  I'nglish  word  book  is  derived  iinme 
diately  from  the  Saxon  boec.  Low  Ger 
man  bok.  High  German  buch ;  and  is 
either  fi-om  buch,  which  signifies  a  beech, 
because  the  bark  of  this  kind  of  tree  was 
used  ;  or  from  biegen,  to  bend,  because 
the  leaves  were  folded  or  bent  into  the 
form  of  a  book.  When  books  were  rolled 
up,  they  were  on  that  account  called 
volumen,  a  volume,  a  name  afterward* 
given  to  paper  and  parcliment  folded  toga- 


BOO 

Iker.  Sometimes  the  roll  consisted  of  seve- 
ral sliepls  of  biirk  tastetied  Kigcllier  and 
rolled  u|Miii  a  :<lick,  called  zn  umbilicus. 
Refure  llie  liilrixliictiou  of  printing,  biwiks 
were  become  so  scarce  in  the  middle  ages, 
tlial,  in  ^={l:tlll,  one  and  llie  same  copy  of 
the  Bitrfe,  r^t.  Jerome's  Eplnties,  and  soiiw 
few  volumes  of  ecclesiasticaJ  oliices  served 
several  dilferent  Hiona-slenes,  ^ince  that 
period  tJi«  increase  of  btniks  has  been  pro- 
digious ;  and  in  coiisetjuence  of  the  ditfer- 
eiit  editions,  modes  of  printing,  size,  type, 
and  otlier  pxrticiilar;)  connected  either 
M'ilh  the  external  form  or  internal  con- 
tents, the  knowledge  of  b<Hiks  has  become 
a  p.irticular  study  and  pursuit,  under  liie 
naiMe  of  bibliography. 

IttKlKBINUINCi.  The  process  ofbind- 
jii^  b(Kiks,  or  putting  the  sheets  together 
Into  the  form  of  books.  The  bookbinder 
receives  the  sheets  which  C(mipose  a  hiKik 
immediately  from  the  printer,  and  ader 
having  folded  tliem  in  the  order  of  the  sig- 
natures, or  letters  at  the  bottom  of  the  page, 
tliey  are  hrst  beaten  with  a  hammer  on  a 
stone,  to  make  them  lie  close  and  snuN-ith  , 
after  whicli  they  are  put  into  a  press,  and 
sewed  with  bands,  or  strips  of  leather  fas- 
tened at  certain  distances,  which,  being  all 
glued  together  very  firinly,  form  the  Imck 
of  the  biKik,  to  which  the  pasteboards  are 
attaclied  by  means  of  tiie  hands,  so  as  to 
form  the  sides.  In  all  this  process  of  fix- 
ing on  the  sides,  much  art  and  nicety  is 
required  in  rounding  the  back,  and  keeping 
the  whole  Armly  li.Ked  in  the  press.  After 
tills  the  book  is  put  into  the  cutting-press 
between  two  boards,  one  lying  even  with 
the  press  for  the  knife  to  run  upon,  the 
other  atKive,  for  the  knife  to  run  against. 
In  this  manner  the  leaves  and  boards  are 
cut  to  form  an  even  edge.  'I'he  next  ope- 
ration is  tliesprinkling  of  the  leaves,  which 
is  done  by  means  of  a  brush  dipped  in 
vermilion  and  sap  green.  The  covers  of 
leather,  tec.  being  first  moistened,  are  cut 
to  the  size  of  the  bfMik,  smeared  with  paste, 
and  then  stretched  successively  over  the 
back  and  the  two  sides,  alter  having  taken 
off  the  four  angles,  and  indented  and  plat- 
ted the  cover  at  the  head  band.  When 
ihus  far  finished,  the  b(H>k  is  covered  and 
bound  tietween  two  hands  and  set  to  dry. 
It  is  afterwards  wa.'^hed  with  paste  and 
water,  and  then  sprinkled  with  a  brush, 
unless  it  is  to  he  marbled,  which  is  done 
by  making  spots  with  vitriol.  The  b<>ok 
>8  then  glazed  with  the  white  of  an  egg, 
end,  lastly,  polished  with  a  hort  iron. 
The  letters  and  orniineuts  are  made  with 
gilding  tools,  or  brass  cylinders,  rolled 
tlong  by  a  handle  :  to  apply  the  gold,  the 


BOO 


6S 


leather  is  gla/.ed  with  a  li<|iior  mads  of 
the  white  ul'  eggs,  diluted  wilt  water, 
and  when  nearly  dry  ihe  gold  is  laid  on 
Such  is  the  process  when  a  book  is  fully 
bound  \  but  bmiks  may  soiiietiines  be  only 
sewed  and  tiave  a  paper  cover,  when  they 
are  said  to  be  sewed :  sumetimes  the 
boards  aj-e  covered  with  paper  only,  when 
tliey  are  said  to  be  in  boards  ;  and  soiuti- 
tiines  they  have  a  leather  covering  on  the 
back,  extending  a  siiiali  way  over  each 
side,  when  they  are  said  to  be  hall  bound. 
B0C)K-KI:EI'I.N'G.  The  arl  of  keeping 
arcniiiit«,or  recording  the  inercantiie  wum 
aclioiisof  aman,so  that  he  may  thoriMtt;lily 
know  the  whole  state  of  his  alli»frs,  or  any 
part  of  them,  with  ease  and  despatch 
Accounts  may  oe  kept  either  by  single  or 
double  entry  ;  the  former  of  which  may 
answer  the  purpose  where  the  dealings  are 
on  a  small  scale,  but  merchants,  whose  con- 
cerns are  extensive,  keep  their  books  accor- 
ding tothe  double  entry,  or  Italian  method 
In  single  entry  two  books  only  are  wanted, 
namely,  a  Journal,  or  day  book,  in  which 
the  transactions  of  the  day,  am  they  occur 
in  the  course  of  business,  are  entered  ;and 
the  ledger,  or  post  book,  in  which  all  the 
accounts  drawn  out  of  the  journal  are 
placed  under  the  proper  name,  either  on 
the  debtor  or  creditor  side.  Those  who 
keep  their  accounts  by  double  entr>>  have 
occasion  for  several  books,  the  three  prin- 
cipal of  which  are,  the  waste  book,  the 
journal,  and  the  ledger.  Tlie  waste  booK 
is  a  book  containing  an  inventory  of  a 
merchant's  effects  and  debts,  with  a  dis- 
tinct record  of  all  his  dealings.  The  act  of 
placing  any  transaction  under  a  given  ac- 
count is  called  the  entry  ;  if  placed  on  the 
[)r.  or  debtor's  side,  it  is  debiting  the 
account :  if  placed  on  the  Cr.  or  creditor's 
side,  it  is  crediting.  The  waste  book  opens 
witli  the  inventory,  which  consists  of  two 
parts  ;  namely,  in  the  first  place,  of  a  man's 
effects,  and  what  is  due  to  him  ;  and  in 
the  next  place,  what  is  due  by  him.  .After 
the  inventory  follow  the  daily  transactions 
as  they  occur  in  business.  The  accounts  of 
persons  are  debited  under  their  respective 
names  when  they  become  indebted  to  the 
merchant,  and  credited  when  the  merchant 
becomes  indebted  to  them.  Accounts  of 
property  are  debited  when  they  come  into 
his  possession,  and  credited  when  they  go 
out  of  it.  In  the  same  manner  the  accounts 
of  profit  and  loss  are  kept,  which  are  de- 
bited on  account  of  a  loss,  and  credited  on 
account  of  a  gain.  Those  marked  Dr.  are 
placed  on  the  left  side,  and  those  marked 
(^r.  on  the ii|iposite  side,  marked  OmtraCr 
7*his  hook  should  conuun  tlie  names  of  per 


54 


BOO 


•one  irith  whom  the  merchant  deals,  the 
euudiliuns  of  bargains,  the  terms  of  pay- 
Dieiit,  the  quantity,  quality,  and  prices  of 
g(H>dj,  with  every  other  particuhir  neeiiriil 
t<)  be  recorded.  'J"he  journal,  or  day  IxMik, 
ia  intermediate  between  the  wiinte  hook 
and  the  ledger,  wherein  the  tran^^.ictionit 
recorded  in  the  waste  book  are  prepared 
to  be  carried  to  the  ledger,  by  having  the 
prsper  debtors  and  creditors  ascertained 
aiid  placed  in  order.  In  tlie  journal,  per- 
son.s  end  thingsare  debtors  to  other  persons 
and  things  as  creditors,  and  in  this  it  agrees 
with  the  ledger,  hut  in  other  re9|»ects  it 
agrees  witli  the  wiiste  book.  Every  case 
or  transaction  entered  into  the  journal  is 
called  a  journal  post,  or  entrance.  The 
ledger  is  the  principal  book,  in  which  all 
the  several  articles  of  each  particular  ac- 
count that  lie  scattered  in  other  books, 
according  to  their  several  dates,  are  col- 
lected and  placed  together  in  such  manner 
that  the  opposite  parts  of  every  account 
are  directly  set  fronting  one  dnother,  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  same  folio  ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  debtor,  or  d-btor  part,  is  entered 
on  the  left  or  debtor  side  of  its  own  account, 
where  it  is  charged  debtor  to  the  creditor 
part ;  and  the  creditor,  o»  creditor  part,  is 
posted  to  the  right  or  creditor  side  of  its 
account,  and  made  creditor  hy  the  debtor 
part.  Hence  it  is  that  the  Italian  method 
of  book-keeping  is  said  to  he  by  doulile 
entry,  because  every  single  case  of  the 
>v:i.ste  hook  requires  to  l)e  entered  twice  in 
the  ledzer,  that  is,  once  for  llie  debtor  and 
mice  for  the  creditor.  In  addition  to  the 
above  three  books,  most  merchants  have 
several  other  books,  as  the  cash  book, 
which  Contains  in  debtor  and  creditor  all 
the  ca.sh  that  comes  in  and  goes  out ;  the 
debt  book,  in  which  are  entered  all  sums 
tha«  become  due,  either  to  lie  received  or 
paid,  by  bills  of  exchaiiL'e,  notes  of  hand, 
tc.  ;  besides  this,  some  merchants  require 
•  book  of  invoices,  a  book  of  coiiiniissions, 
a  bi«)k  of  orders  or  advices,  &c.  according 
to  the  nature  of  their  tran.s:ictions. 

BOOKSELI.F.R.  One  who  deals  or 
trades  in  bonks,  particularly  one  who  sells 
the  bonks  printed  liy  olliers.  as  ili.stin- 
Buished  from  the  publisher,  who  sells  the 
bo  ks,  that  are  printed  on  his  tiwii  account. 
7'iie bookselling  business  ha^  iitw-iysheld  a 
liieherrank  than  any  other  rominon  trade  ; 
sndon  the  continent,  as  at  '•'uhineen,!*alls- 
bnrs;,  and  Paris,  booksellers  class  with  the 
members  of  the  learned  professions,  and 
have  the  privileges  of  ititdenis  .it  the  iinl- 
versily.  f)i  (he  Inrr.Kluclioii  of  prinrins, 
the  hook«ell.-r.  pniiier.  and  scholar  were 
oiif  iiid  tlic  >aiiir  iifiMiji. 


BOR 

HOOKWORM     A   little  ifiject   whiell 

breeds  and  eats  holes  in  books,  esiieciall) 
when  damp. 

KOOiM.  A  sea  term,  for  a  long  (lole  to 
extend  the  bottoms  of  particular  sails  as 
tlie  jih  Immuii,  studding  sail  boom.  'J'he 
hooin  of  a  harlxmi  a  strong  iron  chain 
thrown  across  a  haroour,  to  prevent  tli« 
entrance  of  an  enemy. 

BOOH.  Properly,  a  peasant  ,  particu 
larly  applied  to  the  rude  peasantry  of 
Russia. 

BOOT  OF  A  COACH  The  space  un 
derneath  between  the  coachman  and  the 
body  of  the  coach. 

BOOTES.  A  northern  constellation,  con- 
sisting  of  fifty -four  stars,  according  to  Mr 
F'lamstead. 

BORACIC  ACID.  An  acid  drawn  from 
lionix  by  combustion. 

BOR.AX.  A  substance  dug  out  of  wells 
in  Thibet,  and  imported  from  India.  It 
is  sometimes  in  the  form  of  solid  grains, 
sometimes  in  large  crystals,  enclosed  in  a 
fatty  matter. 

BORDER,  or  BORDURE.  An  ordinary 
in  Heraldry,  so  called  because  it  borders 
round,  and  as  it  were  hems  in  the  held 
Borders  are  charged  with  things  natural 
and  artificial,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
field 


BORDERERS.  Those  who  lived  on  the 
borders  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  were 
formerly  engaged  in  perpetual  host ilhie^. 
.  BORE.  The  hollow  of  a  piece  of  ord 
nance. 

BORE-COLE,  or  CunLED  Colewort 
A  hardy  sort  of  kale,  which  Is  improved 
by  the  frost. 

BORER.  A  piercer,  or  instrument  to 
born  holes  with. 

BORI.NG.  The  method  of  piercing  the 
earth  in  search  of  minerals. 

BOROUr.H.  From  the  Oerman  burg, 
it  formerly  signified  a  fenced  town,  hut  in 
England  is  now  taken  for  any  corporate 
town  that  is  not  a  city,  and  that  sends 
memliers  to  parliament:  in  Scotland  there 
are  still  royal  burghs,  or  boroughs,  that  are 
held  of  the  king.  Rotten  Boroughs,  are 
ancient  towns,  with  the  privilege  of  send- 
ina  members  to  I'nrliainent,  whnh  are 
nt.w  r>-.'ii.ed,  and  have  but  a  few  prr»,.M 
liviii>:  III  thuin 


BOT 

BOKOU<Hr-EN<;i.lSH.  A  customary 
Ascent  of  land  in  suint  pl:ict:a  U>  the 
younger  boms. 

HUS.  Tlie  generic  nunie  in  tlie  Linn.-ean 
■VMtem  for  iill  ;inini:ils  or  llie  ox  tribe,  as 
ttie  bisun,  butUiloe,  coniinun  ox,  musk  ox, 

ii.C. 

liOTANY.  The  science  which  teaches 
the  knii\vleili;e  nf  plants,  as  to  their  dis- 
ci'iniinating  i  liara  tt-rs,  structure,  growth, 
cuT.ure,  diseii>«;s,aii<f  llieiike.  I'lanlsare 
disliiigiiislied  inio  n.>(ural  orders,  an  trees, 
file  stems  of  which  send  I'ortll  brunciies 
I'nim  the  iniddl''  and  top  :  shrubs,  the  stems 
of  whicli  send  fortli  branches  from  tlie 
bottom  :  iiiidershrubs,  when  the  stems  of 
tiie shrubs  perlsli:  herbs, which  bear  dowers 
and  seeds,  and  tlieii  die  ;  if  tliey  die  at  the 
end  of  one  year  they  are  called  annuals,  if 
at  the  end  of  two  years  biennials,  if  they 
last  three  or  more  years  they  are  perennials: 
fungi  are  lleshy,  coriiiceous,  or  woody: 
alg.c,  or  seaweeds,  have  neither  stems  nor 
leaves:  mosses,  which  have  only  leaves 
and  fruit:  ferns,  that  never  send  forth  more 
tliaii  one  leaf  on  a  footstalk  :  grasses, 
which  are  distinguished  by  their  stem, 
which  is  a  ciilni  or  straw  :  lilies,  whicJi 
have  a  tuberous  or  bulbous  root :  palius, 
which  have  an  arboreous  stem,  from  which 
the  leaves  grow,  anil  not  the  branches. 

The  parts  of  plants  are  distinsuished 
generally  into  the  root,  the  stem,  the  bud, 
the  leaf,  the  inflorescence,  and  the  frucliti- 
cation.  The  root  is  the  part  throU{;h  which 
the  plant  derives  nourisliiuent  from  the 
earth  ;  a  plant  is  either  annual,  biennial,  or 
Iterennial,  according  to  tiie  time  that  the 
root  hists.  Roots  are  sometimes  c:Uled 
jtesky,  when  they  consist  of  a  tleshy  pro- 
longation ;  fihroiui,  when  they  consist  of 
tn  my  fibrtms  prolongations ;  tuherou.^, 
when  they  consist  of  a  thick  tteshy  sub- 
stance, as  the  potatoe  ;  bulboii.-i,  when  they 
consist  of  a  bulb  or  fleshy  body,  provided 
with  several  coats,  as  the  imum  or  the  lily  ; 
grnnitioferf,  when  they  have  a  cluster  of 
little  bitths,  as  in  the  saxifrage  ;  creeping, 
when  they  have  a  horizontal  prolongation 
of  the  root  growing  under  the  earth,  and 
MMiding  forth  new  plants  of  its  kind,  as 
cone  ligrass. 

The  stem  is  the  pridongatum  of  the  plant 
aiiiive  the  soil,  proceeding  from  the  root. 
The  woody  stem  of  trees  is  the  trunk  ;  that 
which  is  herbaceous  is  the  slalk,  and  be- 
hitigs  only  to  herbai'eiiiis  iilants  ;  but  the 
■t:Uk  of  cnisses,  rushes,  and  similar  plants, 
ia  called  the  culm  ;  and  when  the  slalk 
l»ears  flowers  and  friits  immediately  from 
Jhe  riiil,  and  not  leaves,  it  is  a  sra|ie.  as 
In  ti.9  primrose  nn<l  cowslip  ;  the  sialic 
C* 


BOT 


fie 


which  springs  from  tlie  stem  or  branche*. 
bearing  the  (lower  and  fruit,  is  ilie  (wdim 
cle  or  tlower  slalk  ;  thai  which  bears  the 
leaf  only  i.-^  the  |>euole,  or  focitsiiilk. 

The  bud  is  that  part  of  the  plant  which 
C(Uitains  the  embryo  of  the  leaves,  flowers, 
.^c,  and  serves  .us  their  liyt>ernaculum,  or 
winter  receptacle.  The  bud  is  guarded  by 
scales,  and  furiiislied  with  ^nm,  or  wo.  I, 
as  an  additi(mal  defence.  The  moss  bud 
Is  a  rouinlish  longish  body ,  proceeding  from 
the  m.itlier  plant,  and  becoming  itself  a 
new  one  ;  the  gongyliis  is  a  knob  t»elong 
ing  to  the  seaweed,  which  falls  oti  on  the 
death  of  the  inotlier  plant,  and  becomes  a 
new  one. 

I'he  leaf  is  the  herbaceous  production 
from  the  ii^cendjiig  stenij  when  the  stalk 
and  leaf  are  so  intimately  connected  I  hat 
they  cannot  be  distinguished,  tins  is  culled 
a  frond,  as  in  the  p:ilins  and  the  alga;.  To 
the  leaf  belong  several  ap))endages,  which 
serve  either  for  ornament  or  some  specific 
use,  as  the  bractea,  or  floral  leaf,  that 
stands  near  or  between  the  flowers,  form- 
ing a  tuft,  as  in  the  pineapple;  the  stipiila, 
a  small  leaf  that  appears  on  the  stem,  in 
the  place  of  a  fooLstalk;  the  sheath,  a  pro- 
longation of  the  leaf  that  rolls  itself  round 
the  stem,  its  in  gr^tsses;  the  ascidinm,  or 
bottle, a  fuliaceoHscylindrical  h(dlovv  body, 
which  is  generally  furnished  witliacnver, 
andcontains  water;  the  ampulla, or  bla<ldfr, 
a  roitnd  hollow  body  at  the  roots  uf  water 
idaiits;  the  gland,  a  round  body  situated 
ou  the  leaves,  which  serves  as  an  organ  or 
respiraticm;  Uie  spine,  or  thorn,  that  rises 
in  the  interior  of  the  plant,  ns  in  the  sloe-, 
the  aculeus,  or  prickle,  that  issues  from  the 
hark;  the  cirous  clasper,  or  tendril,  a  fili- 
form body  which  serves  to  support  weak 
plants,  as  in  tlie  vine.  Sec;  the  arista,  oi 
awn,  a  pointed  l>eard  in  grasses;  the  piti, 
hairs, finesleniler  bodies,  which  include  all 
kinds  of  pubescence,  as  bristles,  wool,  io. 
some  of  which  discharge  a  poison,  as  in  the 
nettle. 

The  inflorescence  is  the  mode  of  flower- 
ing, which  differs  very  much  in  diflTerenl 
plants,  and  is  distinguished  intoverticilliis, 
the  whorl,  whichconsists  of  several  flowers, 
slandiiuiat  intervals, surrnundingthpstein, 
as  in  the  mint;  the  racemns,  the  raceme, 
a  (tedniicle  with  short  lateral  branches,  as 
inthecurranland  the vine,&c.;  tliecorym- 
hus,  or  corymb,  an  erect  raceme,  the  lower 
peduncles  of  which  are  so  lengthened  as  to 
be  of  eiiual  height  with  the  upper;  when 
the  peduncles  take  llieir  rise  from  the  same 
centre,  but  the  subdivisions  are  irregular, 
it  is  a  cyme;  when  the  (tediiiicles  ris« 
from  the  same  centre,  but  llie  whole  it 


66 


BOTANY. 


dlsfHiseii  In  regular  order,  It  is  an  umbel-, 
the  capilulum  has  many  flowers,  standing 
'hick,  so  as  to  form  a  head,  as  in  the  globe- 
amaranth;  the  fasciculus, fascicle  or  bundle, 
a  number  of  simide  peduncles  rising  at  the 
frot  of  the  stem  from  several  points,  as  in 
tJie  sweelwilliam;  the  spica,  or  ear,  as  in 
wheat  and  barley;  the  panicula,  or  pani- 
cle, in  which  the  flowers  or  fruits  are 
scattered  on  branches  unequally  divided, 
as  in  the  oat  grass;  the  spadix,  so  called 
from  the  apadix  vagina,  or  sheath,  which 
contains  the  flower  siftlks;  the  unienlum, 
or  catkin,  a  long  stem  thickly  covered 
with  scales,  under  which  are  the  flowers 
or  essential  parts,  as  in  the  willow  and 
hazel;  the  sorus,  or  m<x«s,  an  inflorescence 
peculiar  to  the  ferns,  which  have  niiisses 
of  seed  capsules  in  their  fronds. 

The  friictitication  consists  of  the  flower 
mut  the  fruit.  The  principal  parts  of  the 
flower  are,  1.  The  calyx,  or  tlowercap,  or 
eMvelo|>e  of  green  leaves,  which,  when  it 
immediately  encloses  the  flower,  is  a  peri- 
anth; when  it  contains  many  flowers  in 
one  is  an  anthodium;  when  it  consists  of 
many  leaves  surrounding  the  flower,  as  in 
iimltelliferous  plants,  is  an  involucre.  The 
calyx  of  grasses  is  called  the  glume;  when 
it  rolls  itself  round  the  stem,  as  in  some 
grasses,  it  is  called  the  vagina,  or  sheath; 
and  in  some  aquatic  plants  the  spatlia,  or 
spathe.  2.  The  coiolla,  or  blossom,  the 
envelope  of  small  leaves  of  various  colours 
which  constitute  the  flower  properly  so 
called;  the  divisions  of  the  corolla  are 
called  the  [>etals;  the  parts  of  the  corolla 
are  the  tubus,  the  tube,  the  hollow  under- 
part  of  a  corolla  that  has  but  one  petal; 
liinbus,  the  border  or  opening  of  the  co- 
rolla; labia,  the  lips;  barba,  the  beard; 
rictus,  tl|e  gape  between  the  extremities  of 
the  lipe;,,faux,  the  throat  or  the  opening  of 
the  tube;  nectarium,  the  nectary,  which 
commonly  serves  to  secrete  a  sweet  juice; 
this  is  sometimes  in  the  sha|>e  of  a  hood, 
and  is  called  the  cucullus,  or  hood,  as  in 
the  aconite  or  monkshood;  sometimes  in 
the  shape  of  a  spur,  called  calcar,  as  in  the 
violet;  also  in  that  of  an  arch,  a  crown, 
fcc.  3.  The  stamen  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  flower,  which  consists  of  the  flinment 
itrthiead  that  supports  theaullier;  anthen, 
the  anther,  a  hollow  cetlular  body;  and 
pollen.  Die  tM>wder  or  fine  dust  contained 
in  I  be  anilirr.  4.  The  pistil,  the  second 
e»,*pnii:il  |>aU  of  a  flowrr,  stands  in  the 
centre  of  the  circle  formed  by  the  stamen, 
and  niMsists  ifihe  geriiien,  the  rtidiiueiits 
of  the  future  fniil  orsfed;  the  •'tylus,  -ityle 
«rsliitfl,  asni.ill  s(.-\lkse:itednii  Ihecerineii; 
•nd  Itae  stlguia,  the  top  i>l'  ihr  slytK. 


The  fruit  proceeds  fVom  the  cermen.  and 
consists  of,  1,  the  pericarpium.  }>ericarp 
or  seed  ve».sel,  a  hard  hollow  body,  that  it 
of  Uiflerent  kinds,  as  cajKOila,  a  cajwule,  or 
thin  coat,  divided  into  cells;  a  sillqua,  ot 
pnd,  a  dry  elongated  i)ericarp,  consirting 
of  halves  or  valves,  as  in  the  mustard;  tke 
legumen,  the  legume,  as  in  the  pea  kind; 
nux,  the  nut,  a  pericarp  covered  with  t 
hard  shell;  drupa,  or  drupe,  a  nut  covereJ 
with  a  fleshy  coat,  as  in  the  plum;  bacca, 
the  berry , a  succulent  fi  uit  (Hjiilain  ing  miiiiy 
seeds,  as  the  goosel>erry,  the  curntnt,  &-C 
2.  'J'he  semen,  or  seed,  that  fKiilof  the  plant 
destined  for  propagati(m,  cmisists  of  dif- 
ferent parts,  as  tlie  cotyledones,  colyledons 
orseed  leaves;  corciiluni,  thecirdeorlittle 
heart,  the  germ  of  the  new  plant;  hylum, 
the  eye,  the  deep  scar  in  the  seed  which 
has  been  occupied  by  the  circle;  plumula, 
the  plumule,  or  that  part  of  the  circle 
which  ascends  to  form  the  leaves;  rostel- 
lum,  the  o'.'ier  part  of  the  circle,  which 
descends  to  form  the  root.  Besides  the 
seed  is  furnished  with  Uilfereniapi>endage*, 
as  ar'llus,  the  aril,  a  soft  membrane  ex- 
tended over  the  seed;  pw]tpus,  the  down; 
Cauda,  the  tail;  rostrum,  the  beak;  and 
various  spines,  or  hooks,  &,c.  which  serve 
to  attach  the  seeds  to  diflerent  bodies,  and 
pron)ote  their  dispersicm.  3.  The  basis,  oj 
b:ise.  is  the  receptacle  or  body  on  which 
the  flower  stands,  the  princii>al  part  of 
which  is  the  thalamus,  or  fruit  bed;  when 
this  is  round  or  oblong  it  is  called  peltii, 
a  target;  when  plateshaped,  stutelta,  a 
shield';  when  convex,  tiiberculum,  &.C. 

Besides  the  science  of  botany  conipre- 
hendsalsoa  knowledge  of  plants  as  to  their 
vegetation,  anatomy,  cheoiical  composi- 
tion, and  diseases,  which  uje  all  iiiclude< 
under  the  physiology  of  plants.  'I'he  veg 
etation  of  plants  may  be  distinguished  into 
germination,  when  the  seed  begins  to  burst, 
vernation,  when  the  buds  begin  to  burst; 
virginity,  when  the  flowers  or  buds  are  not 
yet  unfolded;  defoliation,  when  the  leaves 
in  autumn  begin  to  fall  ofl';  sleec,  when 
during  the  night  the  leaves  hang  down; 
Eestivation,  when  the  flower  is  in  iierfi-e- 
tion;  fructilication,  when  the  anthers 
communicate  the  fructifying  dust  in  the 
neighbouring  parts. 

'I  he  anatomical  structure  of  plants  com 
prehends  the  cuticle,  the  cortex  or  outer 
hark;  the  liber,  or  inner  bark;  the  libur- 
iiuin,  or  .soft  wood;  lignum,  the  wood; 
medulla,  the  pith;  the  air  vessels,  which 
arelhe  cimdiirtcirs  of  the  air;  the  nddiicent 
or  spiral  vessels,  which  pn  ceed  with  of 
are  entwined  rmind  the  air  vessels;  tlie 
rediicent  veoMsls,  which  are  suppised   to 


BOTANY 


61 


«rve  the  purpose  of  trnnspiratic  n ,  tlie 
vnipliutiCK,  wliicli  are  ri'tinilarly  united; 
tie  cellular  texture,  :i  ilclicMle  nieiuhnuie 
irriiiniding  i>.\\  the  v«-ssel*,  uinl  ■'(int:i>iiliig 
resiniius  juice,  iu>  tu  ilic  tir  iribe,  and  a 
guiiiuiy  juice  in  rniii  iree!<;  the  (jl^iiUd, 
which  serve  hs  sum  rfti^ry  vessels. 

The  principal  diyiinciil  w-.ii«titiients  of 
ol.ants  are  carhnn.  hyilrnneii,  iind  oxygen, 
but  chiefly  the  former,  lie.-.iile.-i  which  azote, 
(ulpliur,  an<l  oilier  simii>I<'  >ubstance.s,  may 
be  found  in  small  qu.iiiiilie3.  The  princi- 
pal compound  sul)!«taiices  which  form  the 
seusibleingiedientsof  plant.sare,theacid:<, 
Xiucilnge,  sugar,  starch,  albunieu,  gluten, 
fixed  and  volatile  oil,  wax,  resin,  ca>nphur, 

The  priuci|>al  diseases  to  which  plants 
are  incident  are,  fissures,  or  a  separation 
of  the  solids  into  long  clefts,  arising  from 
an  extreme  fulness  of  juice;  premature 
defoliation,  when  the  leaves  fall  olT before 
tlie  usual  period;  alblgo  mildew,  a  whitish 
mucilaginous  coating  of  the  leaves  of 
plants,  which  causes  (heir  decay,  rubigo, 
rust  which  appears  on  tlie  leaves  and  stems 
of  many  plants;  lepni,  leprosy,  which  af- 
fects the  trunk  ;  galbe,  galls,  occasioned 
by  tlying  insects;  verruc;e,  warts;  besides 
heinorrage,   canker,  e.vulceration,  &.C. 

IKiTANV,  IIistoky  of.  As  the  practice 
of  cultivating  plants  both  for  pleasure  and 
utility  was  coeval  with  the  rtrsl  fonaation 
of  m?ii,  it  is  iiatunil  to  suppose  that  the 
science  of  botany  wiut  (nie  of  the  earliest 
studies  which  engaged  the  attention  of  in- 
quirers. Aristotle,  in  his  history  of  ani- 
mals, has  many  remarks  on  plants,  draw- 
.ng  a  coinp,irison  between  their  mode  of 
growth  and  that  nf  animals,  and  pointing 
out  in  what  animal  and  vegetable  life  agree 
and  in  what  they  differ.  His  disciple, 
Theophrastus,  has  devoted  a  whole  work 
b  his  favourite  subject,  and  has  not  only 
narked  the  distinctions  between  trees, 
«hrubs,  herbs,  and  flowers,  but  treated  of 
.he  diflerent  parts  of  plants,  as  the  root, 
stem,  leaf,  and  fruit;  showing  their  diver- 
sity in  form,  habit,  colour,  mode  of  growth, 
and  other  interesting  particulars,  which 
he  has  illustrated  by  giving  the  names  of 
not  less  than  live  hundred  different  planto, 
by  way  of  example.  Kxcejit  the  descrip- 
tions or  allusions  of  the  poets  lo  t':ivoiirite 
plants,  tl:ere  is  nothing  further  to  be  fiuind 
on  the  subject  of  botany  until  the  time  of 
the  Romans.  Virsil,iii  liisfJeornics.speaks 
of  the  uses  and  culture  of  several  pants 
connected  withlmsbandry.  Pliny,  In  his 
Natural  llisfory,descritie.s  nottessilianone 
thousand  s|>'cies  of  plants,  Dul  without  any 
other  order  than  in    connexion    with  the 


I  places  where  they  were  iiMigeiiuus.  \a 
I  tonius  Musa  desciibes  the  virtues  of  Ui* 
I  plant  betoiiy.  Columella  treats  of  plantwis 
an  agricultural  pointofview.  Dioscorides, 
(jaleii,  Dinbivsiris,  I'aulus  ^geneta,  and 
Arliiis  iiave  described  the  lucdiciiial  vir- 
tues of  plants  niurli  at  large.  After  tlies* 
writers  the  snlijeit  of  botany  appeaiii  to 
have  been  almost,  torgotten,  otherwise 
than  it  Wits  pursued  by  the  .Arabians  in 
conjunction  with  the  scieme  of  medicine 
In  Kiirope,  at  least,  we  fiud  that  it  w.as 
altogether  neglected  until  the  sixteeii'ti 
ceiitiiiy,wheii  a  number ofbolanislssjiriKig 
up  ill  Germany,  Kngland,  Holland,  Italy, 
and  Krance,  who,  as  their  works  testily 
prosecuted  the  subject  with  great  zeiil 
I'rosper  Alpiims  wrote  several  b(K>ks  on 
the  plants  of  t^gypt  and  other  exotica. 
Clusius,  a  French  botanist,  wrote  on  the 
rarer  kind  of  plants.  Many  other  botanlits 
in  this  and  the  following  centuries  wr(>te 
general  histories  of  the  plants  whirli  ciinie 
within  their  observation,  particular.y  Ctt- 
saipinusin  his  work  L)e  Plantis,  libri  xvi.; 
Delechamp,  in  his  Historia  Generalis  I'laii- 
tarum;  J.  Bauhin,  in  his  Historia  I'lan- 
tarum;  C.  Bauhin,  in  his  I'hytopiiiax; 
Gerarde,  in  his  Herbal;  Parkinson,  in  his 
1'heatrum  llotanicum;  Ray,  in  his  Historiii 
Plantarum;  Comnielinus,  in  his  Hortus 
Malabariciis;  1'ournefort,  in  liis  Inctitu 
ticmes  Kei  Herbaria;  Boerliaave,  in  his 
Index  alter  Plaptariim  Horti  Academiei 
Lugduni;  Vaillant,  in  his  Botanicon  Par- 
isiense;  besides  Fiichsius,  IMatthiolus,  l)od-> 
ona.Mis,  Cainerarius,  Bregnius,  lUieedius, 
Briinfels,  Plukenet,  Plumier,  ice. 

Caisalpinus,  in  the  sixteenth  centiirv, 
was  the  first  who  prn|>erly  systeniati/.ed 
botany  He  formed  fifteen  cliusses  from 
the  fruit  and  the  situation  of  the  corciiliim 
Since  his  time  many  systems  have  been 
formed  from  different  parts  of  I  lie  plai<ts 
Ray  chose  Ihe  flower,  fruit,  aiul  external 
appearance  of  the  plants  fur  the  fuuiiila 
tion  of  his  system.  Camellus  framed  i 
system  from  the  valves  (>•"  the  cajisiile 
calling  his  classet  uericarpia  fora,  uiii- 
fora,  bifora,  &.c.  Riviniis  selected  flia 
corolla,  dividins  the  plants  into  Mores  regu- 
lares,  compositiB,  and  irregular>*s,  and 
these  again  into  monopetali,  dipetali.  &c 
llaller  formed  a  natural  system  from  the 
cotyledons,  the  calyx,  the  corolla,  the 
stamina,  ami  the  sexes  of  the  plants  ;  but 
Ihe  system  most  generally  adopted  before 
the  time  of  Linii.i;U8  was  that  of  Tourne- 
fort.  He  divided  plants  into  lierba'  et 
sufrrntices,  arbores  et  frulices,  and  tlie»» 
again  into  herbs  floribns  uionopetalu, 
canipaniformibus,infundebili>iirniilius  Alt 


18 


BOT 


BOTANY.  In  the  classification  of  the 
botanical  nomenclature  there  are  two 
princiijal  systems — the  sexual  or  artifli- 
cial  one  ot  Linuajus,  aud  that  of  Jussieu, 
which  is  according  to  the  natural  order 
of  plants.  The  lannsean  system  is 
founded  on  the  number,  situation,  and 
proportion  of  the  essential  organs  of 
fru-^tiflcation,  denominated  stamens  aud 
pistils.  The  names  of  the  classes  and 
orders  are  of  Ureek  derivation,  aud  al- 
lude to  the  functions  of  the  respective 
orders.  Thus  the  vegetable  kiugdom  is 
divided  by  that  great  naturalist  into  24 
classes,  of  which  2:i  belong  to  flowering, 
and  1  to  flowerless  plants.  The  first 
eleven  classes  are  distinguished  entirely 
by  the  number  of  stamens,  which  are 
OAlled  Mouandria,  Diandria,  Triandria, 
&c.,  as  far  as  Dodecandria,  from  the 
Greek  words  one,  two,  three,  &c.  com- 
bined with  male  (andria),  because  the 
stamens  of  flowers  are  compared  to 
males,  and  the  pistils  to  females.  Hence 
the  orders,  as  far  as  Polygynia,  are  de- 
nominated Mouogynia,  Digyuia,  Trigy- 
nia,  &c.,  according  as  the  flower  has  one 
or  more  pistiLs;  so  called  from  the 
Greek  wane  (one),  and  gune  (a  female). 
Thus  the  jasmine,  having  two  stamens, 
and  one  pistil,  is  placed  in  the  second 
class  of  the  first  order  of  that  class,  or 
Diandria  Mouogynia.  The  following  is 
a  summary  of  the  24  classes,  which  owe 
their  distinctions  chiefly  to  the  stamens 
and  pistels:  1.  Monandria,  one  stamen. 
— 2.  Diandria,  2  stamens. — 3.  Triandria, 
three. — 1.  Totraiidia,  four. — 5.  Pentan- 
dria,  five. — 6.  Hexandria,  six. — 7.  Hep- 
tandria,  seven. — 8.  Octandria,  eight. — 9. 
Euueandria,  nine. — 10.  Decandria,  ten. — 
11.  Dodecandria.  twelve. — 12.  Icosan- 
dria,  twenty  or  more  stamens,  inserted 
into  the  calyx. — 13.  Poly  andria,  all  above 
twenty  inserted  into  the  receptacle. — 14. 
Didynamia,  four  stamens,  two  long  and 
two  short, — 15.  Tetradynamia,  six  stam- 
ens, four  li  ng  and  two  short. — 16.  Mon- 
adelphia,  the  stamens  united  into  the 
bodies  by  the  filaments. — 17.  Diadelphia, 
the  stamens  united  into  the  bodies  by 
the  filaments.— 18.  Polyadelphia,  the 
stamens  united  into  three  or  more  bodies 
by  the  filaments. — 19.  Syugenesia,  an 
thers  united  into  a  tube". — 20.  Gj'uan- 
dria,  stamens  inserted  either  upon  the 
style  or  germen.  21.  Moncecia,  stamens 
and  pistils  in  separate  flowers,  but  on 
the  same  plant.— 22.  Dioecia,  stamens 
and  pistils,  like  the  former,  in  separate 
flowers,  but  on  two  separate  plants. — 
23.  Polygamia,  stamens  aud  pistils  sep- 
arate in  some  flowers,  united  in  other.*", 
either  on  one,  two,  or  three  distinct 
plants.— 24.  Oyptogamia,  stamens  and 
piBtils  either  not  well  ascertained,  or 
not  to  be  numbered  with  certainty. 

The  Natural  System  of  Plants,  as  de- 
vised by  Jussieu  and  De  Candolle  dif- 
fers most  materially  from  the  Linuasan 
System  ;  it  takes  into  consideration  the 
•aUre  ori;aiuzation  of  the  plant,  witli 


BOW 

its  prox)ertie8  and  peculiar  habits.  The 
most  striking  genus  of  a  tribe  of  i)lanta 
gives  name  to  the  order;  as,  lor  in- 
stance, the  Rose  (  Latin  rosa),  forms  the 
type  of  the  natural  order  llo.sacese;  and 
the  Violet,  that  of  the  order  Violacese. 
In  this  manner  Jussieu  divided  the 
whole  vegetable  kingdom  into  1.5  cla.sses, 
and  the  genera  into  100  orders,  but 
which  number  has  been  gradually  in- 
creasing with  the  progress  of  discovery. 

In  the  Natural  System  the  vegetable 
world  has  been  classified  under  two 
grand  divisions — theVasculares  and  the 
t'lllulares;  and  these  again  divided  into 
classes  and  sub-clasFCS, 

Vasculares.  Class  1.  Dycotyledons  or 
Exogens.  The  plants  of  this  class  have 
siems  consisting  of  concentric  layers, 
formed  by  external  annual  additions, 
and  are  composed  of  vascular  and  cellu- 
lar tissue;  the  flowers  are  furnished 
with  male  and  female  organs  of  repro- 
duction, called  stamens  and  pistils. 
Class  II.  Monocotyledons  or  Endogens. 
The  stems  of  this  class  are  formed  by 
the  addition  of  new  fibres  to  the  in  tenor 
of  the  stem  already  formed;  flowers 
sexual,  the  seed  consisting  of  one  coty- 
ledon. 

Cellulares.  Class  1.  Semi-vasculares. 
Plants  having  vessels  as  well  as  cellular 
tissue;  the  stems  are  increased  by 
simple  elongation;  the  leaves  veined 
and  forked;  the  sexual  organs  distinct 
and  visible  nnder  the  microscope  only. 
Class  II.  The  Agamas  are  plants  which 
increase  by  elongation  or  irregular  ex- 
pansion of  their  parts,  and  are  wholly 
composed  of  cellular  tissue,  showing, 
under  the  microscope,  no  sexual  organs 
whatever.  These  consist  of  the  Fungi, 
Mosses,  Lichens,  Hepaticas  or  Liver- 
worts, and  Algae.  The  Dicotyledons  are 
divided  into  four  sub  classes — the  Thal- 
amiflorie,  Calyciflorse,  CorolUfloroe,  and 
Mouochlamydeje. 

BOULDERS.  In  geology,  fragments  of 
rock  embedded  in  diluvial  deposits; 
sometimes  found  lying  on  the  surfice 
of  the  ground,  and  bearing  marks  of 
abrasion  and  transport.  Boulder  for- 
mations are  deposits  of  clay,  gravel,A;c., 
containing  fragments  of  triturated  rock. 

BOW.  A  sea  term,  for  an  instrument 
fixed  on  a  staflT,  with  vanes,  for  taking  the 
sun's  altitude  at  sea  ;  also  llie  rounding 
parts  of  the  ship's  side,  distuiguished  l»y 
the  st<irboard  and  leeboard  iiitotlie  weatliei 
and  lee  bow. 

BOW.  The  name  of  several  things  8a 
called  from  their  curved  figure,  as  tlie  l»<)» 
of  a  key,  the  arclied  part  to  receive  the 
finger ;  the  liow  of  a  saddle,  the  piece  ol 
wood  on  each  side,  laid  archwise  to  receive 
the  upi»er  pan  of  a  horse's  back  ,  bow 
of  a  violin,  the  ri>iinii  stick  t'nrnishfcd  with 
hair,  with  wImcIi  tli»-  (lerfurnier  plays. 

BOW      An     instrument    for    bJtootiQ| 


BRA 

ArioXTS.  The  long  bow,  the  favourite  of 
the  Kiigli.sh  army  in  former  times,  is 
simply  a  bow  with  a  string  fixed  at  each 
end,  to  wliicU  the  arrow  w.is  apfilied.  It 
i&used  with  great  dexterity  by  tlie  Tartars 
«f  Aaia,  and  the  savages  of  America 


BRE 


69 


BOWSPRIT.  A  mast  projecting  over 
the  stem  or  head  to  carry  the  sail  forward. 

BOW'YEIt.  A  bowmaker  ;  the  bowyers 
are  one  of  the  city  companies  in  Ix>ndon. 

BOX.  Any  ca^Je  of  wood,  iion,  or  leather, 
which  serves  for  conveying  or  keeping 
things. 

BO.X.  A  plant,  which  is  of  two  kinds  ; 
namely,  the  dwarf  box  that  is  used  fur 
iMiiderx  in  gardens,  and  the  box  tree,  which 
is  a  shrub  or  tree.  The  wood  of  this  is 
velliiw  and  hard. 

B.  II.  In  England,  an  abbreviation  for 
Bancus  Itegis,  the  Court  of  King's  Bench. 

BRACK.  Wliat  holds  a  thing  tight,  iis 
the  braces  of  a  drum  ;  in  Carpentry,  n 
pier*"  of  timber  which  serves  to  keep  the 
frame  work  tight ;  in  Printing,  a  cr(H>ked 

line  marked  thus  !  which  serves  to  enclose 

words  that  are  to  be  together. 

BRACELET.  An  ornament  for  the  arm 
ar  wrist ;  also  a  piece  of  defensive  armour 
for  the  arm. 

BRACIIMAXP,  or  BRAMINS.  The 
prie<ts  or  philosophers  among  the  IlindiKts; 
S"  called  from  their  god  Braliniu,  to  whose 
worship  they  devote  themselves. 

BRACK  r.T.  A  kind  of  stay  in  the  form 
ofa  knee,or  shoulderson  which  shelves  are 
made  to  rest ;  also  in  Shipbuilding,  a  kind 
of  knee  for  the  siip|)ort  of  the  gratings. 

BRADS  (amonc  Artificers).  A  kind  of 
nails  used  in  building,  which  have  no  heads 
like  other  nails,  as  Joiners'  brads,  flooring 
brads,  batten  brads. 

BllAlN      The  8o(\  contents  of  he  cra- 


nium or  skull,  consisting  of  the  cerebium 
cerebellum,  and  medulla  oblongata,  whict 
are  surrounded  by  three  membranes,  called 
meninges,  or  mats,  as  the  duni  mater,  pia 
mater,  and  arachnoides.  The  substance  of 
the  bruin  is  distinguished  into  outer  and 
inner;  the  fnrnier  is  called  corticalis,  cene- 
rea,  or  glandulusa  -,  the  latter,  medullaris, 
alba,  or  nervea.  It  is  gener.ally  supposed 
to  be  the  seat  of  the  soul,  or  that  part 
where  all  the  senses  terminate. 

BRAN,  'i'he  husk  of  ground  wheat. 

BRANCH.  A  shoot  from  the  main  bough 
of  a  tree  ;  also  several  things  similar  in 
figure,  as  the  antlers  or  shoots  of  a  stag's 
horn  ;  the  branches  of  veins,  branches  of  a 
river,  branches  of  a  bridle,  that  is,  the  two 
pieces  of  bended  iron  that  bear  the  bit- 
mouth,  the  chains,  and  the  curb. 

BR.\NCHI^.  Gills  in  the  anatomy  of 
fishes,  organs  of  respiration  answering  to 
the  lungs  in  other  animals,  with  which  all 
fishes  are  provided,  except  the  cetaceous 
trit)e  and  the  lamprey.  They  are  eight  in 
number,  and  serve  the  fish  to  lake  in,  and 
throw  out  water  with  the  air. 

BRANCHIOSTEOIOIJS.  An  order  of 
fishes  in  the  Linniean  system,  including 
such  as  have  gills  without  lM>ny  rays,  as 
the  pipe  fish,  sucker,  frog  fish,  &.c. 

BRANDV.  A  spirituous  and  inflamma- 
ble liquor,  made  from  the  lees  of  wiiu^  by 
disfill!iti(m.  Its  constituent  parts  are  wa- 
ter, alcohol,  and  a  little  nil  or  resin.  Bran- 
dy is  said  to  have  been  first  ntanufactured 
in  l.ananedoc 

BRANT-FOX,  A  sort  of  black  and  red 
fox. 

BRASIL  WOOn.  A  .sort  of  wood  so 
(lenominated  becatise,  as  js  supposed,  it 
was  first  lirought  from  Brasil.  It  is  red  and 
heavy,  so  as  to  sink  in  water,  takes  a 
goo<l  polish,  and  yields  beautiful  orange 
and  red  colours,  which  are  used  by  dyers. 
When  chewed  it  has  a  sweetish  taste. 

BRASS.  A  factitious  con)(>ound  inetal, 
of  a  vHlow  colour,  consisting  of  copfter 
and  about  one  third  of  iis  weight  of  y.Inc 

BRAWN.  The  muscular  or  fleshy  part 
of  the  body,  particularly  th.it  of  the  boar. 

BREACH.  A  gap  made  in  the  works 
of  a  town  by  the  besiegers. 

BREACH  (in  Law).  The  violation  of  a 
contract  ;  breach  of  pound,  is  the  break- 
ing any  place  where  cattle  are  distrained  , 
breach  of  prison,  an  escajw  by  breaking 
out  of  prison. 

BREAD.  A  light,  porous,  spongy  sub- 
stance, prepared  by  fermentation  and 
baking,  from  the  flour  of  wheat,  rye,  or 
barley.  Wheaten  bread  is  distinguished 
into  while  bread,  which  is  made  of  the 


70 


BRG 


finest  flour,  and  lirowii  bread,  of  flour  liiiv- 
ing  some  of  the  bran  m  il. 

BllKAJ)  FRIHT-I  KliE  Tlie  autocar- 
pus  of  LiniiiEUs,  a  tree  gr  .wing  in  some 
of  the  Oceanic  islands,  so  ciilled  because 
the  fruit,  which  is  milky  and  pulpy,  sup- 
plies the  place  of  bread  to  the  inliubilants. 
Tbu  tree  grows  lo  tlie  tieiglit  of  forty  feet. 


BREAK.  A  sea  tenn,  for  that  part  of 
a  deck  where  tne  desctnt  to  the  next  deck 
below  it,  commeuceii-,  in  Printing,  the  short 
line  which  ends  a  paiagraph. 

nilEAKERS.  BilU.ws  that  break  vio- 
ently  over  rocks  tlisi  lie  under  the  surface 
of  the  sea. 

BREAKING  GROUND.  A  military 
term,  for  o|)ening  the  trenches  and  be- 
ginning th<!  works  for  a  siege. 

BREAKING  IN  'Jlie  discipline  of  flrst 
training  a  rolt  to  )  i  useful. 

BREAKVVATi"..l.  The  hull  of  a  vessel 
or  any  erection  of  wood  or  stone,  placed 
at  the  entrance  o>.  a  harhnur  to  break  the 
force  of  the  wa.te',  such  as  the  I  reak  wa- 
ter lately  erecti  d  in  Plyinouth  r^ound, 
England,  and  ih  .t  in  Delaware  Bay. 

ilREA.M.  A  (  «h  of  the  carp  kind,  that 
grows  f;ist  f.m'  lias  a  broad  body,  'riic 
Bea  Bream,  ot'^/ rwise  called  tbe  lied  iJili 
Head,  is  a  Silt,  of  a  red  colour,  with  tlie 
iris  s\*very 


BRSaBT.  The  anterior  part  of  the 
::oTax. 

BRLXSTFAPT.  A  sea  term,  for  the 
4rge  rope  employed  to  confine  a  ship 
jideways  to  a  wharf  or  rpiay. 

URi:\STI'l,\  I'E.  A  piece  i.f  defensive 
artnniir  worn  on  Hie  bre:isl  ;  in  Ihirseiiian- 
■hip,  a  tcitherii   xlmp  niiiiiini!   frxiii  one 


BRl 

side  of  the  saddle,  across  the  horse's  breast 
to  the  other,  to  keep  il  in  lis  place. 

BREAST  I'LOUUIl.  A  sort  of  plough 
which  is  driven  forward  by  the  bre.ist, 
and  is  used  in  England  in  pjuingolf  turf 
from  the  land. 

BREA.STU'ORK.  A  military  term,  foi 
works  thrown  uji  as  high  as  the  breast  of 
the  beslegeil  ;  a  sea  term,  for  the  balus 
trade  of  the  quarter  deck. 

BRECCIA,  or  l'uooi»o-«Toi«i:.  A  sort 
of  aggregate  earth,  consisting  of  frapmenls 
of  stones  conglutiiialed.  The  beautiful 
pillars  in  the  Representatives  Hall  in  the 
Capitid  at  Washington  are  of  this  st'.iie. 

BKEECil.  The  hinder  part  tif  t  gun, 
from  the  cascabel  to  the  b<"-e  ;  also  a  sea 
term,  for  the  angle  ol  Knee  timber  iii  a 
ship. 

BREEDING.  That  part  of  husbandry 
which  consist!^  in  the  rearing  of  cattle  of 
live  stock  of  ditferent  kinds,  particularly 
by  crossing  or  mingling  one  species  oi 
variety  with  another,  so  as  lo  improve  the 
breed. 

BRES.SUMMER  A  binding  interstice 
or  girder  lo  different  parts  of  a  house. 

BREVET.  A  military  term,  for  pro- 
motion in  the  army  without  addliiiuial 
pay. 

BREVIARY.  A  bot)k  containing  »!■<, 
daily  service  of  the  Romish  cliiirch. 

BREWING.  The  art  of  making  ma 
liquor,  such  as  ale,  beer,  porter,  &.r,.  which 
much  resembles  the  process  nf  making  tea 
The  proper  ingredients  used  in  brewing  are 
malt,  hops,  and  water,  in  cerlain  prcpnr- 
tions,  according  to  the  required  strenclh  nf 
the  liquor.  Eicliteeii  gallons  <ifg<iiid  air  and 
nine  gallons  of  table  beer  iii^iy  be  drawn 
from  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  malt  -,  but  lo 
make  strong  beer  only  six  sriillims  are 
reckoned  lo  one  bushel  of  malt.  Among 
the  pernicious  and  unlawful  iiisredimts 
used  by  brewers  are  an  exir:irl  i>f  the 
cociilus  liidiciis,  hartshorn  sImv  lugs,  iiin 
ger,  .'-'p:inish  juice,  orange  |«iW(lcr  liquit 
rice,  caraway  seeds,  and  siilphiirir  iiiid. 

ItRlliKRV.  The  receiving  of  any  re- 
ward or  gill  for  corrupt  purposes. 

BRICK,  .'^n  artificial  kind  of  stniic, 
eomposed  of  clay,'  coal  ashes,  and  sand, 
lily  mincled  together,  dried  by  the  sun 
and  hardened  by  llie  lire.  Bricks  are 
distinguished,  arcording  to  their  quality, 
into  marls  and  stocks,  which  latter  are 
either  gray  or  red,  according  to  the  co  oui 
of  the  earth. 

BRICKLAYER.  One  whose  trade  is  to 
build  with  brinks. 

BRIDGE.  AiUriicture  raised  overrivt-rs, 
&.C.  and  consisi  iiig  of  one  or  more  ari'l>/-« 


DRI 

**he  prlnripal  |v<rt.s  of  a  liriiiRe  are  .lie 
pii-rs,  or  walls,  limit  for  tlie  .sii|i|iiirt  i>l  tlie 
arches;  llie  |Kir.i|)el,  or  breaslutill,  iii;iile 
III  protect  the  piissienaers,  the  li:iiii|iiet, 
piiveiiietit,  or  niised  fmUpath,  and  the  ulxit- 
meiiM  or  extremities  of  the  hrld^e,  which 
rest  on  the  banks.  The  |irinci|ial  arches 
employed  in  bndgt  building  are  Ihose  of 
tlieseniicircularorellipiira.  form,  the  cate- 
na-ian  arch,  and  the  arch  of  ei|ndibnuin, 
wj  ich  last  is  ei^I.-eined  to  be  tlie  best,  be- 
cause it  IS  e<|ually  strong  in  every  part. 


Z-^'. 


BRIDGE.  A  military  term,  for  any 
contrivance  by  which  soldiers  can  cross  a 
river,  as  a  bridge  of  boats,  formed  by 
boats  joined  sidewav  s,  and  covered  with 
planks;  or  a  bridge  of  rushes,  formed  of 
bundles  of  rushes  bound  fast  togellier  and 
covered  with  planks,  r'uch  temporary 
bridges  are  called  tlyiiig  bridges. 

I!K11m;e:.  The  name  of  several  thiiii's 
similar  in  figure  to  a  bridge,  as  the  bridge 
of  the  nose,  the  gristle  which  part.s  the 
nostrils;  the  bridge  in  a  violin,  &c.  the 
perpendicular  arch  which  siippiirts  the 
strings;  the  bridge,  ninong  Cuiiiieis,  is  the 
name  for  the  two  pieces  of  limber  whii:h 
go  between  the  transiims  of  a  gun  carriage 
on  wliicli  the  bed  rests. 

HRIDLK.  A  pan  of  the  furniture  of  a 
horse's  head,  which  serves  to  guide  Ihe 
aiiim.-tl.  The  principal  parts  are  the  bitt, 
or  sii:«lfle,  wliich  goes  into  the  hoixe's 
mouth;  the  curb,  or  chain  of  iron,  that 
runs  over  the  beard  of  Ihe  horse;  the  head- 
stall, or  leather  that  goes  rminil  Ihe  lieail; 
the  fillet,  that  lies  over  the  forehead;  the 
throatband,  that  goes  iindei  thelliront;  and 
the  reins, which  serve  foi  the  rider. 

HRIF.P  (in  Law)  An  abridgment  of  a 
client's  case,  made  out  for  the  insiriiction 
of  cnunifc'i  on  a  trial  at  law;  also  a  license 
in  England  to  make  collections  for  repair- 
ing cilurches,  losses  by  (ire,  &c.  'I'his  last 
sort  of  brief  is  now  abolished  by  statute. 

BRIEF  (in  .Music).  .A  measure  of  ipian- 
tily,  which  contains  two  slnikes  down  in 
beating  time,  and  as  many  up. 

HISK;  a  siiiuII  merchant's  vessel  with 
two  masts. 

HRKJADE.  A  militnry  lerm,  for  a 
oartv  or  div  isiuh  ^fai'liliers,  whether  horse 


BRO  71 

or  fool,  uiidet   the  command  iif  a  briga- 
dier. 

BRIGA.NTIXK.  A  small  light  vessel, 
which  can  both  row  and  sail  well,  being 
ad:iptcu  either  for  hghting  or  for  chaM 


BRLMSTONE.  The  vulgar  name  for 
sulphur. 

BRINE.    Water  impregnated  with  salt 

BRISKET.  That  jKirt  of  the  breast  of 
an  animal  that  lies  nearest  the  ribs. 

BRISTLE.  The  hair  of  swine,  which  ia 
much  used  by  briishmakers,  particularly 
that  imported  from  Russia 

BRISTOL  HOT  WATER.  Mineral 
waters  of  the  lowest  temperature  of  any  in 
England,  the  constituent  parts  of  which  are 
carbonic  acid,  gas,  lime,  and  ina^iiiesia, 
besides  the  muriatic  and  vitriolic  acids 

BRITA.N.MA.  The  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  the  island  of  Hrilain,  which  is 
represented  on  their  medals  under  the 
tiaiire  of  a  female  resting  her  let\  arm  tm 
a  shield.  Also  a  species  of  ware  made  of 
block  tin. 

liROADSinE.  A  sea  term,  for  a  dis- 
charge of  all  the  cunson  one  side  of  a  ship 

BROADSWORD.  A  sword  with  a 
broad  blade,  chiefly  designed  for  cutting. 

BROCADE.  A  kind  of  stuff  or  cloth  of 
gold. 

BROCOLI.  An  Italian  plant  of  the 
cauliflower  kind. 

BR<V;UE.  A  defective  pronunciation 
of  a  language,  parlicularly  applied  to  the 
Irish  manner  of  speaking  English. 

BROKE.V  LETTER.  A  term  in  Print- 
ing for  the  breakins  Hit- orderly  -piccesyjun 
ill  which  the  biier-  siinul  in  a  line  or  |>age, 
and  minding  them  injiellier. 

BR<  IK  ER.  '  >iie  who  cniicliides  bargain* 
or  roniracis  for  MUTrliaiils,  as  excliunge 
brokers,  shiji  brokers,  ,tc. 

RRi  iK  El!  ACE.  V\'hat  is  paid  to  a  brok.«r 
for  his  iruiible. 


72 


BUD 


BROMB  GRASS.  A  sort  of  grass  much 
resembling  ttie  oHt;  whence  it  has  also 
teen  called  oat  grass. 

BRO.NZE.  A  mixed  metal,  composed 
principally  of  copper,  with  a  small  portion 
Bftin  and  other  metals. 

BRONZING  'I'lie  art  of  varnishing 
Wood,  plaster,  and  ivory,  so  as  to  give  them 
the  colour  of  bronze. 

BROOCH.  A  collar  of  gold  formerly 
worn  abciut  the  necks  of  ladies. 

BROO.M.  A  rli.weri;'i;  sliruh,  having  a 
papilionaceous  Hower,  (Vhich  becomes  a 
short  roundisli  swelling  pod,  containing  a 
kidney  shaped  seed  in  each. 

BROO.M.  A  besonmvhich  in  England  is 
frequently  made  of  the  hrooni  shrub  and 
•erves  for  sweeping  a  house 

BR  LIT  A.  The  second  order  of  animals 
oflhe  class  mammalia  in  the  L.nniean 
system,  comprehending  those  animals 
which  have  tio  fore  teeth  in  either  jaw,  as 
bradypus,  the  sloth;  mynycopliaga,  the 
ant-eater;  rhinoceros,  the  rhiuocerus;  eie- 
yhas,  the  elephant,  &c. 

BRUTE-WKIOHT.  A  term  employed 
when  merchandises  are  weighed  with  the 
cases,  &.C.  in  distinction  from  the  net 
weight. 

BUBBLE.  A  bladder  in  water,  ora  vesi- 
cle filled  with  air;  also  a  cheating  pmject, 
iuch  as  the  South  Sea  bubble  in  1720,  and 
nnmerouB  projects  of  a  similar  character 
which  have  been  set  afloat  within  the  last 
few  years,  to  the  ruin  of  many. 

BUCCANEERS.  A  general  name  for 
the  pirates,  who  used  to  make  war  on  the 
Spaniards  in  their  West  India  posses- 
f'ons. 

BUCK.  A  male  deer  of  the  fallow  kind; 
also  a  male  rabbit. 

BUCKET.  A  kind  of  pail  made  of 
leather. 

BUCKLE.  A  fastening  for  «  shoe,  or 
the  harness  of  ahorse,  by  means  of  an  iron 
tongue  within  a  hoop. 

BUCKLER.  An  ancient  piece  of  defen- 
sive armour,  made  of  wicker  work,  and 
worn  on  the  arm. 
BUCKRA.M.  A  sort  of  stiffened  cloth. 
BUCKWHEAT,  otherwise  called 
Bi<A<iK.  A  sort  of  grain  that  is  used  in 
England  as  food  for  swine.  It  is  much 
used  III  America  for  making  a  very  palata- 
ble kind  of  cakes.  It  is  also  preferred  for 
fattening  fowls.  The  Mowers  grow  in  a 
ipike,  or  branched  from  the  wings  of  the 
leaves 

BUCOLrCS.  Pastoral  poems,  so  called 
from  the  niiccilica  of  Virgil. 

BUD.  That  part  of  a  plant  which  con- 
tains the  embryo  of  the  leaven.Ilowers,  Jfcc. 


BUL 

BtrDDH  A.  The  name  of  a  deity  amon| 
the  people  of  India. 

BUDDLE.  .\  frame  to  receive  the  mine- 
ral ore  aller  It  is  separated  from  tlie  coarsei 
parts. 

BUIW  ET.  Properly,  a  bag  or  knap|ack 
that  may  be  easily  carried;  also,  in  Wig- 
land,  the  aiiinial  statement  of  the  riiiaiires 
made  by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Excheiiuei 
ill  the  House  of  CoiiimuiiK. 

BUFF.  A  sort  of  thick  leather  prepared 
from  the  skin  of  the  biiftalo. 

BUKFA  I.O.  A  wild  ox  a  native  of  Af 
rica.  It  is  domesticated  in  Italy  and  some 
other  countries  and  used  for  draught.  It 
has  horns  resupinated  and  tlat  on  the  fors 
side,  a  tough  skin,  black  hair,  small  head 
and  no  dewlap. 


BUFFET.  A  sort  of  cupboard  for  plate, 
glasses,  &c. 

BUGLEHORN.  A  horn  formerly  used 
much  in  hunting,  and  now  in  tiie  araiv 


BUILni.NG.  The  art  of  raising  build- 
ings according  to  given  designs,  which  ii 
properly  practical  architecture-,  also  the 
structure  so  raised. 

BULBOUS 
P  L  A  N  T  S.  The 
name  of  such  plants 
as  have  a  fleshy, 
scaly  root,  called  a 
bulb,  as  the  leek, 
onion,  &.C 


BULGED.  A  sea  term  for  a  ship  when 
she  has  struck  off  some  of  her  limbers 
upon  a  rock  or  anchor. 

BULK.  The  whole  contents  of  a  ship  in 
her  h<dd. 

BULL     The  male  of  cattle,  th«  feioaU 


BUL 

o   which  is  ca  led  cow  ;  wlien   the   male 

is  cut  be  is  callt'it  an  ox. 


BULI*  A  brief  or  mandate  issued  liy 
Uie  I'ope,  and  sealed  with  tlie  hiilla,  a 
leaden  or  gold  seal. 

nCLL-DOG.  A  dog  of  true  EMfjIish 
breed,  so  called  from  his  property  of  attack- 
ing the  bull,  whence  he  was  formerly  used 
ill  tiie%'uel  sport  of  bullb  liting. 

BULLET.  A  name  for  the  leaden  halls 
with  which  small  tire  arms  are  loaded. 

liULLK'I'lX.  In  Kiirope  an  ofliciai  ac- 
S4iunt  of  public  iransactiiuis,  or  matters  of 
general  interest,  as  the  state  of  the  king's 
health,  &.C. 

BULLFIXCH.  A  small  European  bird 
of  a  cinereous  colour,  havinj;  its  head  and 
wings  black,  and  coverts  of  the  tail  white. 
It  is  easily  tamed,  and  may  be  taught  to 
spouk. 


nULL-FROG.  A  remarkable  species  of 
Um  frog  in  North  .America,  so  called  be- 


OMMC  it.«  voice:  esembles  the  dmtant  low- 
Inc  .if  an  njr. 

BLl.l.r.tJMT     A  cruel  .porl    in  ^^pain 


prrr  t| 

and  Portugal,  where  wild  hulls  are  ea 
countered  liy  men  on  horseback. 

m'l.L-IIEAD.  A  sort  offish,  havlnf  iu 
head  much  broader  than  its  body. 

BULLION.  Gold  or  silver  in  the  maM, 
before  it  is  wrought  intu  coin. 

BULL'S  EVE.  A  mark  in  the  shape nf 
a  bull's  eye,  at  which  archers  shoot  by  way 
of  exercise. 

BULL  TKOUT.  A  sort  of  salmon  about 
two  feet  in  length. 

BUM-BOAT.  A  sort  of  wherry  ssegl 
about  harbours,  to  carry  provisions,  &,c 
for  sale,  to  ships  lying  at  a  distance. 

liU.N'T  (a  Sea  Term).  The  middle  part 
of  a  sail  formed  into  a  sort  of  bag,  or  hol- 
low, that  the  sail  may  gather  more  wir.d. 

BUNTLLNi:.-*.  Small  lines  which  serre 
to  force  up  the  bunt  of  the  sail,  for  the 
better  furling  it  up. 

BI'OV.  A  short  piece  of  wood  or  clone 
hooped  barrel  fastened  by  a  rope  to  the 
anchor,  to  point  out  itssituation.  It  is  also 
a  piece  of  wofid  or  cork  fastened  by  a  chain, 
serving  to  point  out  dangerous  places  in  ui 
near  a  harbour 


BUPHAGA,  or  Bkefeaikr.  A  sort  of 
bird  of  the  order  pica;,  found  in  Africa. 
It  is  so  called  because  it  alights  on  the 
hacks  of  ca'tle,  and  picks  holes  in  theinto 
get  at  the  larva:  of  the  gad-tly,  on  which 
it  lives. 

BUPKESTIS.  An  insect  of  the  coleop- 
terous order,  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy 
of  its  colours,  which  emulate  the  polish  of 
the  finest  metals. 

BURDEN  (a  Sea  Term).  Whatever  an 
be  stowed  in  a  hold,  or  the  number  of  tims 
which  it  can  carry.  Beasts  of  burden,  in 
Husbandry,  are  those  which  are  fitted  for 
bearing  burdens,  or  drawing  weights. 

BUIIGA(;E  (in  Law).  In  England  a 
kind  of  tenure  by  which  the  inhabitanta 
of  cities  or  boroughs  held  their  lands  or 
tenements  of  the  king. 

BUllGEi*S.  In  England  an  inhabitant 
of  a  borough,  or  one  who  possesses  a  tene- 
ment therein  ;  it  is  now  more  commonly 
taken  for  the  representat  ve  of  a  borougb 
town. 

BURGLAR Y  (in  Law,.  The  breaking 
and  enlerliia  the  ilwrllins  nf  aiiiither  in 
the  niulii,  with  the  intent  to  rominit  .'(ome 
teloiiy,  whether  the  felonious  intent  be 
put  in  execution  or  not. 

Ill  liCUNUV  PITCH.  The  juice  of  tto 


74 


BUT 


nr  tree  boiled  In  water,  and  stmined 
thrniicti  ■'•  linen  cloil.. 

Bl'P.M.N«i-(;l..\SS.  A  concave  or  con- 
vex |fl:tss,  n. nly  spheri<::il,  vvhiclicol- 

lectmhe  rays, .lilie  sun  to\v:irdi'  :i  coniinnn 
point,  calleil  Uie  focns.  'I'lie  liurnin);  !;lass 
of  M.  (If  Villrlte  was  three  iVel  eleven 
inrlii's  in  diameter,  and  it  liuriit  at  tlie 
distance  of  three  feet  two  inches  ;  by  it 
were  melted  a  silver  sixpence  in  seven 
niiniites  and  a  half;  a  King  (Jeorce's  half- 
penny in  sixteen  minutes,  which  ran  in 
tliiriy-four  iiiiniiles  ;  a  diamond  weigh- 
in»  fmir  craiiis  hwt  seven-eighths  of  its 
weiclit.  'I'hat  of  Hiitfo^  was  a  polyhedron, 
8IX  feet  hniad,  and  sls  nin'iy  high,  consist- 
ins  of  one  hiiiidred  a'-l  sixty  eight  small 
mirrors,  or  tiat  piecf.~  of  liHikinp  class, 
each  six  inches  square,  by  means  of  winch, 
with  the  faint  r.i>  s  of  the  sun  in  the  iiKHitli 
of  March,  he  set  mi  fire  Ixiards  of  beech 
wood  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  dis- 
tance. 

BURNrXn  OF  WOMEN.  A  supersti- 
tions pniclice  in  lliiid<istaii,  for  the  widrnvs 
ID  burn  themselves  cui  the  funeral  piles  of 
their  husbands. 

IMJK.MrJHKR.  A  round  polished  piece 
of  steel,  serving  tosniiMilh<iid  give  a  lustre 
o  inelals. 

Ur.<lir.I,.  Dry  ineiuiiire, containing  four 
Jiecks,  or  eight  gallons. 

Brt=IIMAI{i:ii\V.  An  implement  of 
husbandry  for  harriiwina  grass  lands,  and 
eoveriiic  grass  nr  clover  seeds.  It  consists 
of  a  frame  Willi  three  or  more  bars,  in 
which  bushes  are  interwoven. 

Ill  SKI.N.  A  kinil  of  liish shoe, anciently 
worn  li,v  tra<>ediaiis  :  also  a  sort  of  leather 
(tockiii!!  serving  the  purpose  nf  a  boot. 

BI'STAKIi.  A  species  of  Kuro|>eaii  bird 
9f  which  there  are  several  varieties.  The 
SrealKustaril  isilir  laraest  laud  lurd  known 
in  Lnuland.  It  seems  to  bear  a  remole 
llinity  to  the  '>strtc!i. 
Bl  •icHEIl  lilUD.  A  sort  of  shrike 
tcmarkable   for   its   ferocity  tow&;,js  tne 


Ittleblrdi,  which  It  kills,  and  tearingthcm 
Ic  pieces,  sticks  iliem  i-i  thorns. 


BUZ 

BUST.  The  figure  or  portiait  of  a  per 
Bon  in  relievo,  showing  only  I  he  upper  paru 
of  the  body. 

BIJT'I'.  A  measure  o(  wine,  containinf 
126  callous. 

Bd'ITUXD.  The  nrcesi  eii.l  of  a  piece 
of  timber  nearest  to  iiie  root. 

BUTTEIl.  A  fat  unctuous  substanre, 
procured  from  the  cream  oi  im.K  by  cliiirn- 
ing  ;  a  term  in  Cheui/stry  for  substances 
of  similar  consistency,  as  nutter  of  anti- 
iiKuiy,  butter  of  bismuth,  butter  of  wax, 

&.C. 

BUTTERBUR.  A  plant  with  a  floscular 
flower,  consisting  of  many  florets. 

BUTTERFLOV\'EK.  A  yellow  flower, 
which  abounds  in  the  meadows  in  May. 

BUTTERFLY.  A  oeautiful  insect,  so 
called  because  it  first  appears  atllie  be- 
ginning of  the  season  for  butter.  I'hat 
which  seems  to  be  powder  upon  the  wings 
of  this  insect  is  an  innumerable  quantity, 
of  feathers,  which  are  only  to  be  discerned 
through  a  microscope.  The  butterfly  first 
appears  in  the  slate  of  the  caterpillar,  which 
is  called  the  larva,  and  afterwards  in  that 
of  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis,  from  which  it 
comes  forth  in  its  perfect  state. 


The  larva. 


The  chrvsali* 


BUTTOCK.  The  breech  ornaunch  of  an 
animal,  next  to  the  tail :  also  a  sea  term, 
for  that  part  of  a  ship  which  forms  her 
breadth,  right  astern  from  the  tuck  up- 
wards. 

BUTTON.  Any  thing  in  a  round  form 
which  serves  to  fasten,  particiiiirly  what 
is  used  ill.  garments  ;  also  a  part  of  the  cas- 
caliel  in  a  gun  or  howitzer,  which  is  in 
the  form  of  u  button. 

BUTTRESS.  A  kind  of  butinent,  built 
archwise,  serving  to  support  a  building  oj 
wall. 

BUZZARD.  A  very  sluggish  bird  of 
the  hawk  kind.  The  Turkey  Bu/zard 
known  in  tlie  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States  is  a  species  of  Vulture 

BY-LAW.  A  jirivate  law  made  withi* 
■oine  particular  place  or  jurisUictioa. 


CAD 


CAL 


n 


c. 


C,  the  fliir<l  letKrand  second  consonant  of 
the  nl|>li:il>et  ;  as  a  niiiiieral,  C  stniuls  for 
1(K),  and  CC  fi>r  Shi,  &;r.  ;  in  ]Mii;»ic,  it  is 
tlie  hiu'liect  (Kirt  In  Ilie  tliorousli  bass  ;  a.s 
an  Ablireviation  it  stands  lor  Christ,  as 
A  (-".  AiinoClinsii.or  aiileChristnui ;  also 
ftif  ('uMi(iaiiion,  a:i  C  K.  Coiii|KiiiKin  uflhe 
Bath. 

CAAKA.  An  Arahir  term  fur  the  house 
of  (tod,  a  (Kirtiil'the  tciii|ilc  v(  Mahuiiiet  in 
Mecca. 

C.MIALA.  A  traditional  or  mysterious 
doctrine  ainnn!*  the  ancient  Jews,  winch 
they  say  was  delivered  hy  word  of  mouth 
to  .Moseji,  and  by  him  to  the  fathers. 
Ainon;!  Christians,  the  cahala  is  an  abu.se 
of  certain  passages  of  Scripture  formaj;ical 
piir|Hises. 

CAHHAC.K  TRFE.  A  tree  of  the  Cape 
of  (iiMid  llo|>e,  so  called  tVoiii  the  resem- 
blance which  its  leaves  bear,  to  those  of 
the  cabbat:e  plant. 

CABIN.  The  apartment  In  a  vessel  for 
the  otficers  anil  superior  p;isseiigers. 

CAUI.NET  In  England,  the  closet  or 
private  riKiiii  in  the  kiiis's  palace,  where 
councils  are  held  :  also  the  ministers  of  the 
Kini!,  who  are  siiinnidned  to  attend  such 
coiiiiiMls.  In  the  I'liiled  States,  the  term  is 
applieil  lo  the  four  set' reuiries  and  the  at- 
torney cenenil  at  Washington,  considered 
as  counsellors  of  the  President. 

CAItl.K.  A  sea  term  lor  a  strong  rojie, 
which  serves  to  keep  a  ship  at  anrlior. 

CAIil. !•:'.•<  l,r..\(;TII.  The  men-sure  of 
lyi  fathiuns. 

CACf»KTIIK.<.  An  ill  habit  or  pro()en- 
tlty;  as  (he  r.icnethes  scribendi,  au  itch 
for  antlmrsliip. 

('A<"<  H'lloNY  A  bail  toneof  the  voice, 
proceedin<:  from  the  ill  disposition  of  the 
orpins. 

,  CADK.VCR  (in  Grammar).  The  fall  of 
the  voice  :  also  the  rtow  of  verses  or  i>erl- 
ods  ;  in  Music,  it  is  a  pause  or  suspension 
at  the  enil  of  an  air,  resembling  p<iiiils  or 
Tirirules  in  prose  ;  in  Dancing,  cadence  is 
used  when  the  steps  fidlow  the  notes  and 
measures  of  the  music  ;  in  the  .Manege  the 
cadence  is  the  measure  or  proportion  obser- 
ved by  a  horse  In  all  his  motions,  when  he 
!■  thorou'.'hly  niana»eil. 

CADKT.  f>ne  who  i«  trained  up  for  the 
army  by  a  course  of  milit;try  discipline  ; 
■uch  as  the  cadeti  at  the  military  ccUege 
at  West  Point. 

CAPETSIUP     The  eooimission  given 


to  a  cadet,  to  enter  the  iUtal  India  Coinpa 
ny's  si-rvite  in  Riiiil.'ind. 

CADI.  ,\  magislr.ile.  or  sort  ofjuslic« 
of  the  |ieace,  anion)!  Hie  Arihs  .and  Turk* 

C.\I).M1,\.  A  sort  ol'iiiiiieralainong  tiie 
ancients,  now  called  roliall. 

CALtl'CEL'H.  A  name  for  .Merciir>''l 
rod  oi  sceptre,  which  on  medals  is  an  em 
blem  of  pe.tce.  It  was  carried  hy  the  Ro- 
inaii  herulda  when  tliey  went  lo  proclaiiit 
peace. 


CiES.^R.  A  title  or  name  given  to  the 
twelve  emperors  of  Koine,  who  succeeded 
Julius  Cip.sar. 

CAti.M.-V(!.  Old  geese  are  so  called, 
which  are  sent  up  to  the  Lomlon  market 
for  sale. 

CAIKNS.  Heaps  of  stones  in  a  conical 
form,  which  are  freipieiilly  to  be  met  with 
in  .'Scotland  and  Wales. 

C-\lSS(.i.\'.  A  wtMiden  rhest  filled  with 
IhuiiIis  or  powder,  and  buried  under  some 
Work  to  blow  it  up  ;  also  the  frame  used  in 
layiii!:  the  foundations  ofa  bridge. 

C  A  I, A  .M  A.\CO.  A  kind  of  wwdlen  stuff 
manufactured  in  England  and  Brabant.  It 
has  a  fine  gloss,  and  is  chetjiiered  in  the 
warp. 

CALAMARIiC.  The  third  natural  order 
of  plants  in  the  Liniiipaii  system,  contain- 
ing the  reeds  resembling  cra.«ses. 

CAI.A.MI.NARIS,  or  !,api»  Calamika- 
RU.  The  calamine  stone,  *.  jxydeof  zinc 
among  the  chyniisis  ;  p  kind  oriiituiiiinoui 
lossile  earth,  which,  when  ini.Ked  with 
copper,  produces  brass. 

CA  I.CA  R  EOr:S.  The  third  orderofthe 
class  earths  in  tlie  systenr.  of  Gmelin,  ccn- 
sistingof  chalk,  limestone,  spar,  gypsum, 
marble,  marl. 

CAL(M.\ATIO\  The  solution  of  a 
mixed  body  by  the  means  of  heat  or  any 
corroding  substance,  as  mercury,  aquafor- 
tis, &.C.,  whereby  it  is  reduced  to  powder 
The  body  so  reduced  was  named  a  calx,  ia 
common  language  a  cinder,  and  :iichymi» 
try  an  oxide. 

CALCULATION.  The  act  ot  coioDUtiat 


76 


CAL 


■evemi  sums  by  means  of  addition,  sub 
traction,  multiplication,  divisioti,  &.c. 

CAh(.'L/'LUS,or  Stoke.  A  name  gene- 
ral(y  given  to  all  hard  concretions,  not 
bony,  wliicll  are  formed  in  the  biKlies  of 
annuals. 

CALENDAR.  A  distribution  of  time 
Into  months,  week*,  and  days  tliroiiKlioiil 
the  year,  together  with  an  account  of  the 
festivals,  and  other  -iuch  matters  as  serve 
for  the  daily  |>ur[K)ses  of  life.  Calendars 
vary  according  to  tne  diflerent  forms  of 
the  year,  and  the  divisions  of  time  Indifter- 
ent  countries,  as  the  Roman  and  Julian 
Calendars  used  by  the  Romans,  the  (ire- 
gorian  ana  Reformed  Calendars  among  the 
moderns. 

CALENDAR  MONTH.  The  name 
given  to  the  months  as  they  stand  in  the 
Blnianac. 

CALIBER.  The  thickness  or  diameter 
of  any  thing,  particularly  of  the  bore  of  a 
cannon. 

CALIRER  COMPASSES.  A  particular 
instruuietit  used  by  pjnnersfor  mea.-'uring 
the  diameters  of  shot,  shells,  (fee.  They 
resemble  o'.her  conipiisses,  except  in  their 
legs,  wliich  are  arched,  in  order  that  the 
points  may  touch  the  extremities  of  tlie 
krch. 


CALICO.  A  kind  of  cloth  made  of  cot- 
ton, nrixinally  made  in  the  East  Indies. 
It  is  so  called  from  Callicut,  atown  on  the 
coast  of  Malabar,  where  it  was  tirst  manu- 
factured. The  manufacture  of  calicoes 
has  lieen  successfully  introduced  into  the 
United  States. 

CALICO  PRINTING.  The  art  of  dy ins 
cotton,  linen,  and  other  cloths  topu'Hlly  ; 
that  is  by  printing  fi2uiie!»  liert-  and  tlu-ri- 
in  dltferent  coloiirs,  and  leaviii:;  .-uiiiie  parts 
of  the  rliith  without  any  ti'jnre*. 

CALIPH, in  the  Anibir  Khalika, whiili 
■lenities  successor.  A  title  assumed  by  the 
successors  of  Mahomet,  who  reigned  in 
Bagdad. 

CAI.KERS.  Pemon^  employed  in  calk- 
Ins  vessels;  that  is,  ilrivin:;  o.ikimi  and 
other  thin!n<  tnio  the  seams  of  vessels,  to 
keep  out  the  water. 

CALL.  Ap  nr»ifirial  pipe  made  to  raich 
fiMils;  also  «  sea  tenn  for  a  whistle  or 


CAM 

pipe,  used  in  calling  the  sailors  to  thell 
duty. 

CALL  OF  THE  HOUSE.  In  England, 
a  parliamentary  term  for  an  im|>erative 
tall  or  summons  sent  to  every  member  to 
attend  on  a  particular  occasion. 

CALOMEL.  Mercury  well  pounded  witn 
sulphur ;  it  is  also  culled  a  muriate  of  mer- 
cury. 

CALORIC.  A  modern  term  for  fire,  or 
that  principle  which  produces  the sen.sation 
of  heat,  which  is  siip|K)sed  to  be  somethinj 
indejiendent  uf  the  body  in  which  it  is 
found. 

C.\LVARY.  The  name  of  a  cross  ic 
Heraldry,  as  it  is  borne  in  coats  of  arms 
It  is  so  called  because  it  resembles  the  truss 
on  which  our  Saviour  siitTered. 

CALVliMSM.  'Jhe  doctrines  of  Cal- 
vin, the  Geneva  reformer,  and  his  adhe- 
rents, on  predestination,  reprobati(m,  &.c. 

CALUMET.  An  Indian  pi|)e,  which 
was  otherwise  called  the  Pipe  of  Peace, 
because  it  served  the  bearer  as  a  pass  oi 
safe  conduct  among  the  neighbouring  tribes 
of  Indian.".  It  was  very  similar  to  the  ca- 
diiceus,  or  Mercury's  wand,  of  Uie  an- 
cients, 

t;ALX.  A  fine  powder  remaining  a/*«l 
the  calcination  of  niet-ils  and  other  111101- 
rul  substances  ;  also  another  name  for  li'.ne. 

CALYCIFLORili.  The  sixteenth  nat- 
ural order  of  plants  in  the  Linnu-an  system, 
comprehending  those  plants  which  live 
only  a  calyx,  in  which  the  stamiiu  ar  /  in- 
serted. 

C.\LV'PTRA.  Thetenderskin in  rouses 
that  loosely  covers  the  lop  of  lh'<  t'.ieca, 
like  a  cup. 

CAL\X.  A  general  name  fo*  "Jie  cup 
of  a  flower,  or  that  part  of  a  pbr.'.  which 
surrounds  and  supports  tlie  ulhe.'  parts  ul 
a  flower. 

CAMBERED.  A  sea  term,  applied  to  a 
deck,  the  flooring  of  which  is  highest  in  the 
middle. 

CAMBRIC.  A  sort  of  very  fine  white 
linen,  made  of  flax.  Fabrics  of  cotton 
made  in  imitation  of  tliis  are  also  called 
cambric. 

C.A.MEL.  A  well  known  quadru|)ed, 
remarkable  for  its  swiltness  aiK*  itf  power 
of  siibsistinc  for  many  days  wit  lout  water 
It  is  mild  and  gentle,  unless  pa/ticularly 
provoked,  patient  of  hunger,  and  .capable 
of  carrying  great  burdens.  The  f  ,sh  and 
milk  of  this  animal  cimstitute  tj  '  (  Wiripal 
food  of  the  Inhabitniitsof  Aia"  a  and  the 
countries  ofwhich  it  is  a  nali'i;.  The  Ara- 
bian camel,  which  is  other ivise  called  a 
dromedary,  h.os  but  one  hu'  ch,  the  B»r.»ri- 
an  camel  has  two.    This  U'.ler  «;<•».<«  « 


CAM 

iani  in  the  more  nortliern  parts  of  central 
A-sia.  The  Ariiliian  speciea  is  generally 
•ised  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and  Af- 
rica. This  animal  is  burne  in  coats  of 
mrmi. 


C'AMELOPARD    or  Giraffe.     A    re- 

innrkahle  animal  found  only  in  the  middle 
and  southern  regions  of  Africa.  It  is  the 
tallest  of  a!!  animals,  being  about  17  feet 
lii<!h.  It  feeds  un  llie  tups  uf  trees.  It  is 
very  timid  but  defendsitself,  when  attack- 
ed, liy  kicking.  It  is  capable  of  putting  out 
its  tongue  to  the  length  of  17  inches,  and 
tliis  is  so  flexible  that  it  may  be  reduced  at 
tlie  point  so  as  to  pass  through  a  lady's 
ring. 


CAMBIUM.  The  mucilaginous  fluid 
which,  lies  between  the  youny  wood  and 
the  bark  of  a  tree. 

CAMBRIAN.  In  geology,  a  term  to 
designate  the  lowest  fossililerous  rocks 
ta  developed  in  Wales  and  their  equiva- 
lents in  other  countries. 

CAMEU.  A  lort  of  onyx  stone,  having 
various  flgiiresupon  it ;  in  Natural  Histofy> 
a  sort  ot  |)ellucid  gem. 

CA.MERA  LUCIDA.  An  optical  instru- 
ment invented  by  Dr.  Hook,  jor  the  pur- 
pose uf  making  the  image  of  any  object 
7* 


CAN  T> 

appear  on  the  wall  in  a  light  room,  eithei 
by  day  or  night.  This  name  has  since  b«en 
applied  to  an  instrument  invented  by  Dr 
Woll.nston,  for  drawing  objects  intrun  per 
spective. 

CAMERA  OBSCURA.  An  optica!  ma- 
chine or  apparatus,  representing  an  artificial 
eye,  by  whicli  the  images  of  external  ob- 
jects, received  through  a  double  convex 
glass,  are  shown  distinctly,  and  in  tliei/ 
native  colours 


CAMLET  A  sort  of  stnrTorieinally  made 
of  camel's  hair  and  silk  mixed,  but  now  of 
wool  and  silk. 

CAMP.  The  spot  of  ground  where  an 
army  rests  and  intrenches  itself. 

CAMPAIGN.  The  space  of  time  during 
which  an  army  is  kept  in  the  field. 

CAMPA.NACEiE.  One  of  Linna-us's 
natural  order  of  flowers,  including  tliose 
that  are  bell-shaped ,  as  tlie  campaii  ula,  con- 
volvulus, &c. 

CAMPANULA,  or  Bell  Flower  A 
sort  of  plants,  mostly  perennials,  and  hear- 
ing a  bell-8lKii)ed  flower. 

CAMPHOR.  A  vvhite  concrete  crystal- 
line substance,  of  an  acrid  bitter  taste,  and 
a  penetrating  smell.  It  was  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  a  resin  which  was  procured 
from  a  tree,  much  like  a  walnut  tree 
growing  in  Borneo,  and  thence  called  the 
camphor  tree  ;  but  modern  chyinists  con. 
sider  it  to  be  a  peculiar  substance  not  to 
be  classed  either  with  the  oils  or  the  resins. 
It  is  procured  from  the  volatile  oil  of  seve- 
ral plants,  as  rosemary,  sage,  lavender. 
Sec. 

CAN.  A  drinking  vessel ;  particularly 
that  used  by  saflors. 

CANAL.  An  artificial  river,  provided 
with  locks  and  sluices,  and  sustained  by 
banks  and  mounds. 

CANARY  BIRD.    A  singing  bird  of  a 
greenish  colour,  formerly  bred  in  the  Cana- 
ries, and  nowhere  else.      These  birds  ar 
now  bred  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  Anie^ 


78 


CAN 


ea.  and  their  toluurs  are  various  ahade*  of 
yeUuw  aud  green. 


CANCELLATION  (In  Law).  Expung- 
ing the  contents  of  a  deed  or  instrument, 
by  gtrikini!  twii  line;)  througli  it. 

CANCER,  the  Crab  (in  Astronomy).  A 
constellation,  and  the  fourth  sign  in  the 
zodiac,  murhcd  thus  qz,  wliich  the  sun  en- 
ters on  the  twenty-first  of  June,  tlience 
called  the  siiiiiiner  solstice. 

CANCER,  Tropic  of.  A  small  circle 
of  the  sphere,  [wrallel  to  the  equator,  and 
passins  throu<!h  the  beginning;  of  Cancer. 

CANCER  (in  Medicine).  A  hard  ulcer- 
ous and  exceedingly  painful  swelling,  and 
generally  seated  in  the  glandulous  part  of 
the  body. 

CANDLE.  A  long  roll  or  cylinder  made 
of  tallow,  wax,  or  spermaceti,  in  which  is 
included  a  wick  of  cotton  or  rush,  for  the 
pur|>ose  of  burning.  Good  tallow  is  made 
of  the  fat  of  sheep  and  bullocks  in  eipiiil 
portions.  The  wirk,  wliich  is  made  of 
■everal  threads  of  cotton  twisted  together, 
must  t>e  fine,  sulficiently  dry,  and  pro|>erly 
twisted,  or  otherwise  the  canitle  will  yield 
an  unsteady  light.  The  tallow  is  prepared 
by  chopping  the  fat  and  boiling  it  in  a 
copper,  the  scum  which  is  taken  from  it  in 
the  boiling  is  called  greaves,  whicli  is  made 
into  cakes  that  are  sold  fur  fatting  poultry. 
Candies  are  made  either  by  dipping  or  in 
moulds,  the  fonner  of  which  are  the  com- 
mon candles.  When  candles  are  to  l>e 
dipped,  the  workman  holds  three  of  the 
hr<>!ir>ies,  with  the  cottons  pro|>erly  spread, 
between  bis  I)i>gers,  and  dips  them  into  the 
lallow  vat,  tlien  hangs  them  to  cool,  and 
when  cooled  dips  them  aeain  and  again 
until  they  are  of  the  reijuired  size.  The 
mould  in  which  mould-candles  are  made 
18  mostly  of  pewter,  made  to  the  diameter 
and  length  of  tlie  candle  wanted  ;  at  the 
extremity  of  it  is  the  neck,  which  is  pierced 
to  receive  the  cotton,  one  end  of  which 
tomes  out  at  the  neck,  and  the  remainder 
•  olace^  in  (be  mould  in  such  manner  in 


CAN 

a  perpendicular  direction,  as  that  it  thonU 
be  in  tlie  middle  of  the  candle  ;  after  this 
the  mould  is  tilled  with  boilingtallow,and 
left  to  cool.  Wax  candles  are  made  by 
pouring  with  a  ladle  melted  wax  on  the 
tops  of  a  number  of  wicks,  tied  by  the 
neck  at  eipial  distances  round  an  iron 
circle  suspended  directly  over  a  large  basin 
of  copper  tinned. 

CANDLI;MAS  DAY.  The festivTiI  ob- 
served on  the  second  of  February,  by  Cath- 
olics and  Episcopalians,  in  commemoration 
of  the  punticatioii  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

C.WDY.  A  (ireparation  of  sugar  made 
by  melting  and  crystalli/.ing  it  several 
times. 

CANDYTUFT.  An  annual  that  is  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  bearing  a  wliite  or  purple 
flower. 

CANE.  A  kind  of  strong  Indian  reed, 
used  for  walking  sticks  j  also  the  plant 
wliich  yields  the  sugar,  and  grows  free.y 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  parts  of 
North  and  South  America  The  skin  of 
the  sugar  cane  is  soft,  and  tiie  spongy  mat- 
ter or  pith  it  contains,  very  juicy.  It  is  now 
extensively  cultivated  in  Louisiana,  and 
Alabama. 


CANE  (In  Commerce).  A  lonf  meamii* 
of  different  dimensions  in  different  coun- 
tries, from  two  to  five  yards. 

C.\NIS  (in  Astronomy).  The  nam»  of 
two  constellations  in  the  southern  nemi- 
sphere;  namely,  Canis  Major  and  Canii 
Minor 

CANKER  A  cancerous  affection  wh!ch 
occurs  frequently  in  fruit  trees  ;  also  a  fun- 
gous excrescence  in  the  feet  of  horse* 

CANNIBAL.     A  man  eater. 

CANNON.  A  piece  of  ordnance,  or  ■ 
great  gun  for  a  battery,  which  is  moa'it»« 


CAN 

m  a  carriage :  the  principal  |nrts  <if  a 
eaiiiuiii  are  ilie  inui.z{e,  ur  moulli,  llie  en- 
trance (it'Uie  boreur  tlie  liullovvpart  wliicti 
receives  lliecliarge  ;  lliecliu»e,  ur  tlie  wtiule 
•pace  fruiii  the  iu(i/.'/.le  to  the  truniiiuiis  ; 
Uie  trunnions,  or  two  solid  cylindrical 
pieces  of  metal,  wliicli  project  t'runi  the 
piece,  ami  liy  which  it  is  supported  on  the 
carriage  ,  tlie  vent,  wliich  in  small  firearms 
is  culled  the  loiicliliole,  a  small  hole  pierced 
at  the  end  of  the  tiore  or  chanitier,  for  the 
pur|K>se  of  priming  the  piece  with  powder, 
or  to  introduce  the  tube  in  order,  when 
lighted,  to  set  lire  to  the  charge  jtheciiu'n- 
ber,  that  part  of  the  bore  or  hollow  of  the 
piece  where  the  powder  is  lodged  which 
forms  the  churge  ;  the  breech,  tiie  solid 
piece  behind,  the  hinderniost  part  of  which 
is  called  the  cascabel.  That  part  next  to 
the  breech  is  called  the  reinforce,  whicii 
IS  made  stronger  to  resist  the  force  of  the 
powder.  The  ornaments  of  a  cannon  are 
the  muzzle,  astragal,  and  lillets,  the  chase 
astragal  and  fillets,  the  reinforce  ring,  and 
the  breech  mouldings  The  first  cannon 
was  used  in  1304,  on  tli«  coaot  of  Den- 
mark 


JANOE.  A  little  vessel  or  boat  used 
kiy  the  Indians,  which  is  made  all  of  one 
piece,  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree  iiollowed. 

CANON.  A  law,  or  ordnance  of  the 
church.  The  Canon  Law  consists  of  rules 
trawn  from  ^!cripture,  from  the  writings 
tf  the  ancient  farhers,  from  the  ordinances 
tf  councils,  and  the  decrees  of  the  p.ipe. 

CA.XON.  A  dignity  in  a  catliedml 
Ihurcli. 

CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE.  That  body 
•T  hooks  of  tile  Holy  Scripture  which  serves 
for  a  rule  of  faith  and  practice. 

CANONIZATION.  The  act  of  enrolling 
any  one  among  the  number  of  the  saints, 
«»'liich  is  the  practice  of  the  Romish  church, 
and  perfoniieil  by  the  pope. 

CANOrUS  (in  Astronomy).  A  bright 
(tar  of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  rudder 
.if  the  ship  Argo. 

CANTATA.  A  pieceof  music  for  one, 
•wo,  or  more  voices,  chiefly  intended  for  a 
•iag'e  voire  with  a  thorough  bao*. 

CA.VTEEN.  .\».iltling  house  for  both 
vScera  ^nv  d:2si  ■  iJfo  ft  rniAi:  rtttnl  of  tJs 


CAP  If 

plate  or  wood,  in  which  soldiers  on  tli«i- 
march  carry  their  liquor. 

CANTEKBUltY-liELL.  A  fine  flower 
much  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  plant  i« 
biennial,  and  the  flower  l3  white  or  blue, 
and  of  an  oblong  figure. 

CANTHARIDES,  or  Sj>amsh  Fliei 
A  8f)ecies  of  shining  beetle,  powdered  and 
used  for  raising  blisters. 

CANTON.  A  division  or  small  par<«l 
of  a  country,  such  as  the  coiitoiui  of  iSwii 
zerland. 

C.\NTON  (in  Heraldry).  An  ordinary, 
so  called  because  it  occupies  out  a  cailtel 
or  corner  of  the  escutcheon. 

CAiNVAS,  or  CANVASS.  The  cloth 
on  whicli  painters  usually  draw  their  pic- 
tures; and  also  that  of  which  the  sails  of 
vessels  are  made. 

CAP.  In  general,  any  covering  for  the 
head  ;  sometimes  of  a  particular  make,  as 
a  cardinal's  cap. 

CAP.  The  name  of  several  things  simi- 
lar in  figure  or  use,  as  the  cap  of  a  grtal 
gun,  a  piece  of  lead  laid  over  the  touchliole ; 
the  cap  in  a  ship,  the  square  piece  of  tim- 
ber placed  over  the  head  of  a  mast. 

CAP  (in  Architecture).  The  up|«rmnst 
part  of  any  member,  as  the  capital  of  a 
column,  the  cornice  of  a  door,  slc 

CAP  OF  .MAINTENANCE  lin  Her.al- 
dry).  One  of  the  regalia  or  ornaments  of 
state,  carried  before  the  king  of  (ireal 
Britain  at  the  corouatiuii  and  other  great 
solemnities. 

CAPE  (in  Geography).  A  promontory 
or  headland  projecting  into  the  st;i  I'arlliei 
than  the  rest  of  the  coast,  as  the  Ca|>e  of 
Good  Ho|ie,  Cajte  St.  Vincent,  &,r.. 

CAI'ELLA.  A  star  of  the  first  magni- 
tude in  Auriga. 

CAPER  BUSH.  A  shrub  or  tree,  the 
bud  or  flower  of  which  is  converted  into 
a  pickle  called  caper. 

CAPILLARY.  An  epithet  for  what  i» 
as  fine  as  a  hair.  Capillary  tubes  iire  pi|i«9 
of  the  Aneness  of  a  hair,  by  wnlch  various 
phenomena  in  physics  and  hydrostatics  are 
displayed.  Capillary  vessels,  in  Anatomy, 
the  smallest  and  extreme  parts  of  (he  mi- 
nutest ramifications  of  the  veins  and  ari«»- 
ries. 

CAPIT.\L.  The  chief  or  head  of  a  thing. 

CAPITAL  (in  Geography).  The  chief 
town. 

CAPITAL  (in  Architecture).  The  ui>. 
permost  part  of  a  column,  serving  as  ma 
head. 

CAPITAL  (In  Printing).  The  laree  let- 
ters, which  serve  as  initials,  or  in  titles 

CAPITAL  (ii)  Coi"merce).  The  sto'li 
or  furd  of  a  traaittg  cOb<>j»&i 


^ 


«0  CAP 

CAPITOL.  The  building  Jit  Wiisliingfon 
m  which  Confiress  meets  It  is  heautit'iilly 
jiliiated  on  a  hill  ami  is  by  tar  llie  most 
uplendid  editice  in  America. 

CAPITULATION.  A  treaty  between 
Uie  besieged  and  the  besiegers  of  any 
place,  whereby  tlie  former  surrender  it, 
and  themselves,  on  cert;iin  conditions. 

CAI'IVI.  A  tree  of  Brazil,  the  tlower  of 
whicli  resembles  a  rose.  It  grows  to  the 
>ieight  of  sixty  feet. 

(^APRICOUN.  A  southern  constellation, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  (d"  the  zodiac, 
which  the  sun  eiilers  on  the  21st  of  De- 
eeinher.     It  is  inaiked  thus,  Vp. 

(Ml'RICORN,  Tuopic  OF.  A  small  cir- 
cle of  the  sphere,  parallel  to  the  eipiitmctial, 
pAssinmliroiiL'h  the  beginning  of  Capricorn 
or  the  winter  solstice,  which  is  the  sun's 
greatest  southern  (Uelinaiion,  namely,  23 
decrees  and  a  half. 

CAPRIOLE.  A  caper  or  leap  in  danc- 
ine,  like  a  goat's  leap. 

CAPSICUM.  A  plant,  native  of  South 
America,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a  pod,  and 
the  strongest  kind  of  pepper,  known  by 
the  name  of  Cayenne  I'epiier. 

CAPSTAN.  A  large  piece  of  timber 
resembling  a  windlass,  placed  behind  the 
mainm.'tst.  It  is  a  cylinder  with  levers, 
used  lo  weiuh  anchors,  to  hoist  up  or  strike 
<•'■*«  topmasts,  &c. 


CAPTATN.  A  commander  of  a  company 
of  foot  or  a  troop  of  horse ;  and  in  the 
nr  ral  or  merchant  service,  the  commander 
of  a  vessel:  also  in  grammar  schools  in 
EliEland  the  head  boy  of  his  class. 

CAPTIO.N  (in  Law).  The  act  of  taking 
any  i>er»on  by  any  judicial  process. 

CAPUCHIN.  An  order  of  Franciscan 
moiiks  in  the  Romish  church,  so  called  from 
Ulfir  capuch  or  h<«id  sewed  to  their  habits. 

CAPUT  MORTUU.M.  The  inert  resi- 
tfutim  of  liny  body,  remaining  after  all  the 


CAR 

volatile  and  humid  parts  have  been  ei 

tracted 

CAR.  A  small  carriage  of  burden,  drawn 
by  one  or  two  horses. 

CARAHINE,  or  CARBINE.  A  Bort  of 
short  gun,  between  a  musket  and  a  pistol, 
having  its  barrel  two  feet  and  a  half  long. 

CARACAL.  An  animal  resembling  the 
Lynx,  found  in  the  hot  climates  of  Asia. 

CAR.^CT,  or  CAR.Vr.  The  weit'hl  of 
24  grains;  or  one  scruple  24  carats  make 
one  ounce.  This  is  the  standard  weight  by 
whiili  the  fineness  of  gold  is  distinguished. 
If  the  gold  be  so  line  that,  in  purifying,  it 
loses  nothing,  or  but  very  little,  it  is  said 
to  be  gold  of  24  carats  ;  if  it  lose  one  carat, 
it  is  s.aid  to  be  gold  of -JIJ  carats. 

C.AR.Vr  (in  weigiiingof  L)ianionds,&c.) 
A  weight  of  four  grains. 

CARAVAN.  A  company  of  merchants 
or  pilgrims  in  Asia  or  Africa,  who  go  in 
an  organized  body  through  the  deserts. 

CARAVANSERA.  A  large  building  in 
the  East,  or  an  inn  for  the  reception  of 
travellers  and  the  caravans.  The  building 
commonly  forms  a  sipiare,  in  the  middle 
of  which  is  a  spacious  court,  and  under 
the  arches  or  piazzas  that  surround  it, 
there  runs  a  bank,  raised  some  feet  above 
the  ground,  where  the  merchants  and  tra- 
vellers take  up  their  lodgings,  tlie  beasts 
of  burden  being  tied  to  the  foot  of  the 
bank. 

■••^ARBON.  The  pure  inflammable  part 
of  ciiarcoal,  free  from  all  the  hydroaen 
and  earthy  or  metallic  particles  which 
charcoal  usually  contains.  By  Us  union 
with  oxygen.  It  produces  two  g.as»-ous  sub- 
stances, the  first  of  which  was  formerly 
called  fixed  air,  now  carbonic  acid  ;  and 
the  second,  containing  less  oxygen,  the 
oxide  of  carbon. 

CARBONATES.  Salts  formed  by  the 
combination  of  carbonic  acid  with  difi'ereiit 
bases,  as  carbonate  of  copper,  tec. 

CARBUNCLE.  A  precious  st(me,  of  the 
colour  of  a  burning  coal. 

CARBURET.  A  substance  formeil  by 
thf  combination  of  carl»on  with  uieials. 

CARCASS  (in  Building).  The  slnll  oi 
timber  work  of  a  house  before  it  is  lathed 
and  plastered,  nr  the  floors  laid  ;  in  iliin- 
nery,  an  iron  case,  filled  with  combustible 
materials,  and  discharged  from  a  uiortar 
after  the  manner  of  a  bomb 

CARD.  An  instrument  like  a  comb, 
which  is  used  in  combing  or  disentanglini 
wool 

CARD  OF  A  COMPASH.  The  cireuiw 
paper  on  which  the  points  of  a  compoai 
are  marked. 

CARD.  See  CiRoi. 


CAR 

CARDIACS  Medicines  that  tend  to 
ctreii;!tlieii  llie  heart. 

CAKDl.N'AL.  A  ilipnilary  in  the  Romish 
Church,  .-ind  uiie  of  its  chief  goveruurs,  of 
winch  there  are  seventy  in  number.  They 
constitute  a  college,  by  a^<l  fruiu  wtiuui 
tlj«  pope  is  cliusen. 

CARDINAL  POINTS.  The  four  points 
or  divisions  of  the  horizon,  namely,  tlie 
north,  south,  eat^t,  and  west. 

CARDINAL'S  CAP,  or  Cardinal 
Fluweh.  a  pinnt  so  called  because  its 
flower,  by  the  intense  redtiess  of  its  colour, 
seems  t4i  emulate  the  scarlet  cap  of  a  car- 
dinal. 

CARniXAI/S  CAP,  or  HAT.  A  cap 
or  lint  of  a  peculiar  form,  which  is  worn 
by  cardinals. 


CAR 


81 


CARDINAL  VIRTUES.  The  four  vir- 
tues of  prudence,  (eiuperance,  justice,  and 
fortitude. 

CARDS.  Pieces  of  pasteboard  of  an 
oblong  figure,  and  different  si^ies,  made 
into  pacKs  of  52  in  number,  and  used  by 
way  of  amusement  in  different  games. 
They  are  painted  with  various  figures, 
naniely,  hearts,  spades,  diamonds,  clubs, 
and  kings  and  queens.  They  are  said  to 
have  been  introduced  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  to  divert  Charles  VI.  king  of 
France,  who  had  fallen  into  a  state  of 
melancholy.  By  the  hearts,  cccurs,  were 
meant  the  gens  de  choeur,  choirmen  or 
ccclesiasticSjinsteadofwhichthe  Spaniards 
use  chalices.  The  spades,  in  Spanish  espa- 
da?,  swords,  were  intended  to  represent  the 
nobility,  who  wore  swords  or  pikes.  The 
diamonds, orcarreaux,designated  the  order 
ol  citizens  or  merchants.  The  trefle,  tre- 
foil leaf  or  clover  grass,  was  an  emblem  of 
the  husband  man  ;  this  is  called  clubs  with 
us,2^cause  the  Spaniards  have  bastos,clubs, 
on  their  cards.  The  knaves  represent  the 
servants  of  the  knishts.  The  four  kings 
were  intended  for  David,  Alexander,  Coe- 
•ar,  and  Charlemagne,  who  established  the 
four  great  monarchies  nf  the  Jews,  Greeks, 
Romans,  and  Franks.  The  four  queens 
were  supposed  to  represent  Argine,  i.  e. 
reeina,  thetjueen  by  descent,  Esther,  Jm- 
ditk.  and  Pallas.   The  moulds orblocks  used 


for  making  cards  were  exactly  Hke  those 
which  Were  sliortly  allerwards  used  in  lite 
making  of  books 

CAREli.NlNG.  The  heaving  a  ship  on 
one  siile,  for  the  |>urpobe  of  clearing  or 
calking  the  other  side. 

CAKUU  (in  Commerce).  The  merchandise 
and  effects  that  arc  laden  on  boaril  a  ship 

CARICATURE  (From  the  Italian  Cari- 
catura).  A  distoiteii  way  of  representing 
objects,  so  as  to  inuke  litem  appear  ridicu- 
lous. 

CARIES.  A  disease  of  tlie  bones  ;  a  kind 
of  rottenness. 

CARl.NA.  A  keel ;  the  name  given  by 
Linna;us  to  the  lower  concave  jieial  of  a 
papilionaceous  or  butterfly-shaped  flower, 
as  the  pea,  which  resembles  the  keel  of  a 
ship  in  its  shape. 

CARLINE  THISTLE.  A  plant  of  tlie 
thistle  kind,  which  is  sometimes  used  me 
diciiially. 

CURLINGS.  Short  pieces  of  timlier 
which  serve  to  support  and  sttengthen  the 
larger  beams  in  a  ship. 

CARMAN.  One  who  is  employed  in 
carrying  gtKids  from  the  wharfs  to  llic 
merchant's  warehouses. 

CAR.MELITES.  An  order  of  monks 
who  were  first  founded  on  Mount  Car- 
mel. 

CARMINATIVES.  Medicines  which 
expel  wind. 

CARMI.NE.  A  dross  or  powdir  of  a 
deep  red  colour,  procured  from  cochinea., 
and  used  lor  painting  in  ininiHture. 

CARN  ATION.  A  beautiful  sort  t.fi  love 
pink,  having  its  bright  mlours  e(,ually 
marked  all  os-er  the  flowers. 

CARNAT10x\  (in  Painting)  The  flesh 
colour. 

CARNIVAL,  or  CARNAVAL.  A  sea- 
son of  mirth  and  festivity,  particularly  olt- 
served  by  the  Italians  and  generally  by 
Catholics  from  Twelfth  Day  until  l<eiit. 

CARNIVOROUS.  An  epithet  applied 
to  animals  that  feed  on  flesh. 

CAROTIDS.  Twoarteries  in  the  nec«, 
which  convey  the  blood  from  the  aorta  to 
the  brain. 

C.\RP.  A  fresh-water  fish  fitted  for 
stocking  ponds,  as  it  spawns  three  times  a 
ye<ir. 

CARPE.VTER'S  RULE.  .A  tool  gen«- 
nilly  used  in  taking  dimensions,  an<l  cast- 
ing up  the  contents  of  timber  and  the  artili- 
cer's  work. 

CARPE.VTRY.  The  art  of  cutting 
framing,  and  joining  large  pieces  of  wtnid 
for  the  uses  of  building :  it  is  suhservieni 
to  architecture,  and  Is  divided  into  House 
Carpentry  and  Siiip  Carpentry.    Carpea 


82 


CAR 


iry  differs  frnin  joining  only  inismuch  as 
tliv  uoik  U  cuarder,  larger,  aiid  not  so 
curu)u«. 

C'AKPET.  A  sort  of  stuff  wrought  either 
wU'i  tlie  nredle  or  the  loom,  and  used  as  a 
C'n'f  niig  lur  tlie  floor.  Persian  and  Turlt- 
wh  c(ir|>eis  are  must  in  esteem. 

C.'XkKIAGE.  In  general,  a  vehicle  for 
carrying  gotids  and  persons  ;  in  Gunnery, 
tl.e  iiiuchine  upon  which  (lie  gun  is  mount- 
ed ;  in  Carpentry,  the  frame  of  limber-work 
wliich  sup|M>rts  the  steps  of  wooden  stairs. 

CARRIERS.  All  jwrsons  carry  ing  goods 
for  hire  ;  also  a  sort  of  pigeons  thai  are  used 
in  conveying  letters  to  a  distance. 

CARROT.  A  fleshy  root,  cultivated  as 
a  garden  vegetable. 

CART.  A  small  carriage  with  two 
wlieeU,  used  in  husbandry. 

CART-HORSE.  An  inferior  kind  of 
horse,  used  in  husbandry. 

CARTE  BLAiNCIlE.  A  blank  paper, 
delivered  to  a  (>erson  to  be  filled  up  as  he 
p  eases  ;  applied  generally  in  the  sense  of 
unlimited  terms  gr.iiited  to  a  person. 

CARTEL.  An  agreement  between  two 
states  at  war  for  liie  exchange  of  prison- 
ers. 

CARTILAGE.  A  part  of  the  animal 
body,  harder  and  drier  than  a  ligament, 
and  softer  than  a  bone ;  its  use  is  to  render 
the  articulation  of  the  bones  more  easy. 

CARTILAGLNOUS  FISHES.  Those 
having  cartilaginous  instead  of  tmny  skele- 

tohX. 

CARTOON.  A  design  made  on  strong 
pnjier,  to  be  afterwards  calked  through, 
ami  transferred  to  the  fresh  plaster  of  a 
Willi  to  !>»  [Kiinted  in  fresco,  such  as  the 
famous  cartoons  of  Raphael  now  in  the 
palace  of  Hampton  Court,  England. 

CARTOI'CH.  A  case  of  wood  holding 
about  four  hundred  musket  balls,  besides 
iron  balls,  from  six  to  ten,  to  be  fired  outof 
a  howitzer. 

CARTOUCHES.  BU>cks  or  niodillions 
used  in  the  cornices  of  wainscoted  apart- 
ments ;  alMoornnuients  representing  a  scroll 
of  pa|ier. 

CARTRIDGE.  A  case  ofpaperor  parch- 
ment filled  with  gun|>owder,  and  used  in 
lli<^  charging  of  guns 

CARVEL.     A  smal  ship  or  fly-b«^nt. 

CARVLN'G  The  art  of  cutting  wood 
iiiio  various  foinis  and  figures. 

CABYATIUES  (in  Architecture).  A 
s'lrt  of  columns  or  pill.irs  sha|>ed  like  the 
b<Hlies  of  women,  and  in  the  dress  of  the 
Onan  |>eople.  They  were  intended  to 
riw*a«nt  the  Cariaii  women  who  were  ta- 
ll^'' captr.ey  ny  '.hr  Athenians 

<'*<>VOyaTU-r.«:     a  nr.tural  order 


CAS 

of  plants,  consisting  of  such  as  hare  plak 
like  flowers. 

CASE.  Any  outside  covering  whicta 
serves  to  enclose  a  thing  entirely,  as  pack- 
ing cases  or  knife  cases  ;  in  Carpentry,  the 
case  of  a  dmir  is  tlie  wiHiden  frame,  in 
which  it  is  hung  ;  in  Printing,  it  is  a  frame 
of  wood,  with  numerous  small  partitions 
for  the  letters. 

CASE  (in  Grammar).  An  accident  of 
nouns  which  have  different  inflexions  or 
terminations. 

CASE-HARDENING.  A  method  of 
preparing  iron,  so  as  to  render  its  outer 
surface  hard,  and  cajiable  of  resisting  any 
edged  tcMil. 

CASE-K.MFE.    A  large  kitchen-knite. 

CASEMENT.  A  window  that  opens  on 
hinges. 

CASE-SHOT.  Musket  balls,  stones,  old 
iron,  &.C  put  into  cases  and  shot  out  ot 
great  guns. 

CASH.  Ready  money,  dietinguisticd 
front  bills. 

CAS  H  EVV  r  Ur:  ASSO  VV.  A  bird  abo  it 
the  size  of  a  her.  turkey  found  in  Jamaica 
and  the  northern  parts  of  South  America. 
(See  CvKA»»ovt.) 

CASHEW-NUT.  The  fruit  of  the  ca». 
hew,  that  ab<4unds  in  Jamaica  and  Uarba- 
does.  Prom  this  nut  is  expressed  a  juic« 
that  is  made  into  a  pleasant  wine 


CASTri'5R.  The  keeper  of  the  cssh  o« 
money,  which  it  is  his  business  to  receive 
and  pay. 

CASHIERS  OF  THE  RANK  Offieere 
of  the  Rank  who  sign  the  notes  that  ar« 
issued  out. 

CASHIERLNG.  *A  rtishnnourable  it* 
missal  of  an  officer  or  midier  from  tb* 
service 

CASHMERE.      A    cotimrjr    in     ha« 


CAS 

n'hirh  pives  nnme  to  a  valvinble  kind  of 
cliitli,  and  costly  shawls  niunnrai-lured 
there  from  the  wool  of  a  species  of  ijout 
peculiar  to  Thibet. 

CASSA  VI.  Ati  AinericKM  tree,  hearing 
A  bell-sli:iped  (lower  Its  nn?!,  wlien  dried 
and  proiind  to  tlou/.  was  icm veiled  into 
oread  hy  the  original  inli.-thiiitnis. 

CASSIA  FISTL'LA,  ..r  I'l  i.uixo  Pipe 
Tree.  A  very  large  tree,  u  native  of  Al- 
exandria ajid  the  West  Indiex,  wlin!?  hears 
a  long  cylindrical  taper  or  flat  pod,  divided 
mio  many  cells,  in  each  of  which  Is  a  hard 
■eeil  i(>d;:eil  in  a  claniniy  Mack  substance, 
which  is  purgative,  and  i^  known  in  medi- 
cine by  the  name  of  the  Purging  Oissia, 
<*t,  simply,  Cassta. 

CASSIOPEI.A.  A  northern  constella- 
tion. 

CASSIQUE,  or  CACUafR.  A  sove- 
reign lord  among  the  ancient   Americans. 

<'A!*f^)C'K.  A  vestment  worn  by  cler- 
gymen lunler  their  gowns. 

CASSOWARY.  A  large  bird  oftlie  os- 
trich kind,  found  only  in  Java,  and  the 
Asiatic  Islands.  It  is  second  in  size  oity 
to  the  Ostrich 

CAST.  The  name  of  figures  or  small 
siJitnes  in  bnmze. 

CASTK.  The  name  of  different  tribes 
ill  Hiiidostaii,  of  which  the  Brahmins  is 
the  most  iinliie.  The  second  is  that  oftlie 
soldiers,  tlie  third,  that  of  merchants  and 
husbandmen,  the  fmirlh  that  of  laborers  in 
various  employments. 

CASTI.NG  (among  .'Sculptors).  The 
taking  of  casts  or  impressions  of  figures, 
busts,  &c. ;  in  a  foundery,  the  running  of 
metals  into  any  mould  prepared  for  this 
purpose. 

CASTLE.  A  fortress  or  place  rendered 
defensible  by  nature  and  art.  Castles,  be- 
ing an  emblem  of  graiuleur,  are  frequently 
kome  in  coals  of  arms. 


CAST  IRO.V.  The  iron  as  it  is  extract- 
ed from  the  ores  by  means  of  casting. 

•  CASTOR.  A  soa,  grayish  yellow  sub- 
itance  found  in  '.lie  bags  of  'he  beaver. 


CAT  a 

near  its  groin.     In  a  warm  air,  tfie  cisto 
grows  by  degrees  bard,  brittle,  and  of 
dark  colour. 

CAT.  A  well  known  animal  nearly  ai 
lied  tu  the  tiger,  is  either  domestic  nr  wild. 
The  wild  or  mountain  cat,  is  borne  in  coat* 
of  arms  as  an  emblem  of  liberty,  vigilance, 
and  forecast. 

The  animals  of  the  cat  family  known  in 
North  America,  are  the  Congar,  vulgarlj 
called  Panther  ;  the  wild  cat,  or  catamount 
an  animal  three  times  the  size  of  the  do 
mestic  cat,  and  having  a  short  tail ;  and  the 
Lytix.  The  domestic  cat  isa  tame  variety 
oftlie  European  cat.  It  is  not  a  native  of 
this  country. 


CAT.  A  sea  term  for  a  ship  usually 
employed  in  the  coal  trade ;  also  a  sort 
of  strong  tackle  for  drawing  up  the  an- 
chor ;  also  a  military  term  for  a  kind  of 
shed  under  which  soldiers  conceal  tlieio 
selves  while  tilling  up  a  ditch  or  mining  a 
wall. 

CATACOMBS.  Grottoes  or  subterrane- 
ous places  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  fre- 
quently found  in  Egj'pt  and  In  Italy. 

CATALOGUE.  A  list  of  books  or  any 
other  matters,  arranged  in  order,  for  pur- 
poses of  sale  or  reference. 

CATAMAUA.N.  A  sort  of  floating 
raft  originally  used  in  China  as  a  fishing 
boat. 

CATARACT.  A  high,  steep  place  or 
precipice  in  the  channel  of  a  river,  caused 
by  rocks  or  other  obstacles  stopping  the 
course  oftlie  stream.  Niagara  is  the  most 
stupendous  cataract  in  the  world.  Also  a 
disease  in  the  eye,  arising  from  a  little  film 
or  speck,  which  swimming  in  the  aqueous 
humour,  and  getting  before  tiie  pupil,  caus- 
es a  dimness  of  sight  or  blindness. 

CATARRH.  A  defluxion  from  the  head 
occasioned  by  cold. 

CAT  BIRD.  A  bird  common  in  the  Vn 
ted  States  of  a  bluish  gray  colour  whic* 
makes  a  noise  very  similar  to  the  mewing 
of  a  cat.  It  is  a  pretty  good  singer;  iu 
song  consists  of  imitations  of  the  notes  cf 
other  birds. 

CAT  CALL.  A  harsh  sort  of  pipe,  Imi 
tating  the  noise  of  a  cat 


84 


CAT 


I'ATOH  (in  Music).  A  uhort  and  humo- 
AMis  song ;  alBo  a  sea  term  for  a  awifl- 
■ailiiig  vessel. 

CATCH-FLY.  A  plant  much  cultivated 
in  gardens,  having  grass-like  leaves,  .uid 
a  long  stiilk  terminated  by  a  cluster  of 
crimg<m  flowers. 

CATKCHf.SM.  A  short  system  of  in- 
struction in  religion,  conveyed  in  ((iiestiim 
4nd  answers.  It  is  frequently  appFied  to 
Othe.r  subjects. 

C.ATKCHU.  A  juice  of  a  very  astringent 
quality,  pressed  from  out  of  several  Indian 
fniita. 

CATECHUMENS.  A  name  formerly 
^ven  in  the  Christian  church,  to  such  :is 
were  prepared  to  receive  the  ordinance  of 
bniitisni. 

CATEGOKY  (in  Logic).  A  name  for  the 
pre<Iicates  or  attributes  contained  under 
any  genus,  of  which  Aristotle  reckons  ten, 
namely,  substance,  quantity,  quality,  rela- 
tion, acting,  sullering,  time,  place,  situa- 
tion, and  habit. 

CATENARY.  A  curve  on  a  crooked 
line  formed  by  a  rope  when  hanging. 

CATERER.  A  provider  of  victuals  and 
ether  necessaries  in  the  king's  household, 
or  elsewhere. 

CATERPILL.AJl.  The  larva  produced 
from  the  egg,  which  is  transformed  tirst 
into  the  chrysalis  or  nymph,  and  after- 
wards into  the  butterfly. 

CATGUT.  A  name  for  the  strings  made 
nf  the  intestines  of  sheep  or  lambs,  and 
used  in  musical  instruments,  &c. 

CATHEADS.  'J'wo  strong  beams  of  tim- 
ber in  a  vessel  which  serve  to  suspend  the 
.Uichor  clear  of  the  bow. 

CATHEDRAL.  The  episcopal  church, 
or  a  church  where  is  a  bishop's  seat  or 
see. 

CATHERINE-WHEEL.  A  sort  of  fire- 
works constructed  in  the  form  of  a  wheel, 
which  is  made  to  turn  round  when  it  is 
let  off. 


,\\\' 


CATHERINE-WHEEL  (in  Architec- 
ture). A  large  circular  ornament  in  Gothic 
windows. 


CAV 

fymg  univers.ll  ;  which  the  Romish  cburek 
aiisumes  to  Itself  as  its  title;  whence  tlM 
iiume  of  Roman  Catholics  has  been  applied, 
since  tlie  Ret'ormatioii,  to  the  followers  of 
the  Romish  doctrine  and  discipline. 

CATHOLIC  KING.  The  title  of  th» 
king  of  Spain. 

CATHOLIC  PRIEST.  A  clergyman  i>r 
priest  orilaiiied  to  say  mass  and  administer 
the  sacraments,  &c,  according  to  the  rite* 
of  the  Romish  Church. 

CATKf.V,  or  Ament  (in  Uotiin^).  A  lonfc 
stem  thickly  covered  witli  scales,  under 
which  are  the  flowers  and  the  essential 
parts  of  the  fruit,  which  is  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  to  a  cat's  tail.  Catkins 
are  to  be  found  on  the  hazel,  willow,  &c. 

CAT'S  EYE  (in  Mineralogy).  A  stone 
of  a  glistening  gray,  with  a  tinge  of  green, 
yellow,  or  white. 

CAT'S  HEAD.  A  very  large  kind  of 
apple. 

CAT'S-TAIL  r.RASS.  A  kind  of  reed, 
bearing  a  spike,  like  the  tail  of  a  cat. 

CATTLE.  Horned  beasts,  th.it  feed  in 
I>asture,  or  generally  all  four-footed  beasts 
that  serve  for  domestic  purposes,  including 
horses,  horned  cattle  and  sheep.  In  Eng- 
land horses  and  cows  are  called  black 
cattle. 

CAVALCADE.  A  pompous  procession 
of  horses  and  carriages,  &c. 

CAVALIER.  A  horseman ;  a  person 
mounted  on  a  horse,  or  expert  in  horse- 
manship ;  in  Fortification,  a  work  raised 
within  the  body  of  a  place,  above  th» 
other  works. 

CAVEAR,  or  CAVIAR.  The  spawn  or 
hard  roes  of  sturgeon,  made  into  cakes, 
salted  and  dried  in  the  sun,  much  used  ix 
Russia  and  other  parts  of  the  continent. 

CAVERN.  A  natural  cave  or  hollow 
place,  in  a  rock  or  mountain. 

CAVETTO  (in  Architecture^  A  con- 
cave moulding,  the  curvature  of  whuss 


J 


CATHOLIC.  An  ipithet  properly  signi-  I  circle 


section  does  not  exceed  the  quadrant  of  a 


/ 


CEN 


CEB 


85 


CAUL.  ^  meiubratie  in  the  abdomen 
which  ^i«rves  to  cover  the  interlines. 

CAI;LI{"1.UVVEU  'Jhe  finest  3ort  of 
cabhage,  with  a  seeded  liead. 

CAUSEVrAV,  or  CAL'SEV.  A  path 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  and 
paved  with  atones  or  gravel. 

\;AUST10  curve,  a  curve  Conned 
by  the  concourse  or  coincidence  of  the 
ray«  of  light,  rert&;ted  or  refracted  from 
acy  oliier  curve. 

CAUS'l'lCS.  Medicines  which,  when 
applied  to  any  part  of  the  body,  burn  it 
to  a  bard  crust. 

CAUTERY.  Any  burning  application. 

CAYENNE  PEPPER.  A  powder  pre- 
pared from  the  pods  of  several  species  of 
the  capsicum,  whicli  originally  came  from 
Cayenne,  but  is  now  brought  from  botii 
the  Indies. 

CAY.M.\N.  The  American  alligator. 

C.B.  In  England,  Companion  of  theBath. 

C.  C.  Caius  College :  C.  C.  C.  Corpus 
Christi  College. 

CEDAR.  A  well  known  evergreen,  very 
like  the  juniiHjr  in  api>earaiice,  which  de- 
lights in  cold  mountainous  places.  The 
leaves  are  much  narrower  than  those  of 
the  pine  tree,  and  the  seeds  are  produced 
in  l.irge  cones.  The  most  celebrated  spe- 
cies is  that  of  Lebanon,  which  is  also  found 
in  Russia  and  which  is  introduced  by  trans- 
planting into  various  parts  of  Europe  and 
America. 

CEILING.  The  inside  of  the  roof  or 
top  of  an  apartment,  in  distinction  from 
tlie  iiirface  of  a  floor. 

CELERY.  A  sort  of  parsley  much  used 
in  winter  salads. 

CELESTI.\L  GLOBE.  An  artificial 
representation  of  the  heavens. 

CELL.  The  apartment  or  chamber  of  a 
monk  or  nun  ;  also  a  small  close  apartment 
in  a  prison. 

CELLAR.  A  place,  commonly  under 
ground,  w!<lch  serves  as  a  store-room. 

CELLS  (in  Anat(miy).  Bags  or  bladders 
where  riuids  are  lodged  ;  in  Botany,  the 
partitions  in  the  husks  or  pods  of  plants 
where  the  seeds  are  lodged. 

CELLITI  \R  ME.MBRA.NE.  One  of 
the  largest  membranes  in  the  human  body, 
of  a  vascular  texture,  fitted  for  holding  the 
fat. 

CEMENT.  A  compound  of  pitch,  brick- 
dust,  plaster  of  Paris,  &c.  used  by  chasers 
and  other  artificers  ftr  making  their  work 
firm. 

CEMETERY.  A  ri  pository  for  the  dead. 

CLNSOR.  A  magistrate  among  the  Ro- 
mans, who  valued  and  taxed  men's  estate*, 
and  also  punished  anv  acts  of  immorality    ' 
8 


CESSU8.  In  ancient  Bome,  an  antben- 
tic  declaration  niadd  by  the  citizen* 
every  five  years  before  the  censors,  of 
the  names  of  themselves  and  family, 
their  place  of  abode,  iheir  condition  in 
life,  and  the  amount  iind  nature  of  their 
estate.  In  modem  f.se,  an  enumeration 
of  the  inhabitants  of  country.  That  of 
the  U.  S.  is  made  every  ten  years. 

CENT.  A  coin  of  tile  United  States, 
wliuae  value  is  the  hundredth  part  ol  a 
dollar.  In  trade,  per  cent,  denotes  a 
certain  rate  by  the  hundi-ed. 

CENTAUR.  In  mythology,  a  fabuloua 
monster,  half  man  and  lialf  horse.  In 
astronomy  a  constellation  ot  the  south- 
ern heiuisphere,  .\rcher  in  the  zodiac. 

CENTRE-BIT.  .\car|ieiiler'»lf)ol, which 
makes  a  cylindrical  excavation  by  turniH| 
on  an  axis  or  centre. 


CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY.  That  point 
about  which  all  the  parts  of  a  body  in  any 
situation  l>alance  each  other. 

CENTRIFUGAL.  An  epithet  for  that 
force  whicli  causes  a  body  revolving  about 
a  centre,  or  about  another  body,  to  recede 
from  it. 

CENTRIPETAL.  An  epithet  for  that 
force  which  causes  all  bodies  to  tend  Ut- 
wards  some  |Hiint  as  a  centre. 

CE.\TURK).N'.  A  military  officer  among 
the  Rtnnaiis,  who  had  the  command  of  a 
hundred  men. 

CERES  (ill  the  Heathen  -Mythclogr) 
The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Vesta,  and 


goddess  of  corn  and  fniita      She  first  tau^ 
men  me  tux  uf  cultivating  tlMt  gr>»tiid 


88 


OHA 


CEREOLITE.  A  mineral  substance, 
■which  in  appearance  and  softness  re- 
sembles wax. 

CERES.  In  astronomy,  the  name  of 
one  of  the  a.steroid  planets,  discovered 
in  ISOl  by  Piazzi;  its  mean  distance 
from  the  suu  being  263,740,000  mUe.s, 
and  its  periodical  revolution  4  years,  220 
days. 

CERINE.  In  chemistry,  a  substance 
which  forms  from  70  to  80  per  cent,  of 
becs'wax,  it  is  Sdluble  in  boiling  alcohol. 

CERIXE.  A  siliceous  oxide  of  cerium; 
ep.  gr.4-7. 

CERITHIN.^.  A  sub-family  of  Mollus- 
ca,  the  Club-.ihelLs,  of  which  the  Ceri- 
thium,  a  geuxis  of  pectinibrauchiate 
Gasteropods,  is  the  type. 

CERIUM.  (Latiu),  a  greyish  mineral 
found  ia  cerite. 

Cerography.  Painting  or  writing  in 
wax. 

CETE.  All  order uf  animals  in  theLin- 
nieen  sy.steni,  iiiclu(tin<;  siicli  as  have 
hreatliing  apertures  uii  tlie  head,  tail  liori- 
Ztintal,  and  pectoral  tins  instead  uf  feet; 
RB  the  dolphin,  (wriKiisc,  and  grampus,  &.c. 
C>^taceous  tish  suckle  their  yuung  like  land 
animals. 

'CHAFF.  The  husks  of  corn  when 
threshed  and  separated  from  the  train. 

CHAPFI.VCII.  A  bird  so  calleil  liecniise 
U  deli.'his  in  eating  chatf.  Il  sings  very 
prettily. 

CHAFI.N'GDlSH  A  utensil  for  wami- 
Ina  meat. 

CHA(;REE.\.    A  roueh  kind  of  leather. 

CHAIN  (in  ^'urveyin<^).  A  measure  nf 
leni^h,  made  of  a  certain  nunil>er  of  links 
afiriiii  wire,  serving  to  measure  a  certain' 
quantity  of  sroiind.  (Jiiiiler's  Chain  con- 
sists of  a  hundred  such  links,  each  measu- 
ring 7.9^  inches,  and  conseiiuently  r-cpial 
to  66  feet  or  4  poles.  I  sqiiarp  clialn= 
10,000  liiiks=Ui  poles.  10  sipiarc  chains 
=  IOO,0(X)  links=l(;o  poles=l  acre. 

("HAIN.  A  series  of  rings  or  links  lu- 
ted into  one  another.  Chains  are  made  of 
virions  inetala,  sizes,  and  forms,  suiteil  in 
diflerent  purpoHes.  The  gold  chain  is  mm 
of  llu;  tKtdj^*  of  dignity  worn  liy  the  Lord 
Mayor  of  London 


CHAIN-ROAT.  A  fea.  term  for  a  large 
boat  fitted  for  ([elting  up  mooring  chains, 
»nrliors.  &,c. 

CllAIX-SIIOT.    Two    ballets    with  a 


CH  A 

chain  hetweeii  tliein.  'I'liey  are  uati  Is 
sea  warfare  tiir  cutting  the  shruuda  kOil 
rigging  utii  slup. 


CH.\LCEU()NY.  A  eoit  of  agate  or 
onyx  stone. 

CHALUK<JN.  A  «lr>'  measure,  consist- 
ing of  3ti  hnshels. 

CHALICE.  I'he  communion  cup  used 
at  the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist. 

CHALK.  A  kind  of  white  fossil,  of 
which  lime  is  made.  It  contains  a  little 
siliceous  earth,  and  sometimes  a  small  |)or- 
tion  of  iron.  Black  chalk,  or  drawing  slate, 
is  a  gray  or  bluish-hlack  mineral,  that  is 
massive  j  the  fracture glinuneriiigand  slaty. 

CHALLENGE.  In  general,  a  summons 
to  light,  whether  in  a  duel,  or  in  a  pugilistic 
contest ;  in  Law,  an  exception  against  ju- 
rors made  hy  the  party  put  on  his  trial. 

CH  ALVBE-ATi:.  An  cpitliet  lorwaters 
in  which  iron  forms  the  principal  ingredi- 
ent, as  the  waters  of  Tuiiliridge  Wells, 
England.    Ballsloii  in  the  United  States. 

CH.A.M.  The  title  of  the  emperor  or 
.oovereian  of  Tarlary. 

CH.'V.M.ELFO.N,  or  CMAMFLEOV. 
A  quadru{>ed  of  the  lizard  tribe,  that  wad 


originally  supposed  to  live  on  air,  bu!  it 
now  known  to  live  on  llies,  which  it  catches 
with  its  tiiiigiie.  Its  most  reiiiarkalile cha- 
racteristic IS.  that  it  Hssiimes  the  colour  (tf 
the  thiii!i  to  u  Inch  it  is  applied,  lint  its  nat- 
ural coliinr  in  'lie  shade,  aiidat  rest,  is  said 
to  be  a  liliiisli  gray. 

CHAMBKK  (in  Guniieryl.  That  part 
of  a  mortar  or  great  gtin,  as  far  as  the  jmjw- 
der  and  shot  reacJi  when  it  is  loaded. 

CHA.MBER  (in  England).  A  court,  a« 
the  Star  Chamber  ;  in  Commerce,  a  room 
set  apart  for  mercantile  business-  also  for 
keepui2  treasures  and  stores,  as  ine  Ctaan 
tjer  of  Irfindi.n,  &c 


CM  A 

CHAMBER  OF  A  MINE.  The  pince 
where  the  pnwder  is  cdiitiiied,  thai  islo  be 
nseil  fur  hloiving  up  tlie  works. 

CIIAMItKRLAI.N  (in  Eiml.Mirt).  An 
officer  who  lias  the  care  of  any  particular 
rhanilker  orpines,  aa  the  Lnnl  (ireal  Cliani- 
herlain  ot'  EntiJaml,  a  great  -itricer  (if  state, 
to  whom  belongs  the  covernnien!  of  the 
[lalaL-e  at  Westminster  ;  tlie  Chaniherlain 
of  Loniloii,  who  receives  the  rents  of  the 
city,  and  ileposit.s  tliem  in  the  chamber  or 
trPiwury  of  Liuidon. 

CHAMBERt!(iu  England).  Rooms  or 
apartments  hehnipn'i  to  the  inns  of  court ; 
in  .■\natomy,  two  s^kux-s  between  the  crys- 
talline lens  am)  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  di- 
vided ofT  by  the  ins. 

CHAMELEON.     See  Cham-ixeow. 

CIIAMDIJ?,  or,  The  Wild  Goat,  which 
Inhalnts  the  .\l|iine  mountains,  having 
Horns  erect,  round,  and  smooth. 


CUA 


87 


CHAMOMILE.  An  odoriferous  plant, 
which  has  a  very  bitter  taste,  but  many 
medicinal  virtuen. 

CHAMPAGNE.  A  fine  French  wine, 
so  called  from  Chainpacne,  a  former  pro- 
vince of  France. 

CHAMPION  (in  Law).  The  combatant 
who  undertook  to  ti'jht  in  the  trial  by  iKit- 
tet,  formerly  in  use  in  Enulaiid. 

CIIANCEMEDLEY  (in  I«\w).  The 
arcideiiuil  killin<!  of  a  iiiaii.  not  without 
the  fault  of  the  killer,  but  witlioiit  any  evil 
intent. 

CHA.VCEt,.  That  part  of  a  church  be- 
tween the  altar  and  communion  table, and 
the  rails  or  balustrade  by  which  it  is  en- 
closed. This  applies  particularly  to  Cath- 
olic, and  Episcopal  Cliurrlies. 

CIIANCr.l.l.Ol!  (in  Englanill.  Anoffi- 
eer  of  state,  known  by  the  title  of  the  Lord 
Hiirli  Chancellor  of  England,  and  the  chief 
person  next  to  the  sovereicn  in  the  admin- 
istration of  jiuiice;  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exche<iuer  is  an  officer  who  has  the  prin 
Cipal  nianngeiiirni  of  the  kin;:'s  revHinie. 
The  term  is  applieil  to  the  first  jiiilseof  the 
Chancery  Court  in  the  slate  of  New  York 


CHA.\CERY,  The  Counx  or  (in  Eng 
land).  The  highest  court  of  judicature  in 
the  realm  next  to  the  Parliaineiil.  The 
l^ird  Chancellor  presides  in  lliis  court  ;and 
is  assisted  by  tlie  Vice-chaiic«llor,  the 
.Master  of  tlie  Rolls,  the  Masters  iu  Chan- 
cery, i.c. 

CHANCES,  DocTRixE  or.  A  branch 
of  modern  matlieniHlics,  which  treats  of 
the  probabilities  of  certain  events  taking 
place. 

CHANNEL.  The  middle  or  deepest 
part  of  any  sea  ;  also  a  strait  or  narrcuv  aaa 
between  two  lands,  as  St.  (Jeorge's  Chan 
nel,  between  Great  liritnin  and  Ireland, 
and  the  Itrilish  or  English  Channel,  pro|>- 
erly  called  the  Channel,  l>etwee«  England 
and  Krince. 

CIIA.NTRY.  A  chapel  anciently  joined 
to  some  cathedral  or  parish,  where  mass 
used  to  be  said  daily  for  the  souls  uf  tne 
founders, 

CHAOS.  A  dark  and  rude  mass  of 
matter,  out  of  which  the  heathen  philoso- 
phers sup|Hised  the  world  was  formed 

CHAPEL.  In  England,  a  smaller  kind 
of  church,  i\  hich,  being  built  for  the  ixin- 
veiiienre  ofihe  parish  church,  is  denomi- 
nated a  chapel  of  ease. 

CIIAI*ERt)N.  A  hood  or  cap,  particii- 
larly  that  worn  by  the  knights  of  the 
garter. 

CHAPLAIN.  In  England,  originally 
signilieit  one  who  performed  divine  service 
in  a  clia|>el,  but  now  more  commonly  one 
whoallejids  U|K>n  the  king,  or  other  person 
(d'qiiallty,  for  the  |)erlbrniance  of  his  cleri- 
cal iluties  ill  the  family  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  clergj'man  attached  to  the 
navy  or  army. 

CHAPLET.  A  wreath  or  garland  worn 
alioiit  the  head.  Chaplets  are  borne  in 
mats  of  arms,  as  tropnies  or  ensigns  of 
military  prowess. 

CHAPTER.  A  body  of  the  clergy  he- 
lunging  to  a  cathedral,  collegiate,  or  con- 
ventual rhuri'ti :  also  the  place  uf  their 
meetiii!:,  in  England. 

CHARA(;TER.  Any  mark  whirhseives 
as  a  sign  to  denote  some  parlici:lar  object, 
as  the  astroniunical  chanicters,  mailiemati- 
cal  characters,  &.c. 

CHARADE.  A  sort  of  riddle,  the  mil- 
jert  of  which  is  a  word  of  one  or  two 
syllables. 

CHARCOAL.  ThesnlHi  .HI.-  iVun  w.«.d 
half  burnt,  which  is  iiim  ii  .i-M-d  in  He 
inaniifactiire  of  ciiniM'wdi-r 

CHARDS  OF  AKT:»  MIXES.  The 
leaves  of  artichoke  plauis  iMiuiid  in  stiaw 
till  they  lose  |>art  of  their  jitleriiess,  ai.d 
become  white 


S8 


CHE 


CHAREWOMAN,  or  CHARWOMAN. 

Ill  England,  a  wuuian  wbo  goes  out  by  tiie 
day  to  job 

CHARGE  (in  Law).  The  instructions 
given  by  the  juilge  to  the  j\liy  ;  In  Ecclesj- 
aHtical  Law,  tlie  instructiuns  (jiven  by  a 
bisliop  to  the  clergy  of  his  diocess. 

CHARGE  (in  Gunnery).  Tlie  qua-ility 
of  powder  and  ball,  or  shot,  with  which  a 
gun  18  loaded  ;  in  Electricity,  the  accuniii- 
lation  of  electric  matter  on  one  surface  of 
an  electric  machine;  in  Heraldry,  whatever 
is  liorne  on  coats  of  arms, 

CHARGE  D'AFFAIRES.  A  person  in- 
trusted with  the  public  interest  in  a 
foreign  nation.  'J"he  Charges  cl'Aflfaires 
constitute  the  third  or  lowest  class  of 
foreign  ministers. 

CHARIOT.  An  ancient  car,  in  wliich 
armed  men  used  to  ride  to  battle.  They 
were  furnished  with  scy'bes,  hooka,  and 
otJier  offensive  weapons. 


CHARMS.  Incantations  or  verses  used 
by  magicians  and  sorcerers. 

CM.AKK.  A  small  fish  of  the  salmon  kind. 

CHARTER.  In  England,  a  writing  or 
letter  pateitt,  whereby  the  king  grants  pri- 
vileges to  towns,  corporations,  &c.  whence 
tlie  name  of  Magna  Cliarta,  or  the  Great 
Charter  of  Li.Serties  granted  to  the  people 
o*"tlie  whole  realm.  In  the  United  PtAles, 
Cnnrters  are  granted  by  the  State  legisla- 
tures, or  by  Congress. 

CHARTS.  Draughts  or  descriptions  of 
coasts  ;  or,  in  general,  projectiims  of  some 
parts  of  the  sea  in  plans  for  the  use  of 
sailors. 

CHARYRniS  A  vortex  or  gulf  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Sicilian  straits,  which  is 
much  celebrated  by  the  ancient  writers  ; 
but  its  exaci  situation  is  not  known  in  the 
present  day. 

CHASSECRS.  A  select  body  of  light 
infantry  in  the  French  army 

CHASTE-TREE.  A  tree  growing  to 
the  height  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  having  the 
leaves  fingered  like  th;?-*i  of  hemp. 

CH  ATE  A  n.Formrrlynca^l!i*  or  baronial 
•eat  fn  France,  now  simply  a  couniry  seat. 

CHATTEL.-^  'in  I„iw).  Persoiml  eoods. 

CHECKV    'In    Heraldry).     A   term   fori 


CUE 

the  shit^ld,  or  aity  part  of  \t,  when  it  u<di 
videii  Into  cheques  or  sipiares 

CHKEKS.  A  general  name  among 
mechuiilcs  for  pieces  of  limber  in  any  ma- 
cliiiie,  wliicli  are  two  of  u  kind. 

CHEESE,  'i'lie  curd  of  milk  separated 
from  the  whey,  then  pressed  and  hardened, 
and  arterwarils  left  to  dry. 

CHEESECAKES.  A  sort  of  cakes  made 
of  curds,  sugar,  butter.  Sec. 

CHEESE-PRESS.  A  press  in  which 
the  curds  are  pressed  for  iinikiiig  cliei-se. 

CHEESE-VAT.  The  case  in  which  i  iirds 
are  pressed  info  tlie  form  of  a  cliet-se. 

CHEF-D'OEUVRE.  A  masterpiece  or 
superior  performance  of  any  artist. 

CHEMISTRY.  In  natural  philosophy, 
the  study  ot  the  effects  of  heut  and  mix- 
ture, with  a  view  of  discovering  their 
general  and  subordinate  laws;  that 
branch  of  natural  science,  as  defied  by 
Dr.  Brande,  which  inves.igates  the 
nature  and  properties  otthe  elements  of 
matter,  and  their  mutual  aclionsand 
combinations.  Chemistry  determines 
the  proportions  in  which  they  unite, 
and  ascertains  the  modes  of  separating 
them  when  united.  It  also  inquires 
into  the  laws  and  powers  whicii  pre- 
side over  and  aflect  the  agencies  by 
which  material  combination  or  decom- 
position takes  place.  Organic  chem- 
istry is  the  chemistry  of  vegetable  and 
animal  compounds;  and  Inorganic 
chemistry  is  that  which  investigates 
inorganic  compounds.  In  the  Atomic 
Theory  of  chemistry  there  are  certain 
Chemical  Symbols  and  Equivalents 
which  have  been  adoi^ted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  expressing  by  letters  and  figures 
the  definite  jiroijortions  in  which  sub- 
stances chemically  combine;  and  these 
are  presented  in  a  tabular  form  under 
the  article  Atomic  Theory,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred. 

CHEIIISTRY,  History  of.  Chemistry 
as  a  i^racticalart  connected  with  metal- 
lurgy, or  the  extraction  of  metals  from 
their  ores,  was  of  high  antiquity,  for  wa 
learn  from  Scripture  that  Tubal  Cain, 
the  eighth  from  Adam,  was  an  expert 
artificer  in  brass  and  iron.  Various 
branches  of  the  chemical  art,  such  as 
the  preservation  of  vinous  liquors,  dye- 
ing, tanning,  making  glass,  and  various 
preparations  in  pharmacy  and  cooking 
were  in  use  at  a  very  early  period:  be- 
sides the  famous  Egyptian  philosopher, 
called  by  the  Greeks  Hermes,  and  tho 
Romans  Mercury,  is  reputed  to  have 
been  versed  in  many  chemical  arts,  and 
to  have  been  the  founder  of  tlie  chemi- 
cal science,  at  least  in  that  nation.  From 
the  Egyptians,  Democritus,  a  Greek, 
learned  the  art  of  softening  ivory,  of 
vitrifying  plants,  andimitating precious 
stones,  which  ho  communicated  to  his 
countrymen.  After  his  time  we  read  of 
many  metallic  preparations,  as  cerus«. 


CHE 

rerdi^s,  letharge,  &c.  Dioscorides  de- 
scribes the  distillatiou  of  mercury  from 
cinnabar;  but  their  process  of  distilla- 
tion cousistei  in  the  separation  of  the 
air,  or  the  more  subtle  parts  of  water, 
from  the  rest  of  the  matter,  which  was 
done  by  putting  the  matter  to  be  distil- 
led into  a  vessel,  the  mouth  oi  which 
wa3  covereJ  with  a  wet  cloth,  and  by 
this  mcaus  the  steams  of  the  ascending 
vajjor  were  condensed,  which  were  af- 
terwards procure.l  by  wrinfjiug  out  the 
cloth.  Such  is  tho  distillation  spoken 
of  by  Galen,  Oribasius,  and  Paulus 
jigiiieta.  Alter  the  couquesfs  of  the 
Saracens  in  the  seventh  auvl  eighth  cen 
turies,  chemical  rese:irohes  began  to  be 
more  enlarged.  Ueber,  Avicenua,  and 
other  .\rabian  physicians  ntroduced 
into  the  materia  medica  many  prepara-  , 
tious  both  vegetable  and  mineral;  but 
the  knowledge  of  those  chemical  agents, 
the  acids  and  tho  alkalis,  was  at  that 
time  exceedingly  imperfect,  for,  except 
tho  acetous  acid  and  soda,  there  is  no 
mention  of  these  matters  until  many 
years  alter.  Roger  Bacon  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  acquainted  with  them 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  Kaymond 
LuUy  only  hints  at  the  existence  of  the 
marine  acid. 

There  was  one  circumstance  at  this 
period  which  contributed  more  than 
any  other  to  the  improvement  of  chem- 
istry, that  was  the  then  growing  at- 
tachment to  the  study  of  alchemy,  and 
the  search  after  the  philosopher  s  stone, 
which,  though  false  in  principle,  yet  led 
in  its  results  to  a  more  extensive  ac 
quaintauce  with  tho  composition  of 
mineral  bodies.  After  tho  introduction 
of  this  art,  which,  as  its  name  denotes, 
was  of  Arabian  origin,  we  read  of  alcohol 
and  the  newly  discovered  menstrua, 
wjich  were  powerfiilly  applied  to  the 
transmutation  of  metals  into  gold.  Al- 
though the  futility  of  such  pursuits 
served  to  bring  the  science  oi  chemistry 
for  some  time  into  dispute,  yet  the 
ku  nvledge  which  was  acquired  of  metala 
an  I  minerals  by  such  repeated  opera- 
tions upon  them,  was  turned  to  the 
useiul  purposes  of  medicine.  To  the 
alchemists  we  ai"e  indebted  for  the 
methods  of  preparing  spirits  of  wine, 
aquafortis,  volatile  alkali,  vitriolic  a<-id, 
gunpowder,  &c.  In  the  improvement 
of  medicine  by  means  of  chemistry, 
Basil  Valentine  stood  foremost.  In  his 
Currus  Triumphalis  ,\ntimonii.  he  com- 
municated to  the  public  a  number  of 
valuable  antimonial  medicines.  Parac- 
elsus, another  chemical  proie-ssor,  was 
so  sanguine  in  the  application  of  his  fa- 
vorite science,  that  he  opposed  himself 
to  the  ijractice  ot  Oalen,  and  endeavored 
to  cure  all  disorders  by  chemical  prep- 
arations. He  was  followed  by  Van  Hel- 
mont,  Glauber,  and  Lemery,  who  all 
applied  their  knowledge  of  chemistry  to 
the  service  of  medicine.  The  science  of 
metallurgy  at  the  same  time  made  cor- 
responding advances.       .-Vyricola,  who 


CM' 


89 


waa  a  coutemporary  with  Paracelsus, 
laid  the  foundation  for  a  correct  knowl- 
edge of  metals.  Lazarus  Ecker,  Schul- 
ten,  and  many  other  Germans,  described 
the  processes  of  a-ssaying  metals.  An- 
thony Neri  Tr.  Merret,  and  Kunkel,  th* 
discoverer  of  the  phosphate  of  urine, 
have  explained  the  processes  of  making 
glass,  oiamels,  &c.  but  their  writings 
were  not  entirely  tree  from  the  alchem- 
ical illusions  ot  the  day.  Kirchcr  and 
Conryngius,  who  followed  them,  suc- 
ceeded in  purifying  the  science  of  chem- 
istry from  thes9  errors.  Since  that  time 
chemistry  has  assumed  a  new  and  sys- 
tematic form,  to  which  the  writings  and 
discoveries  of  many  distinguished  men 
in  the  course  of  the  last  two  centuries 
have  materially  contributed,  as  Bacon, 
Boyle,  Newton,  Boerhaave,  Geoffroy, 
Reaumur.  Lavoisier.  Stahl,  and  Berg- 
man. To  this  list  might  be  added  tho 
works  of  Brande.  Ure,  Faraday,  Laurent, 
Hoffman,  and  others  in  our  own  time, 
who  have  digested  the  improvements 
and  corrected  or  enlarged  them  by 
farther  experiments. 

CHERVI!^.  An  uniJ>elliferoiis  plant 
whose  leaves  are  dividcil  into  many  seg- 
Bients. 

CHESS.  A  very  difficult  frame,  pertbnn- 
ed  with  little  nmiid  pieces  nf  wcmuI,  on  a 
board  divided  Into  sixty-four  squares. 
Each  side  has  eight  men,  consisting  of  a 
kinp,  queen,  two  knights,  two  bishops,  and 
two  riMiks  or  castles,  l>esides  eight  pawns 
or  foot  soldiers;  which  are  all  moved  ac- 
cording to  certain  rides. 

CHESS- BOARD,  'i'lie  board  on  .vnich 
♦Jje  game  of  chess  is  played. 


CHEf  S-ROOK.  Another  name  for  th» 
castles  which  stand  at  the  outer  corners  »t 
the  chess  hoard. 

CHEST  (in  Anatomy).  The  breast,  tMi»- 
nx,  or  tha!  part  of  the  human  IxKly  whici 
contains  tlie  lieart  and  lungs. 

CHKST.N'UT.     A    tree    bearing  a  ver>- 

ronuhcoated  fruit  of  the  same  name.     Th 

wkkI  was  formerly  nnich  valued  as  timhel 

in  England,  and  is  now  used  in  the  line 

'  kinds  cf  joinery    work      In   Uie   United 


90 


CHI 


Msttes  it  is  leldom  employed  )xce\  as  tim- 
ber <w  fuel. 

CHEVALIER  Literally  a  kniglit  or 
horseiiinn,  answering  to  the  English  cava- 
li«r. 

criEVAUX  DE  FRTSE  (in  Fortifica- 
tion). A  sort  of  tiirn|>ikes  or  tcuriieiiiiots, 
consisting  of  spars  of  wmid  set  into  a  piece 
of  timber,  and  armed  with  a  short  spike, 
•o  »s  to  point  all  ways  They  serve  to 
•top  up  breaches 


CHEVRON  (in  Heraldry).  One  of  the 
nonourable  ordmaries.  representing  two 
rafters  of  a  honse  joined  tugether  in  chief, 
such  as  carpenters  i<et  on  the  highest  part 
of  a  liouse  to  support  tlie  roof 


cm\RO     OBSCURO.     See     Claro 

!>B4CfllO. 

CIIICKWEED.     An  annual. 

CHIEF  (in  Heraldry).  One  ..f  the  hon 
curable  ordinaries,  which  occupies  the  neaa 
or  upper  p.irt  of  the  escutcheon.  As  the 
head  is  the  chief  part  of  a  man,  so  is  the 
chief  the  principal  part  of  the  escutcheon, 
and  contains  a  third  part  of  the  tield. 


CHIEF  The  head  man  of  a  tribe  of 
Indians. 

CHILTERN  HITNDREDS.  A  hilly  dis- 
trict of  Bucking  laiushire,  England,  which 
lias  b^lon^ed  to  the  crown  from  tin  e  im- 
8* 


CHI 

menuirial,  having  the  office  of  Steward  of 
tlie  Cliilterii  [lundr'-ils  .ittached  to  it.  By 
tbe  accepljince  of  lliis  ortire,  any  iiiemher 
of  parliament  Is  riial)led  In  varair  Ins  seat; 
for  as  no  menilicr  can  retain  his  seal 
after  accrpting  an  oltiif ,  su  likewise  every 
member  wishing  to  varaie  Ins  seal  is  obli 
ged  to  do  it  in  this  manner  ;  llial  is,  in  the 
usual  phnise,  'accept  the  Chiliern  Hun 
dreds.' 

CHI.Mi*:RA  (in  the  Heathen  Mytholc 
gy).  A  moiisier  feigned  to  he  like  a  lion 
in  the  forepart,  a  dragon  behind,  and  s 
goat  in  the  iiiiddle. 

CHIMES  OF  A  CLOCK.  A  particular 
apparatus,  by  which  the  clock  at  certain 
times  is  enabled  to  play  certain  tunes. 

CHl.M.NEV.  That  part  of  a  house  which, 
Int'clie  means  of  a  funnel,  serves  to  carr 
off  the  smoke.  Various  devices  have  bee.  > 
trieil  to  prevent  the  smoking  of  chinineya, 
as  the  carrying  them  upzig/.ag,  or  narrower 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  tlie  like, 
which  have  all  been  found  Inetfectiial.  It 
is  now  supposed  tliat  chimneys  should  \>e 
built  a.s  nearly  |)eri)endicular  as  |M)ss!lile, 
should  be  free  fnvn  all  rongliiiess  in  the 
inside,  and  be  a  little  wider  at  the  topthar 
at  the  base. 

CHINTZ.  A  fine  Imlian  painted  caller 
Also  cotton  giK)ds  made  elsewhere  in  imi- 
tation of  it. 

CHIP  saUIRREL.  A  beautiful  little 
striped  animal  common  In  the  wiods  of 
North  America. 

CHINCHILLA.  A  beautiful  littleanlma 
of  Peru,  probably  of  the  rat  kind,  wljicb 
produces  a  fur  much  in  use. 


CHFROMANCY.  The  pretended  art  of 
foretelling  a  person's  fortune  by  the  lines 
in  his  hands. 

CHIVALRY.  The  name  anciently  given 
to  kni<.'litli<M>d,  a  military  digiiily  ;  also  the 
martial  e.xplolts  and  qnallfiiations  of  i 
knight.  Chlvr.lr>',  as  a  military  dignity, 
is  »up|Hised  by  some  tti  have  l.-iken  its  rise 
from  the  crusades,  because  these  expedi- 
tions gave  rise  to  many  chivalrous  exploita 


CHR 

and  Tenia  nf  arms  ;  but  it  Is  evident  that 
its  oricin  may  lie  (raced  iniich  liigher,  to 
tbe  nttrtlifrii  iiatiiiris  who  settled  in  biirnpe 
on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  en\|iire, 
whose  martial  halilt:*  and  temper  led  them 
to  make  valour  and  prowess,  the  only 
sources  of  honour  and  distinction. 

cm  Vies.   A  sort  of  small  onions. 

CHLORINE.  A  gaseous  body  of  a  green 
yellow  CO  our. 

CHI.ORri'Kf.  A  kind  of  gr^en  jasper, 
ali>ii>st  as  pellucid  as  the  coarse  eme- 
rald. 

CHOCOLATE  (in  Commercel.  A  kind 
•f  paste,  prepared  cliietiy  from  the  cocoa 
nut,  with  a  mixture  of  other  in!?»)dieiits 

CHOCOLATi:  TRt;i;.  A  species  of  the 
cocoa  tree,  from  the  friHt  of  which  the 
chocolate  is  prepared. 

CHOIR.  That  part  of  a  cathedral  where 
the  service  is  performed. 

CHOKEDAMI'  (in  Mining).  The  noxi- 
ous air  occasionally  found  at  the  bottom 
of  mines. 

CHOKEPEAR.  A  very  rough  tasted 
pear. 

CHOLERA  MORBUS.  A  disease  con- 
sisting of  a  violent  perturbation  in  the 
helly,  arcompanied  with  a  discharge  of 
bile  upwards  and  downwards. 

CHORD  (ill  Geometry).  A  right  line, 
drawn  from  one  part  of  an  arc  of  a  circle 
to  another. 

CHORDS  fin  Music)  Strings,  by  the 
vibration  of  which  the  sensation  of  sound 
is  excited. 

CH(JROGRAPHY.  A  part  of  geogra- 
phy, which  treats  of  the  description  of 
particular  countries. 

CHORUS.  A  company  of  persons  all 
singing  in  concert. 

CHRISM.  An  unclioii  or  anointing  of 
children,  which  wa.s  formerly  practised  as 
soon  as  they  were  born. 

CHRIST.  Which  properly  signifies 
anointed,  is  the  name  of  the  ever  blessed 
Redeemer  of  the  world. 

CHISTENDOM.  The  whole  Christian 
world. 

CHRfSTEJINO.  Tlie  ceremony  of 
admitting  a  person  into  the  communion 
of  the  Christian  church,  by  means  of  bap- 
tism, or  sprinkling  with  water.  It  is  a 
term  particularly  applied  to  infant  bap- 
tism. 

CIIR[STl,\N.  One  who  professes  the 
Christian  religion. 

CHRIST.MAS.  A  festival  observed  in 
Die  ('hri.'iti  ui  church,  on  the  tvveiity-liflh 
•f  neceml)er,  in  commemoration  of  our 
Saviour's  nativity. 

CHROMA.  A  soft  kind  of  music. 


CHR 


91 


CHROMATrCS.  That  part  of  optics, 
which  explains  the  several  properties  of 
light  and  colour. 

CHRONICAL.  An  epithet  for  diseases 
of  loll*  duration. 

CHRONOLOGY.  The  science  which 
teaches  the  measures  and  divisions  of  lime 
The  divisions  of  time  are  either  natural  or 
nrtiticial ;  the  natural  divisions  of  time  ar» 
the  year,  month,  week,  day,  and  hour, 
deduced  from  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  suited  to  the  purposes  of  civil 
life  ;  the  artiticial  divisions  of  time  are  the 
cycle  or  jieriod,  the  epoch,  and  the  a;ra 
or  ejKH'lia,  which  have  lieen  framed  for 
the  piirfMises  of  history. 

CHRONOLOGY,  History  of.  Chro- 
nology, as  regards  the  nntiirni  divisions  of 
time,  wasdoubtl ess  coeval  with  thecreation, 
for  we  learn  from  the  sacred  historian  that 
the  work  of  creation  was  performed  within 
the  period  of  a  week,or8even  days,  whence 
this  division  was  observed  by  the  Hebrews, 
and  from  them  transmitted  to  the  Egyp- 
tians and  other  nations.  But  the  Persians 
are  said  to  have  been  ignorant  of  such  a 
division.  The  Greeks  had  weeks  of  ten 
days,  and  tlie  Romans  weeks  of  eight  days. 
It  is  evident  from  the  names  of  the  days  of 
the  week  among  most  European  nations, 
that  we  derive  this  division  from  the  an- 
cient Celts  or  Scythians,  who,  in  all  pro- 
bability, at  the  dispersion  of  mankind  after 
the  deluge,  borrowed  this  patriarchal  mode 
of  measuring  time.  The  year  is  that  divi- 
sion of  time  which  was  regulated  by  the 
motions  of  the  sun,  being  that  period  of 
time  in  which  the  sun  passes  through  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  This  division  was 
doubtless  formed  at  the  time  that  astro- 
nomical observations  were  fi/st  made  ;  but 
the  Eg)'ptians  are  the  first  people  on  record 
who  formed  this  division,  winch  they  mads 
to  consist  of  D'iO  days,  and  subdivided  into 
12  months  of  30  days  each  ;  to  these  Tris- 
megistus  is  said  to  have  added  five  mov 
days.  The  ancient  Jewish  year  was  th » 
same  as  the  Egyptian  ;  but  on  their  de  - 
partiire  from  Egypt  they  adopted  the  luna 
year,  consisting  of  30  days  and  29  dayi 
alternately,  and  in  order  to  make  it  agree 
with  the  solar  year,  they  sometimes  added 
11  or  12  days  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and 
sometimes  a  whole  month  after  a  certain 
number  of  years.  The  Greeks  also  reck- 
oned by  the  same  kind  of  year.  The 
ancient  Roman  year  was  also  lunar,  and 
at  first  consisted  of  10  months  of  30  and 
31  days  ;  two  months  were  afterwardt 
added  by  Nunia  Pompilius,  which  con- 
sisted of  29  and  31  days,  making  in  tlM 
whole  '.V>b  days.    Julius    Cesar  first  r« 


92 


CHRONOLOGY. 


/orineJ  Uie  calendar,  Hiifl  addpled  llie  solar 
yeiir  of  atij  days  in  the  cuiiirium  year, 
Willi  lli«*  addiliiin  cil'  u  day  in  every  fourth 
jreiir,  called  lilsseMile,  or  Leap  Year ;  in 
order  ii'  adjust  the  toin|iulation  to  tlie  true 
solar  year,  ll  was  then  retkoned  ytiS  days 
B  hours,  hut  as  the  true  solar  year  was 
found  to  he  yii5  days,  '>  hours,  4H  iniiiutes, 
4«  seconds,  a  fartlier  relbriuatioii  of  lliis 
calendar  lias  heeii  made  on  the  assumption 
that  the  solar  year  consisla  of  3t>.")  days, 
5  hours,  and  4!1  minutes.  Accordiiigto  this 
coniputatiiui,  which  was  made  liy  i'ope 
Gregory  Xlll.  in  158-2,  and  thence  called 
:lie  (Jregorian  style,  an  intercalation  id"oiie 
day  in  Fehriiary  should  lie  made  every 
fourth  year,  and  that  the  sixteen  hundredth 
year  of  t]ie  Oirislian  u;ra,  and  every  Iburth 
century  hereat^er,  should  be  a  hissextile  or 
leap  )  ear.  One  day  consequently  is  to  he 
intercalated  in  the  years  aiKli).  -2400,  'XIO, 
tLC;  hut  in  the  iiitervenin<;  centuries  17U0, 
16«i),  IIWO,  -2100,  &c.  it  is  to  he  suppressed, 
tind  they  are  to  he  reckmied  comnion. 
fttoreover  ai!<  the  e(|uino\es  had  fallen  back 
teu  days  and  ttie  full  moons  four  days, 
aiiice  the  Nicene  council,  a.  d.  3125,  he 
ardained  that  ten  days  should  he  cut  otf 
ktXer  the  fourth  of  October,  so  that  the  tifth 
ilniii  Id  be  the  fifteenth.  Thisinodeofreckoti- 
iiig,  which  is  now  introduced  in  most  coun- 
tries of  Kurofie,  is  called  the  New  Style, 
to  distinguish  it  from  tho  Old  Style,  or  the 
former  reckoning.  This  is  liowever  still 
not  (lerfectly  correct,  fur  as  the  excess  of 
the  Julian  year,  within  the  space  four 
centuries,  is  three  days,  one  hour,  and 
twenty  minutes,  tliat  of  the  Grejiorian  is 
one  liimr  and  twenty  minutes  within  the 
»anie  period,  or  aliout  a  day  in  7200  years. 
Resides  these  alterations  in  the  form  and 
length  of  the  year,  attempts  had  been  made 
by  the  Greeks  at  an  early  period  to  adjust 
ill  their  reckonings  the  lunar  year  to  the 
«>lar  year,  for  vvliich  purpose  they  hit  on 
the  device  of  framing  cycles  or  series  of 
year*,  which  being  iiumlwred  in  an  orderly 
luanner  from  tirst  to  last,  should  return  to 
,lie  same  point  of  reckoning  from  which 
they  commenced.  The  first  of  these  cycles 
was  framed  by  Cleostraliis,  alniul  5.'J2  years 
l>efore  Christ.  It  cmisisted  of  eight  years, 
or  2'>22  days,  during  the  course  of  which 
16  lunations  would  elapse  of  29  and  30 
ttys  alternately,  together  with  three  inter- 
calary inontli*.  By  this  cycle  he  proposed 
to  adjust  the  lunar  to  the  solar  year,  so 
that  at  the  conclusiiui  of  each  cycle  the 
innon  should  be  renewed,  but  lie  failed  in 
hi*  nbject,  for  at  the  end  of  I(i  years 
Cherw  was  found  to  he  nil  error  of  three 
i*"*,  winch  III  the  space  of  l(M  years  would 


amount  to  more  than  ti  whole  month  The 
iMetoiiic  Cycle,  lurined  by  Melon  at  th« 
commencenient  of  the  I'elopiuinesian  war, 
for  the  purpose  of  correcting  the  former, 
consisted  of  19  years,  at  the  end  of  wliicti 
the  sun  and  moon  would  be  in  the  same 
quarter.  This  cycle,  winch  was  so  much 
esteemed  by  the  Greeks  as  to  be  called 
the  Golden  Miimber,  nevertheless  failed  to 
the  amount  of  eight  or  ten  hours  at  the 
end  of  one  period,  and  of  three  days  in  133 
years  'i'lie  cycle  of  Eliidoxiis  w^  au  im- 
lirovement  on  that  of  Cleostraliis,  by  siih- 
tracting  a  month  of  30  days  from  a  )ierio<i 
of  16D  years,  which  was  supposed  lo  l>« 
equal  to  the  ditierence  that  would  subsist 
at  the  expiration  of  that  |)erio<l  between  tho 
solar  and  the  lunar  motions.  I'lie  Calippic 
I'eriod,  contrived  by  Calippiis  at  the  new 
iiKHri  of  the  summer  a.  c.  3:11,  was  in- 
teniled  as  an  improvement  upon  that  uf 
Melin,  which  It  multiplied  by  four,  so  as 
lo  make  a  period  of  7Gyears,or27,7.'i9day8, 
As  940  Innalions  are  equal  lo  97,758  days, 
9  hours,  5  minutes,  and  9  seconds,  which 
is  only  40'  29"  57'"  less  than  7B  9<dar 
tropical  years,  it  follows  thai  the  lunar 
motion,  according  to  this  calculation,  did 
not  vary  more  than  14  hours,  13  minutesi 
and  22  seconds,  wherefore  this  |ieriod  has 
been  chosen  to  form  tlie  basis  to  the  modern 
cycle  of  the  moon,  which  is  said  to  liave 
commenced  one  year  before  the  Christian 
lera.  There  is  also  a  solar  cycle,  consist- 
ing of  a  series  of  2b  years,  at  the  completion 
of  wliich  the  same  order  of  bissextile  and 
dominical  letters  return,  a  cycle  which 
came  into  use  in  the  early  ages  of  Chri.«- 
tianity  ;  besides  the  cycle  of  indiction,  or 
a  series  of  15  years,  introduced  in  tlie 
reign  of  Constant  iiie;  the  Kpacts,  or  ex- 
cesses of  any  solar  revoliitimis  above  the 
lunar,  which  were  introduced  for  the  piir- 
jiose  of  ascertaining  the  time  when  liaster 
ought  to  be  celebrated  ;  the  Dionysian 
Period,  or  series  of  532  years,  formed  by 
Dioiiysiiis  Exiguus,  a  Kmnan  abbot,  by 
multiplying  the  solar  cycle  2ti  into  the  lunar 
19,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  new 
and  full  moons  to  the  same  day  ;  and 
lastly,  the  Julian  Period,  invented  by 
Scaliger,  and  so  called  because  it  is  adapted 
to  the  Julian  year  ;  this  is  a  series  of  yeiVs 
formed  by  the  niiiltiplication  of  the  solai 
and  lunar  cycles  and  the  cycle  of  indiction 
Into  one  another,  making  the  sum  of  7980 
Julian  years. 

The  application  of  chronology  to  history 
is  of  companitively  modern  dale  In 
Homer  and  other  ancient  writers  there 
appears  to  have  been  no  idea  of  recording 
Kvenls  in  any  exact  order  uf  time.    Th» 


CM  Y 

puccj-ssinn  of  Jiino'n  (iriestessrs  nt  ArgdS 
B«Tv«-(l  llellaiiiriis  lor  tlit-  regulation  of 
liix  liisiory,  hill  tli«  pri(i(-i|iiil  (ireek  liiii- 
torlani'  lollovveil  no  oilier  o'nlT  tlisiii  what 
wan  ruriii!i|ied  by  tlif  s^rifs  ol  events  wliicli 
they  narrated.  Tlie  Koniaii  liistoriaii  Livy 
detines  tlie  |ieriods  of  the  events  described 
n  his  history  liy  the  a|iiHilnlnieiit  uf  con- 
suls, and  afterwards  the  succession  of  eiii- 
peroni  ami  kings  served  a  similar  |iiir|»ose 
in  forming  llie  histories  of  other  l^iiro|>ean 
n.iiioiis  until  a  more  exact  c«iin|iutation  uf 
v.'iie  be^an  to  be  observed. 

CHRO.NOMKTKIl.  An  instrument  for 
the  exact  measiireiiieiil  nt  time. 

CHRVS.AMS.  Tlie  second  state  of  an 
insect,  which  it  passes  into  from  the  cater- 
pillar or  reptile  form,  previous  to  its  be- 
coming a  butterliy  or  a  moth,  Slc. 


CH  V 


93 


CffUn.  A  river  fish  of  the  carp  kind, 
•«>  railed  on  account  of  its  creat  head. 

CHRONOGRAM.  An  inscription  in 
whicn  numeral  letters  occurring  in 
tile  words  are  made  to  express  the  date 
or  epoch  of  the  action  mentioned, as  in 
tae  motto  of  a  medal  struck  by  Gusta 
VU3  AJolphus  in  1632. 

ChrlstVs  DVX:  etgo'trlVMph  vs. 
CHRYSANTHEMDM.  a  genus  of  com- 
posite plants,  of  which  the  Ox-eye  Daisy 
and  Corn  Mangold  are  familiar  exam- 
ples. 

CHRTSOBALAN.  A  gonus  of  tropical 
trees. 

CHRYSOBERYL.  A  precious  stone,  of 
a  yellowish-green  color. 

CHRYSOCHLOKE.  A  genus  of  small 
insectivorous  mauimals,  representing 
in  .Africa  the  mole  of  Europe.  Its  fur 
reflects  most  brilliant  metallic  hues  of 
green  and  gold,  a  circumstance  which 
though  common  to  the  outer  covering 
of  birds,  fishes,  and  insects,  has  not  yet 
been  observed  in  any  other  quadruped 
than  this. 

CHRYSOGRAPHY,  The  art  of  writing 
in  letters  of  gold. 

CHRYSOLITE.  A  precious  stone,  a  va- 
riety of  apatite,  ot  a  yellowisli  or  green- 
ish color. 

CHRYSOLOGY.  That  branch  of  politi- 
eal  economy  which  relates  to  the  pro- 
duction of  wealth. 

CHRYSOMELA.  A  genus  of  beantifol 
beetles. 

CHRYSOPR.ASE.  A  precious  stone,  a 
pale  green  variety  of  quartz. 

CHRYSOITPE.  A  photographic  pro- 
cess,  in  which  a  solution  of  gold  is  us«d. 


CHURCH.  A  pl:vce  or  building  conse- 
crated to  tho  pubUc  worship  of  God.  In 
a  restricted  sense,  a  building  conse- 
crated to  Christian  worship  and  ordin- 
ances; the  collective  body  of  Christians. 
Bometiir.ss  called  the  Catholic  or  uni- 
versal chun-h;  a  particular  body  of 
Christians,  united  under  one  form  of 
eccle-siastical  government,  in  one  creed, 
and  usiug  the  .same  ritual  and  ceremon- 
ies, the  followers  of  Christ  in  a  particu- 
lar city  or  province:  the  body  of  clergy, 
or  ecclesiastics,  in  distinction  from  the 
laity;  divine  service:  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority. Invisible  Church,  the  collec- 
tive body  of  saints  in  heaven  and  on 
earth. 

CHYLE.  In  animal  physiology,  a  milky 
fluid  ^.euerated  in  the  stomach  during 
the  process  ot  digestion,  by  the  action 
of  the  pancreatic  juice  and  the  bile  ou 
the  chyme,  and  which  being  absorbe<l 
by  the  lacteal  ve.ssels  is  gradually  a.?- 
similated  into  blood. 

CHYME.  That  particular  modificatioi , 
which  food  first  assumes  after  it  has  uc 
dergone  the  action  ot  the  stomach,  aui 
which,  after  the  chyle  has  been  separ- 
ated from  it,  becomes  excrementitiou« 
matter. 

CIBORIITM.  An  in.inlated  arched  vault 
on  four  columns:  any  insulated  taber- 
nacle; the  tomb  of  a  martyr,  sculptured 
and  used  as  aii  altar:  the  coffer  contain 
ing  the  host .  in  Roman  Catholic  cere- 
monies; a  large  drinking  cup;  the 
Egyptian  bean. 

CICADA.  A  genus  of  hemrpteroua  in- 
sects of  many  species,  living  on  trees  or 
,  shrubs,  popularly  called  tree-hoppers. 
I  frog-hoppers..  &c.,  and  in  some  places. 
I  erroneously,  locusts. 

CICATRICE.  A  scar:  a  little  seam  cr 
elevation  of   flesh    remaining    after 

!  wound  or  ulcer  is  healed;  a  cicatrix-  a 
mark;  an  impression. 
CICATRICLE.    The    germinating    or 
foetal  point  in  the  embryo  of  a  seed  or 
I  the  yolk. of  an  egg. 

!  CICELY.  A  plant,  a  species  of  Chsero- 
phyllum.  The  Sweet  Cicely  is  the 
Myrrhis  odorata. 
)  CICERONE.  A  guide;  one  who  shows 
i  and  explains  to  strangers  the  curiosities 
!  of  a  place. 

I  CICINDELA.  A  genus  of  coleopterous 
carnivorous  insects,  popolarly  called 
the  Sparklers,  in  allusion  to  their  rich 
metallic  colors. 

CHEF-DCEUVRE.  A  masterpiece 
or  superior  performance  of  ,iny  artist. 
CHERRY.  The  well  known  fruit 
of  a  tree  which  was  introduced  iuta 
Britain  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  by 
the  Romans. 

CHERUBIM.  An  order  of  angels 
composed  of  various  animals,  as  a  mai^ 
an  ox,  an  eagle,  and  a  lioa 


94 


CIC 


cm 


CICONT  A.  A  genus  of  wading  birds 
(the  stoika),  the  largest  of  the  herou 
family. 

CILIA.  In  anatomy,  the  haira  which 
grow  from  the  margin  of  the  eyelids. 
—In  botany,  long  haira  on  plants  or 
leaves. 

CILIARY.  Belonging  to  the  eye- 
lashes. 

CILIOBRACHIATE.  In  physiology, 
having  the  arms  provided  with  cilia, 
more  especially  applied  to  a  class  of 
Poly  pods. 

CILIOGRADES.  A  tribe  of  the 
Acaleplians,  or  Sea-nettles,  which  swim 
by  means  of  cilia. 

CIMBIA .  In  architecture,  a  fillet  or 
band  round  the  shaft  of  a  column. 

Ci.MICIDES.  An  extensive  tribe  of 
hemipterous  insects,  of  which  Cimex 
lectuarius,  or  common  bedbug,  ia  the 
type. 

CIMMERIAN.  Pertaining  to  the 
Cimnierii,  or  their  country;  extremely 
and  perpetually  dark.  The  Cimmerii 
were  an  ancient  people  of  the  land  now 
called  the  Crimea,  and  their  country 
being  subject  to  heavy  fogs,  was  fabled 
to  be  involved  in  deep  and  continual 
ob.scurity.  Ancient  poets  also  men- 
tion a  people  of  this  name  who  dwelt 
ill  a  valley  near  Lake  Averiius,  in 
Italy,  which  the  sun  was  said  never  to 
Tisit. 

CIMOLITE.  In  mineralogy,  a  light 
grey  silicate  of  alumina,  from  the  island 
of  Cimolo. 

CINCHONA.  A  celebrated  tree  in 
Peru,  which  produces  Peruvian  bark, 
and  also  its  extract,  quiniue,  both  ex- 
tensivelv  used  in  medicine. 

CI^fCHONACE^.  A  native  order 
of  plants,  the  Rubiaceas  of  Jussieu  and 
other  botanists,  of  which  cinchona  is 
the  type. 

CI>ICHONINE.  A -vegetable  alkali 
fonnd  in  cinchona. 

CINCHONATE.  A  salt  formed  of 
oinchnnic  acid  and  a  base. 

C INERITIOUS.  Resembling  ash«8 ; 
grey. 

CINGULUM.  In  zoology,  a  term 
applied  to  the  neck  of  a  tooth,  or  that 
coustriction  which  separates  the  crown 
from  the  fang. 

CINNAB.^R.  In  mineralogy,  a  beau- 
tiful red  pigment,  the  sulphnret  of  mer- 
cury. Vermilion  is  pure  cinnabar,  being 
a  compound  of  mercury  and  sulphur  in 
ne.ii'ly  the  same  proportion,  viz. :  mer- 
cury, 84'50;  sulphur,  14'75:  sp.  gr. 
6-7— 8-2. 

CINN  AMIC  ACID.  An  acid  formed 
in  translucent  prisms  from  oil  of  cin- 
Uj^mon. 

CINNAMON  STONE.  A  mineral 
of  a  red  color  found  in  Ceylon  and 
3raEil.  It  is  composed  of  silica,  alu- 
mina, lime,  and  oxide  of  iron. 

CINNYIUD.£.     In   omilbology,   a 


family  of  birds,  the  Snn-birds,  which 
are  distinguished  by  their  brilliant 
plumage:  Ciunyria  is  the  type  and 
genus. 

CINQUEEOIL.  In  botany,  a  five- 
leaved  clover;  the  common  name  of 
plants  of  the  genua  Potentilla. — In 
architecture,  a  five-leaved  ornament,  in 
circular  and  other  divi.sions  of  the 
windows  of  ancient  churches. 

CINQCE-PORTS.  Originally,  five 
English  i)Ortson  the  eastern  coast,  viz., 
Dover,  Sandwich,  Hasting.s,  Romney, 
and  Hythe,  but  to  these  AYinchelsea, 
Rye,  and  Seaford,  were  afterwards 
added. 

CINQUE-SPOTTED.  Having  five 
spots. 

CINTER.  In  architecture,  the  fram- 
ing erected  between  piers  to  support 
the  materials  of  an  arch  during  erec- 
tion, till  it  ia  keyed. 

CIPHER.  The  arithmetical  char- 
acter 0,  or  zero,  which  signifies  nothing 
by  itself,  but  when  placed  at  the  right 
hand  of  any  common  number,  increases 
it  tenfold,  or  on  the  left  of  a  decimal, 
decrea.ses  it  in  like  proportion;  any 
arithmetical  figure;  a  number;  a  char- 
acter in  general;  an  intertextnre  of 
letters,  as  the  initials  of  a  name;  a  de- 
vice ;  an  enigmatical  cliaractf  r,  a  secret 
or  disguised  manner  of  writing ;  cer- 
tain characters  agreed  on  by  two  or 
more  persons  to  stand  for  letters  or 
words,  and  understood  only  by  them. 
In  figurative  language,  a  thing  of  no 
consequence  or  importance;  a  nonen- 
tity. 

CIPHER-KET.  A  key  for  decipher- 
ing writings. 

CIPHERING.  The  act  or  art  of 
computing  by  numbers;  arithmetic. 

CIPOLIN.  In  mineralogy,  a  green 
Italian  marble,  with  white  zones.  That 
from  Rome  contains  cai'bonate  of  lime, 
quartz,  schist,  anil  a  little  iron. 

CIPPUS.  In  antiqnity,  a  small  monu- 
mental column,  bearing  an  inscription 
or  epitaph  ;  a  sign-post. 

CIRCAR.  In  Hindostan,  a  district 
or  province. 

CIRCASSIAN.  Pertaining  to  Cir- 
cassia;  a  native  of  Circassia-  a  kind  of 
woollen  cloth. 

CIRCEAN.  Pertaining  to  Circe,  a 
fabled  goddess  of  antiquity,  celebrated 
for  her  knowledge  of  magic  and  venom- 
ous herbs,  by  which  she  was  able  to 
fascinate  and  work  her  incantations; 
hence,  magical,  venomous. 

CIRCINAL,  OR  CIRCINATE.  In 
botany,  applied  to  a  leaf  when  spirally 
rolled  up  from  the  apex  towards  the 
base,  as  in  ferns. 

CIRCINITS.  The  Compasses,— a  con- 
stellation of  four  stars  near  the  South 
Pole. 

CIRCITJM.  In  botany,  a  name  of 
the  fenus  Carduos. 


CIR 

CIRCLE.  A  plain  fipire  bounded  by 
coe  line  onl  •,  called  the  circiiinference, 
a^'B  C  II,  tu  which  all  the  lines  drawn  to 
it  from  a  point  in  the  niiddie,  called  the 
centre,  aa  A  B,  A  C,  and  A  D  are  eqnal 
to  each  other.  Th«  line  which  divides  it 
into  two  equal  parts  is  called  the  diameter, 
as  B  D.  Kvery  circle  is  supposed  to  be 
divided  into  3S0  parts  or  degrees,  where- 
fore ancles  are  mea-sured  by  the  arc  of  a 
circle,  thus  R  A  C,  which  is  a  right  angle, 
ic  txjual  tu  the  arc  B  C,  or  90  degrees. 


CIV 


•6 


CIRCUITS,  fn  England,  certain  divi- 
•ions  ot  the  kingdiiin,  lliroii^h  which  the 
jutlges  iBiss  mice  a  y«-ar,  or  ofXeiier,  to  hold 
courts  and  aduiinii^ter  justice.  A  similar 
division  exists  in  the  United  States  in  re- 
spect to  the  natiiinal  court. 

CIRCULATION  (in  Anatomy).  The 
natural  motion  of  the  blood  in  a  living  an- 
imal, whereby  it  proceeds  from  the  heart 
to  all  parts  of  the  body  by  the  arteries,  and 
returns  to  the  heart  by  the  veins. 

CIRCUMFERE.N'CE.  The  curve  line 
which  bourn's  a  circle. 

CIRCUMKERENTOR.  An  instrument 
■aed  by  lurveyom  for  talcing  angles. 


CIRCUMFT.EX.  An  accent  in  Gram- 
mar, marked  in  Greek  thus  (  •),  in  I^tin 
thus  ("),  to  regulate  the  pronunciation. 

CIRCUMLOCUTIO.V.  Theiiescribing 
a  thing  by  many  words,  which  might  be 
explained  by  a  few. 

CIRCUM!»TA.\TIAL.  An  ephhet  in 
taw,  for  evidence  drawn  indirectly  from 
Circumstaices,  as  distinguislied  from  posi- 
tive proofs. 

CIRCUMVALLATION,  or  A  LINE 
OP  CIRCUMVALLATION.  A  trench 
Buown  up  qui.«  round  a  besieger's  camp. 


CIRCUS.  A  circular  building  at  Rome 
where  games  were  exhibited  ;  It  is  now 
used  to  designate  a  place  where  featx  of 
horsemanship  are  exhibited.  In  Archi- 
tecture, an  assemblage  of  bouses  liuill  m 
as  to  fonn  a  circle. 

CITRIC  ACID.    The  acid  of  limes. 

CITRON.  A  species  of  the  lemon,  whieli 
is  much  cultivated  in  Persim  and  the  warm 
climates  of  Europe. 


CITY  In  England,  «  corporate  town 
having  a  bishop's  see,  and  a  cathedril 
town.  Tliis  distinction  is  not  always  olt- 
served  in  common  discourse,  for  they  saV 
the  town  of  Ely,  which  is  a  bishop's  se*, 
and  the  city  of  Westminster,  which  at 
present  has  no  see.  In  the  United  .«ia!e« 
the  lemi  is  applied  to  any  inc<iriMirat«Mt 
town,  which  has  a  m.iyor  and  aldermen. 
By  geographical  writers  it  is  loosely  appli- 
ed to  any  large  town. 

CIVET  CAT.  An  animal  of  the  weasel 
kind,  about  two  feet  in  length  exclusive  o( 
the  tail.  It  is  a  native  of  warm  climate*, 
but  many  of  them  are  kept  in  Euroiie,  par-- 
ticuiarly  in  Holland,  for  the  civet  This  is 
taken  from  a  bag  under  its  tail,  and  is  •  ■ 
fat  substance,  having  the  smell  of  nnisk, 
and  used  as  a  perfume. 


CIVILIAN  Adoctororprofeworofthe 
civil  law. 

CIVILLAW, otherwise callet  ^MPcaiAt 
Law  The  law  of  the  Roman  impire, 
digested  from  the  lawa  of  the  republic  wi 


tt6 


CLE 


Ib'Xie  nf  thflptn pen irs. anil  n  Inpted  hy  most 
of  III*  niUionsof  Kiiri>|>e.  Tlii"  law  i«  iisetl 
nr.Art  Cfriaiii  restrictions  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical co'irts,  Kiiplnnil,  as  also  in  the  univer- 
sity courts  and  conn  of  the  admiralty. 

CIVIC  CROWN.  A  garland  composed 
of  oak  leaves,  which  was  si  ven  to  a  Koman 
■oilier  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen. 


CIVIL  YKAR.  That  form  of  the  year 
^^■hiclI  each  nation  has  adopted  for  com- 
puting their  time  hy.  The  civil  year  in 
Europe,  and  America,  consists  ot  SfW  days 
tor  the  common  year,  and  lUitidays  for  leap 
ye.v,  which  happens  every  fourth  year. 

CLARIFICATION.  The  making  any 
ii<]iii'l,  hy  a  chymical  process,  clear  from 
im{>iirities. 

,    Cl.ARINKT       A  wind  instniment  of 
'be  reed  kind. 

CLARO,  or  Chiaro  Omci'Ro  (In  Paint- 
ing). The  irrt  of  di.strihiiting  to  advantage 
the  tights  and  shadows  of  a  piece. 

CLASS.  A  term  applied  to  the  general 
divisions  of  any  subject,  as  \n  the  Linnn^an 
.system,  animaU,  plants,  and  minerals  are 
divided  into  classes. 

CLASSICAL.  A  term  applied  toauthors 
of  standard  authority,  particularly  the 
w-riters  among  the  (Jreeks  and  the  Romans, 
whoxe  works  are  comprehended  under  the 
name  of  the  Classics. 

CLAVICLES.  Tlie  two  channel  hones 
wliich  fasten  the  shoulder  btmes  and  the 
t-reast  hitne. 

CLAY.  A  sort  offat  clammy  earth,  stiff", 
viscid,  and  ductile  to  a  gre<it  <Iegree.  The 
clays  are  opaipie  and  noncr>stallized  bo- 
dies, andof  dull  fnicture.  They  form  with 
water  a  plastic  paste,  possessing  consider- 
nb  e  tenacity,  which  may  be  hardened  with 
heal.  BO  as  to  strike  fire  with  steel.  The 
(-.-iiwipal  clays  are  |M)rcelain  clay,  consist- 
ing ^if  si  ica  and  alumina;  marl  clay,  cnn- 
taintnz  some  carbonate  of  lime  ;  pipe  clay, 
reqmrinj  a  high  lemperalnre  for  fusion ; 
and  poller's  clay,  which  is  used  for  coarse 
jKillecy. 

CLE.MATIS.  A  climbing  shmb,  other- 
Wise  called  the  Virgin's  Bower,  or  Wild 


CLO 

Climbers.  The  common  sort,  bearing  a 
bluisli  Mower,  is  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Eiir(>i>e 

CL1>R(;V.  A  general  name  for  all  p«r- 
sons  in  holy  orders. 

CI.KRK  (in  l^aw).  A  clergyman;  In 
Commerce,  one  who  keeps  a  merchant's 
accounts. 

CLI ENT.  One  who  retains  a  lawyer  to 
manage  or  pleail  iiis  cause. 

CLlFforlM.EK  (in  Music).  A  mark 
set  at  the  l>egiiining  of  a  soim,  to  show  the 
key  in  which  the  4iiece  i»  to  be  (lerfornied. 

CLIMATES.  Spaces  upon  the  surface 
of  the  terrestrial  globe,  contained  between 
two  parallels  of  latitudes,  so  far  distant 
from  each  other,  tlial  the  longest  day  on 
one  parallel,  differs  half  an  hour,  rroiii  the 
longest  day  on  the  other.  It  is  also  used 
to  denote  the  general  character  of  the  wea- 
ther and  temperature,  in  any  given  place. 

CLOAK.  An  upper  loose  garment,  worn 
over  the  clothes  in  cold  or  rainy   weather. 

CLOCK.  A  machine  for  ineasuriugtinie, 
which  tells  the  hour  by  a  stroke  upon  a 
bell.  In  order  that  the  clock  may  be  an 
equable  measure  of  the  solar  day,  which  is 
unequal,  it  is  usual  for  clocks  and  watches 
to  go  a  few  minutes  faster  or  slower  than 
the  sun. 

CLOISTERS.  Covered  passages,  such 
as  were  formerly  attached  to  cloisters  or 
other  religious  houses. 

CLOTH.  Any  kind  of  stuff  that  is  w(>- 
ven  or  manufactured  in  the  loom,  whether 
it  be  made  of  wool,  hemp,  or  Hax. 

CLOTHIKR,  or  CLOTHWDRKER 
A  manufacturer  of  cloth.  In  the  I'niteu 
States,  It  is  applied  exclusively  to  those 
who  dress  and  colour  cloths. 

CLOVE.     An  Indian  spice,  the  fniit  c 


the  clove  tree,  which  grovrs  in  *e  spiee 
islands  in  tlie  Pacific  Ocean. 


COA 

CI<OlTD  A  mass  of  vapour,  more  or 
ess  o|n({ii«,  drawn  or  sent  out  of  the  earth 
into  the  alilio8|>!irre.  VV'hfu  coudeiiMsd 
Into  water,  they  fall  in  rain. 

CLOVE  aiLLIFLOWER,  or  CLOVE 
PINK.  A  riaer  kind  ofpiuk  cultivated  in 
gardens. 

CLOVER.  A  kind  of  threeleaved  grass 
•r  trefoil ;  it  is  much  used  as  a  food  for  cat- 
tle. 

CLyPTF.tl.  An  instrument  for  the  in- 
jection of  any  fluid  into  the  hody. 

CO.     An  alilireviatioR  of  coniiiany. 

COAX.  In  mineralogy,  an  inflammable 
fosail  Kuusiauce,  oi  vegetable  origin, 
found  emueJuea  iu  strata  of  different 
tiiicUaess.  It  appears  to  have  been  pro- 
duceJ,  iu  primeval  ages,  by  tbe  long- 
continued  decomposition  of  wood,  by 
wuicu  9  atoms  of  carbonic  ai\id,  3  of 
carburetted  hydrogen,  and  3  of  water 
have  been  separaMjd.  The  coal ol  the 
ternary  strata  of  the  earth's  crnst  is 
generally  lignite-wood  or  brown  coal, 
ill  geology,  the  coal  formationi  coal- 
helos,  or  coal  measures  are  a  series  of 
deposits  c^n-iisting  ot  coal,  limestone, 
ironstone,  tjaudstone,  and  shales  of  va- 
rious kinds  and  thicknesses. 

In  America,  it  was  first  discovered  by 
Father  Hennepin,  in  llWS,  on  the  Illinois 
Uiver  where  Ottawa  now  stands.  It 
was  first  used  from  Virginia,  near  liich- 
mond,  which  for  many  years  supplied 
the  whole  Atlantic  market.  The  first 
Antharcite  wassentto  Philadelphia,  in 
ls03,  but  was  considered  of  so  little 
value  that  it  was  used  for  making  side- 
walks. In  1877,  we  produced  over 
21,OUO,000,  tons  of  this  now  esteemed 
coaL  In  182Q,  there  was  produced  in 
the  United  States,  of  Bituminous  and 
Antharcite  about  81,600  tons,  but  iu  1877, 
there  was  produced  50,000,000  tons.  This 
tonnage  places  our  Country  as  the 
second  coal  producer  iu  the  world, 
GreaL  Britain  being  first,  with  an  out- 
put of  130,000,000  tons  in  1877.  With 
regard  to  extent  and  accessability  the 
United  States  stand  foremost  among 
nations,  and  is  destined  to  become  at  no 
distant  day  the  great  fuel  producer  of 
the  world.  We  give  below  the  Area  of 
the  coal  fields  in  various  countries. 

COUMSIES.  ^  SQtJABB  MILES. 

UnitedStatea lifi.OOO 

Nova  Scotia 18,000 

Great  Britain 11,000 

Spain 3,000 

France 1,800 

Prussia 1,800 

Aus  t  ria 1 ,800 

Belgium 900 

CUih,  Australia^  India,  China,  &c.. 28.880 

CO.\S'i'EK.  A  ves.sel  employed  in  jioing 
Irom  one  port  to  another  along  the  coast. 

COAT.       A   jiarment   worn  commonly 

•pp«rin4Vt ;  a  thin  coverini^  laid  or  done 

•Tor  any   iiing,  u  •  coat  of  paint,  Itc. ;  in 

9 


coc  r. 

Analoiny,  the  ciembraneoua  cover  of  titif 
pan  of  ilie  bod\',  as  Uie  Cuat^  of  ibe  eya, 
the  stoRKicli.  &.C. 

COAT  AU.MOUR,  or  Coat»  or  Aunt. 
Armorial  ensigns  or  hearings,  which  «vera 
origiiKtIly  |>aii;ted  on  ilie  cuata  of  arms. 

COATIMOUDI.  An  animal  shafted 
Bomewliat  like  a  race  on  with  a  Urns  suuul 
flexible  like  tlie  irtiiik  of  an  Eleph:uit 
When  asleep  it  rolls  itself  iiit<i  a  lump. 

COAT  OF  .M.ML.  A  piece  of  ariuoui 
made  in  the  form  of  a  shirt,  and  w;}U{;lil 
over  with  many  iron  rliijfs. 

COBALT.  A  mineral  of  a  gray  colour, 
consisting  of  silver  and  arsenic,  which  lat- 
ter is  obtained  from  it  in  great  iiiiautitiesl 
It  has  never  been  found  pure  in  nature,  but 
mostly  in  tiie  state  of  an  oxide,  or  alloyed 
with  other  metals. 

COCAO.     See  Cocoa. 

COCCULUS  IXUICUS,  An  Indian 
tree  producing  a  poisonous  herry,  which  is 
one  ot  the  deleterious  ingreKlients  unlaw- 
fully u?ed  in  the  making  of  beer 

COCHINEAL.  An  insect  which  mfJests 
different  plants,  but  particularly  the  opiiu- 
tia.  This  insect,  when  dried,  is  ii^ecl  in 
dyeing  a  rich  scarlet.  There  is  a  red  lp*r- 
ry  whicii  grows  on  an  .American  tree,cMli«it 
tlie  Coccus  .Americaniis  or  Ficiis  IndiHiiuK, 
which  also  yields  a  beaullful  scarlet  d\e 

COCHLEA  (in  .Anatomy).  The  inieriiaj 
cavity  of  the  ear,  so  cailed  troni  its  le^ept- 
blaiice  to  tlie  spiral  shape  of  the  cochler, 
or  snail's  shell. 

COCHLE.A  (in  .Mechanics).  One  of  tlie 
five  mechaairal  powers,  otherwise  called'a 
screw. 

COCK.  The  male  of  most  birds,  parti.; 
ularly  of  the  well  known  domestic  Uiwl  in 
a  farmyard. 

COCK.  The  name  of  a  part  of  sevemi 
instruments,  as  that  part  of  the  Uick  of  a 
musket  whiih  sustains  the  jaws, or  pietes 
of  iron  that  rereive  the  Hint  ;  als<i  (he 
wrouglit  piece  that  covers  the  balance  in 
a  clock  or  watrh  ;  and  the  s|M>iit  whict(  is 
put  into  beer  or  water  barrels,  &.c. 

COCKCHAFFER,  orTRKE  Ueetue.  A 
mischievous   insect,  which  devours   the 


leaves  of  trees,  &c.    The  grub,  which  m 
soft  and  gray,  wttii  rMtaceous  hea<l  ai>4 


99 


coc 


lefi,  remains  in  the  earth  thre«  or  more 
years  before  it  is  transtbrmeU  into  the  per- 
fect hii^ct. 

CO(JKATOO.  A  species  of  parrot,  hav- 
ing a  svirt  tail  and  a  tuft  of  long  feathers 
AH  the  ■itad.  it  is  a  native  of  the  Moluc- 
cas. 

COCKBOAT.  A '■mall  boat  belonging 
i«a  shi.i,  that  is  used  in  rivers. 
.  COCKET  (in  England).  The  office  at 
the  Customhouse  where  the  good«  to  be 
ex]>orted  are  entered  ;  also  the  Custom- 
bouse  seal,  or  the  parchment  sealed  and 
delivered  by  officers  of  the  customs  to  mer- 
chants, as  a  warrant  that  their  goods  are 
customed. 

COCK  FIGHTING.  A  cruel  sport 
common  in  England,  which  consists  in 
pitting  two  cocks  against  each  other,  of  the 
game  breed,  and  armed  with  spurs  tliat 
inflict  deadly  wounds. 

COCKING  (in  Carpentry).  A  method 
ef  securing  beams  to  wallplates. 

COCKLE.     A  sort  of  shell  fish. 

COCKNEY.  A  nick  name  given  toone 
who  is  born  and  bred  in  the  city  of  London, 
within  the  sound  of  Bow  bells. 

COCKPIT.  A  place  where  cocks  fight ; 
also  an  apartment  in  the  treasury  in  Lon- 
don, where  the  king's  speech  is  read  before 
the  meeting  of  parliament. 

COCKPIT.  The  place  in  a  ship  of  war 
where  the  wounded  are  dressed  by  the 
surgeon. 

COCK'S  COMB.  A  fine  plant  cultivated 
in  gardens  and  hot  houses.  Some  sorts  are 
annuals  and  some  perennials, 

COCOA  NUT  TREE.  A  tree  common 
In  Asia  and  South  America,  which  yields 
the  fruit  called  the  cocoa  nut.    The  atiell 


C  O  F 

called  by  the  natives,  toddy.  The  hush  A 
Uiesliell  is  used  for  making  chocolate,  aafl 
from  the  kernel  is  extriicted  an  oil. 

COCKSWAIN,  vulgarly  called  Coc«- 
soN.  An  officer  wliu  has  charge  of  the 
cockboat. 

COCTION.  The  reducing  the  aliment* 
to  chyle  ;  in  Surgery,  the  reducing  morbific 
matter  to  a  healtiiy  state. 

COD.  A  large  fish  which  inhabits  the 
northern  seas,  and  is  much  est-->-iued  fur 
its  flesh.  The  cod  fisheries  ou  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland  employ  three  hundred 
vessels  and  several  thousand  men. 

COD  FISHER.  A  vessel  employeO 
in  the  cod  fisliery  ;  also  the  person  em- 
ployed. 

CODEX.  A  name  particularly  applied 
to  the  volume,  containing  the  ancient  Ro- 
man or  lm|>erial  law. 

CODICIL.  A  supplen>ei)t  to  a  will. 

CODLIN.  An  apple,  so  called,  because 
it  is  fittest  to  be  cuddled  or  boiled  in 
milk. 

COFFEE.  The  fruit  of  the  coffee  tree, 
and  the  drink  which  is  made  trom  it. 

COFFEE  ROASTER.  An  iron  utensil, 
in  which  the  cotfee  is  roasted  gradually 
over  a  fire,  until  it  is  iu  a  fit  state  for 
grinding. 

COFFEE  TREE.  A  treeofthejasamine 
kind,  which  bears  a  berry  Known  by  the 
same  name.  The  berries  grow  in  clusters 
like  cherries.  The  tree  w'cch  i«  a  native 
of  Arabia  bears  me  best  .^offise,  and  passe* 
under  the  name  of  Mccha  CoflTee  '"t  nriv 
duced  in  the  West  Indies, tsoutli  America 
and  the  Asiatic  Islands. 


of  the  frtilt  leof  a  bony  snbotance,  eontaln- 
hig  a  kernel  and  a  sweet  refreshing  litjuor. 


COFFER.  A  ehesl  or  trunk  j  in  Mintw- 
alogy,  a  trou;h  in  whir.li  tin  ore  is  >-r(ikPM 
to  pieces  ;  in  Fortificiiiiini,  a  trench  cut  la 
the  bottom  of  a  dry  ditch 


col 

rUFfEHDAM.  A  ease  of  piling  fixeil 
IB  the  bed  of  a  river,  tur  llie  piir|Huie  uf 
kuilding  a  pier  dry. 

COFFIN.  A  case  or  box  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a  deed  body,  that  in  to  he  huned  ; 
in  the  veterinary  art,  the  whole  liouf  uf  a 
liorse'f  foot  above  the  cnnmel. 

COG.  The  tmith  of  a  wheel. 

COGNIZANCE  (in  Law).  The  heiiring 
of  a  thing  Judicially  ;  also  the  bckiiovv- 
ledgnient  of  a  fine. 

COGNIZANCE  OF  PLIiA^.  InEngland 
I  privilege  granted  by  the  king  to  a  city 
>r  town  to  hold  pleaa  of  all  contracts,  &.C. 
(vitliin  the  liberty  of  the  fraiiciiise  ;  in  Her- 
aldry, the  same  as  the  crest. 

COHESION,  or  Attkaction  ok  Cohe- 
•io:«.  That  power  by  which  the  jiarticles 
of  bodies  are  held  together:  the  absolute 
cohesion  of  bodies,  is  measured  by  tlie  force 
necessary  to  pull  thetn  Hsiiiuler. 

COHORT.  A  military  iHidy  among  the 
Honians,  consisting  of  the  tenth  of  a  legion, 
or  about  t>(IU  men. 

COIF.  A  sort  of  hood  or  eap  for  the 
liead,  formerly  worn  in  England,  by  Ser- 
jeants at  law. 

(;olL.  The  ring  or  circle  formed  by  a 
cable  in  coiling  or  winding  it. 

COGNOMEN.  The  last  ot  tne  three 
names  (the  other  two  being  the  prae- 
noinen  aud  the  uomen)  by  which  it  was 
conimou  lor  the  Komaiis  of  good  family 
to  be  designated;  a  8uruanie;  the  family 
name. 

COGNOVIT.  In  law,  an  acknowledg- 
ment by  a  defendant  that  the  plaintifl's 
claim  is  just,  and  consent  thatjudgment 
be  entered  accordingly. 

COIK.  A  material  for  cordage,  consist- 
ing of  the  fibres  of  the  cocoa-nut;  cord- 
age made  of  this  material. 

COIX.  A  gentis  of  tropical  East  Indian 
grasses,  popularly  called  Job's  tears. 

COIN.  A  corner  or  cvternal  angle;  a 
wedge;  a  quoin;  money  stamped;  a 
piece  of  metal  converted  into  money,  by 
impressing  on  it  marks,  figures,  or  char- 
acters; that  which  serves  for  payment. 
In  archffiology,  a  kind  of  die  cut  diagon- 
ally, after  the  manner  of  a  flight  of  a 
staircase.  Current  coin  is  money  legal- 
ly stamped,  and  circulating  in  tr^e. 
Ancient  coins  are  chiefly  those  of  the 
Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  which  are 
kept  in  cabinets  as  curiosities. 

COKE.  Fossil  coal  deprived  of  its  bit- 
umen, sulphur,  or  other  extraneous  or 
volatile  matter,  by  fire. 

COLCOTHAR.  The  brown-red  oxide  of 
iron  which  remains  after  the  distillation 
of  the  acid  from  sulphate  of  iron;  it  is 
sometimes  called  crocus  martis,  and  ia 
used  in  polishing. 

COLIN.  A  bird  of  the  partridge  kind, 
found  in  America,    especially    in    Vir- 


COL 


99 


COLLlQUAMENTtTM.  In  pliy.Hi- 
ology.  the  first  riidimeiit.s  (f  aiiiniiit 
generation ;  au  extremely  traiisjiareut 
fluid  in  an  e^g,  observable  after  two  or 
three  dava'  iiicubatioii,  contiiiuing  tlio 
fiist  rudiments  of  the  iinimnl. 

COLLODION.  A  solution  of  gun- 
cottou  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
ether,  used  for  taking  portraits  by  the 
photographic  process. 

COLLUM.  In  Ixdany,  that  part.of  a 
plant  from  whicli  the  Htein  and  root 
proceed. — Among  jewellers,  the  liori- 
zontal  face  or  plane  at  the  bottom  of  a 
brilliant. 


COLD.- Not  only  the  sensation  of  cold 
but  the  slate  of  the  body  which  causes  the 
sen.-<ation.  By  some,  cold  is  S4ippused  to  ba 
a  distinct  substance,  and  that  when  we 
call  a  body  cold,  we  may  be  understood  ta 
signify,  that  it  absorbs  caloric  or  heat  fMm 
other  bodies. 

COLEOPTERA.  The  first  order  of  in- 
sects in  the  Liuna;an  system,  comprehend- 
ing all  those  with  four  wings,  as  the  beetle, 
glowworm,  ladybird,  leather  eater,  &c. 

COLEWORT,  or  Kale.  A  variety  of 
the  cabbage,  which  thrives  in  the  winier, 
and  improves  from  the  action  of  the  frost 
upon  it. 

COLIC.  A  violent  pain  in  the  abdomen, 
so  called  from  the  colon,  the  intestine  for- 
merly supposed  to  be  atfected. 

COLL.AR.  (in  Heraldty).  An  ornament 
for  the  neck,  worn  by  knights,  such  as  the 
collar  of  the  order  of  the  Gaiter  iu  the  sub- 
joined figure 


COLLATERAL  (in  Law).  A  lerni  for 
what  is  sideways,  or  not  direct,  as  collateral 
kinsmen,  those  who  are  not  descended  from 
oneeummon  stock,  as  the  issue  of  two  sous, 
who  are  collateral  kinsmen  to  one  another. 

COLLATIN(J.  (among  Book-binders) 
The  examining  the  whole  number  of  sheets 
belonging  to  a  book,  in  order  to  see  if  they 
are  all  gathered  pro|ierly. 

COLL.ATION  OF  A  BENEFICE,  fn 
England,  the  bestowing  of  a  liein-fire  h» 
Ihe  bisito^,  w^n  be  has  th«  right  of  em» 


IM 


COL 


ronage  ;  II  difTers  from  iiiKtitiition  in  this, 
that  iiiHtitiitioii  into  a  bentttice  is  perform- 
ed by  the  bishop  at  ilie  preseutuliuii  of 
tiiutlier  who  is  i>alroii. 

COl.LAT»)K  One  who  compares  eopies 
or  niaiiuscripts. 

COLLKAli  LIE.  An  associate  in  the  same 
itffice  or  magistracy. 

CHtLl.KOT.  A  short  prayer,  particularly 
iuth  pia>ers  as  are  appointed  witli  tlie 
epistles  and  gospels,  in  the  public  service 
of  thi'  Kiii.s«-<)pal  Clmrcli. 

COI.LKCTION.  The  act  of  collecting 
-»r  bringing  Ihings  together  from  ditt'erent 
quarters,  as  a  collection  of  money  for  charit- 
able purposes,  either  at  the  church  door  or 
from  house  to  house  ;  also  that  which  is 
fjillerted  or  brought  together  into  an  assem- 
blage, as  a  collection  of  coins,  paintings,  &c. 

<?()!, LKGB.  A  corporation  or  socii'ty  of 
l«*rsons,  having  certain  privileges,  and 
founded  in  England  by  the  king's  license, 
as  the  College  of  Thysicians,  or  the  Colleges 
ill  the  Universities.  In  this  country.  Col- 
leges are  incorporated  by  the  legislatures. 
The  term  is  here  only  applied  to  literary 
instirntions. 

(;OLLE(;iATE.  In  England,  an  epithet 
for  a  church  that  is  endowed,  for  a  soci- 
ety, &.C. 

COLLI  ER.  A  vessel  employed  in  carry- 
ing coals  fnun  one  port  to  another:  also 
one  who  works  in  the  coal  mines. 

COLLUSilON  (in  !^w).  A  compact 
between  two  persons  to  bring  an  action  one 
against  the  other,  for  some  fraudulent  or 
Hnlawful  puriMise. 

COLOCY.NTIIIS.  See  Cot,oquiriTiDA. 

C»»I,0(;NE  earth,  a  substance  used 
by  painters,  much  approaching  to  amber 
In  its  strurtnre,  and  of  a  deep  brown. 

COLON  (in  An.-itomy).  The  second  of 
the  three  large  inlestiiirs  ;  in  Grammar,  a 
poiiil  marked  thus  (:)  to  divide  a  sentence. 

COLONEL.  The  first  in  command  of  a 
regiiiient. 

Ct)LONNADE.  A  range  of  pillars  run- 
ning (|uite  round  a  building. 

COLONY.  A  company  of  i>eople  re- 
moved fnun  one  country  to  another,  where 
they  form  a  settlement  under  the  sanction 
nf  the  government ;  also  the  place  where 
Bill  h  a  setllemeiil  is  fxrnied,  as  the  colonies 
belonging  ><•  Great  Rrimin  in  llie  East  and 
West  Indies  aird  in  North  America,  &c. 

COLOat'lNTIDA.  The  fruit  of  the  wild 
gunrd.liroiighl  from  the  lx;vant.  The  pulp, 
Which  is  light,  spongy,  and  white,  is  re- 
markable fur  its  iiiiense  bitterness,  whence 
it  has  the  name  of  the  bitter. 

COLOSSUS.  A  statue  of  a  prixligions 
•I7«,  HucU  u  tluu  ul  Uie  luii  anciently  in 


COM 

the  harbour  nf  the  island  of  Rhodes  I 
was  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbour 
with  the  right  foot  sumding  on  one  sid 
the  land,  and  the  lert  on  the  other. 

COLOURS.  Were  anciently  supposed 
to  be  an  inherent  property  of  the  coloured 
substance,  but  they  are  now  considered  to 
be  the  property  of  iglit,  the  elemeiit.-»ry 
rays  of  which,  being  propagJiled  to  the 
sensoriuin,  atlect  the  mind  with  the  difler- 
ent  sensalioiis  of  colour,  accordiii<(  to  their 
degrees  of  refrangiliility. 

COLOLRS  (in  Painting).  The  various 
tints  wh'Cli  are  produced  by  the  dilferenf 
mixture  and  application  of  certain  drugs 

COLOURS  (in  Heraldry).  The  tinctuns 
with  which  the  tield  or  any  part  of  the 
escutcheon  is  distinguished,  namely,  or, 
yellow  ;  argent,  white  ;  gules,  red  ;  azure, 
blue  ;  sable,  black  ;  and  vert,  green. 

COLOURS.  A  military  term,  for  the 
banners, t1ags,and  ensigns  used  in  the  army 

COLU.MN.  A  cylindrical  pillar,  which 
serves  either  for  the  support  or  ornament 
of  a  building,  tt  consists  of  a  capl.al, 
which  is  the  top  or  heartl ;  the  shaft,  which 
is  the  cylindrical  part ;  and  the  base,  or 
that  on  which  it  rests.  Columns  are  dis- 
tinguished as  to  their  form  into  the  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  Composite,  and  Tuscan 

COLUMN  (in  the  .Military  Art).  A 
long  deep  file  of  trtxips  or  baggage. 

COLUMNIFER^  (in  Botany).  One  of 
Liiiinens's  natural  orders,  including  the 
luallow-like  plants 

COLURES  (III  Astronomy).  Two  grejii 
imaginary  circles,  whicli  intersect  one  ano 
ther  al  right  angles. 

COMB  (In  Coiumerce)  An  instrument 
to  clean,  untangle,  and  dress  tlax,  wool, 
hair,  &.  •..;  also  a  sea  term,  for  a  little  piece 
of  timber  set  under  the  lower  part  of  the 
lieakhead. 

COMBINATION  (in  Chemistry).  The 
intimate  union  of  tin  particles  of  diTerent 
substances,  so  as  to  form  a  new  compound; 
in  Mathematics,  the  alterations  or  varia- 
tions in  nil  possible  ways  of  quantities, 
letters,  sounds,  and  the  like  Tjiiis,  two 
square  pieces,  each  divided  diagonally  into 
two  colours,  may  be  arranged  and  com- 
bined sixty-four  ways. 

COMBUSTIBLES  (in  Chemistry).  All 
substances  which  have  the  proiierty  of 
uniting  with  the  supporters  of  coinbiisticm 
8u:h  as  sulphur,  phosphorus,  carbon,  fee 

COMBUSTIBLES  (in  the  Military  Art. 
Combustible  materials  used  in  ofTensive  e. 
defensive  operalitins. 

COMBfSTIoN.  The  dfr«,Ti|>o»ition  ot 
iMidiew  arronipanieit  with  light  and  heat 

COMEUV     A  dramatic    repres<Aitati«a 


COM 

ol  the  licht.  liiiiiKimiis,  niiH  pleasant  kind, 
particularly  inteiideil  to  ridicule  llie  fullies 
of  men. 

CO.MKT.  An  opaque.  s|ili«rical, and  solid 
b«Mly,  like  a  planet,  iterforinin^  revolutions 
ahout  the  sMii  in  elliptical  urliils,  wliicli 
tiav*  the  sun  in  one  of  the  foci.  It  is 
divided  into  the  nucleus  or  dense  part ;  the 
head  ;  the  coma,  a  faint  lipht  surrounding 
the  head  ;  and  the  tail,  which  is  the  lout! 
train  of  light  by  which  these  biMlies  are 
ilisliiiguished.  The  comet  is  sonietiines 
borne  in  coats  of  oxiiis,  when  it  is  said  tu 
be  streaming. 

COMMA  (in  Grammar).  A  point  marked 
thus  (,)  and  put  between  words  and  sen- 
tences. 

COM.\..  In  astronomy,  the  hairy  ap- 
peai-auce  tu;it  vurrouuus  a  comet  wheu 
the  eanh  is  between  the  comet  and  the 
sun.  Comma  Berenices  is  a  coustella- 
tiou  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  which 
contains  forty-three  stars,  lu  patholo- 
gy, a  morbid  coudition  of  the  brain,  at- 
tended with  the  lose  of  seusatiou  and 
voluntary  action. 

COilBKETACE^.  In  botany,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  cliietly  tropi- 
cal, consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  of 
which  Combretum  is  the  type. 

COM.MENTARY.  An  e.\planation  of 
the  obscure  passages  in  an  author. 

COMMKKCE.  A  trafficking  or  dealing 
with  foreiCT  countries,  by  means  ofe.xp<irl- 
int!  and  iui|KirtLng  different  coinniodiliec 

CtiMMKKCE,  History  of.  The  inter- 
coiir.'<e  t)etween  different  nations  for  pur- 
p<ises  of  coiiimerce,  doubtless  took  place 
sotm  iirter  the  dispersion  of  mankind,  for 
we  find  it  recorded  in  holy  writ  that  the 
Ishiiiaelites,  who  were  settled  in  higher 
parts  of  .\rabia,  carried  on  a  trade  with 
Egypt  in  spices,  balm,  and  myrrh,  and 
that  ill  one  of  their  journeys  Joseph  was 
■old  to  them  by  his  brethren.  As  the 
coinmoilities  in  which  they  dealt,  as  gums 
and  sweet  sceiiled  wckwIs,  which  were  to 
be  procured  only  from  the  East  Indieaf 
there  is  no  doubt  that  these  people  and  the 
Eryptians  were  among  the  first  who  made 
iisiaiit  vuvaees  and  travels  i"n  the  way  of 
Irnile.  They  were  succeeded  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians, an  advenhirou*  [leople  who  were 
Uie  first  that  raised  any  naval  power  that 
Ciakes  any  figure  in  history.  By  their 
enterprise  and  Industry  they  became  a 
wealthy  aiul  luxurious  people,  and  their 
two  cities.  Tyre  and  Sidon,  became  the 
eiiiporhims  of  the  uirl/en>e.  In  the  time 
of  David  ai  d  Solomon  we  find  the  Jewish 
•ationavai.ed  themselves  of  the  assistance 
of  this  people  in  equipping  their  fleets. 
4/Ut  the  ieolruction  of  old  Tyre,  a  new 
»• 


COM 


101 


city  arose  out  of  the  ruins,  which  rivalled 
the  other  in  weallli,  industry,  and  com- 
merce ;  anil  while  in  h<>r  glory  she  planted 
the  colony  of  I'arthare,  on  the  coast  of 
.Africa,  which  from  the  convenience  of  her 
situation  and  the  industry  of  her  inhabit- 
ants, rose  to  an  extraordinary  pitch  of 
pri>s|ierity.  The  Carthaginians  made  them- 
selves ina.sters  of  ^^paiii,  and  of  the  islaiidf 
of  spicily  and  Sardinia,  discovered  the 
greatest  part  of  the  coast  of  Africa  and  th« 
Canary  Islands,  traded  with  Britain  by 
the  route  of  the  Scilly  Islands,  and  are 
9  ip|iosed  to  have  made  their  way  even  to 
America.  In  the  mean  lime  E^pl,  iiiidef 
the  Pt(.4eniies,  also  attained  a  high  degree 
ofgraudeuraiid  attluence.  Ptolemy  Phila- 
deiplius  in  particular,  by  encouraging  trade, 
made  his  people  rich  and  himself  power- 
ful. Such  was  the  greatness  of  Alexandria 
alone,  that  the  produce  of  the  customs  fell 
little  short  of  two  millions  annually.  Under 
the  Romans  commerce  <v:is  encouraged  in 
every  part  of  the  world  where  they  had 
any  influence,  as  may  lie  learned  not  only 
from  historians  but  also  from  various  medals 
and  inscriptions,  showing  that  every  con- 
siderable city  had  several  colleges  or  trading 
companies. 

Un  the  decline  of  the  empire,  conimerca 
was,  owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  all 
Euro]>e,  and  the  constant  irruption  of  the 
barbarous  tribes,  almost  at  a  stand.  About 
this  period  it  happened  that  some  ilraggling 
people,  either  forced  f-y  necessity  or  led 
by  inclination,  tixik  their  aUVde  in  a  few 
scattered  islands  that  lay  near  the  coast  of 
Italy,  and  as  these  islands  were  separated 
from  each  other  by  narrow  channcJs,  full 
of  shallows,  that  pre%'eiited  strangers  from 
navigating,  the  inhabitants  found  them- 
selves protected  from  all  hostile  inroadk, 
and  in  the  midst  of  this  seciirily  they  fol- 
lowed their  pursuits  with  so  much  industry 
and  success,  that  these  once  insignificant 
islands  rose  in  the  space  of  two  centuries, 
(hat  is  from  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  century, 
into  a  great  city  and  a  powerful  republic 
Such  was  the  humble  origin  of  the  once 
(Hitent  state  of  Venice,  which  by  degrees 
acquired  an  extent  of  commerce  aiMl  a  naval 
power  that  had  not  for  a  lengi-li  of  time  any 
rival.  She  drew  to  herself  the  profits  of 
the  Indian  trade,  and  by  availing  herself  of 
every  favourable  conjiincUirs,  she  not  only 
monopoliz.ed  the  trade  of  all  Italy,  but  of 
all  the  coiintri  s  in  subjection  to  the  Maho- 
metans ;  but  aa  other  coiiiilrries  in  Europe 
began  to  enlarge  their  commerce,  Venice 
lost  the  nuino|Nily,  and  this  combining  with 
her  own  immoderate  ambition,  caused  the 
decay  of  her  trade  aud  the  decline  of  bat 


IM 


COMMCRCE. 


^wer.  From  tho  leajjiie  ofCainlirny.  '.vliii:h 
was  fonueil  a-jaiiist  lier  by  tile  (iiiwers  of 
Europe,  Vtsiiice  may  lie  said  lo  have  ceasffll 
to  hold  Die  tiriil  rank  an  n  cniiiiiiercial  state. 

The  origin  of  llie  iiroiid  ciiy  of  (JeinKi, 
U  It  was  called,  was  very  similar  lo  llmt 
of  Venice  Uike  Venice,  she  rose  from  an 
asaeniblagr  of  fiii^tivea  and  adventurers  on 
the  rocky,  barren,  and  inlnwiiilable  shores 
of  Liguria;  and  like  her  slie  gained,  by  the 
industry  and  (lerseveraiice  of  her  inliablt- 
antt,  a  prodigious  extent  of  commerce. 
Her  merchants  traded  with  all  countries, 
and  throve  hy  becoming  tlie  carriers  from 
one  country  to  another.  Her  fleets  were 
formidable  and  her  conquests  nuiiierous, 
but  alter  perpetual  wars  with  her  rival, 
Venice,  she  was  at  leiislh  C(ini|>elled  to 
yield  the  dominion  of  the  sea,  and  tinally 
lost  all  her  consei|iience. 

In  the  meantime,  the  trade  of  Germany 
was  rising  in  conse(|Mence.  Some  commer- 
cial cities,  confederating  tog<nher.  formed 
B  cumniercial  league,  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Haii'ieatic  League,  the  object  of 
which  was,  bv  ciunbining  their  resources, 
to  form  a  fleet  for  the  protection  of  their 
trade  with  other  countries.  These  cities 
not  only  associated  among  themselves,  but 
also  formed  alliances  with  oilier  states,  as 
England  and  France,  and  had  a  code  of 
laws  which  were  respected  and  observed, 
under  the  name  of  the  Lex  Mercatoria, 
for  a  long  time  thoughout  all  Curo|>e.  In 
this  manner  the  Manse  Towns  aci)uired  a 
considerable  share  of  inrtuence,  and  were 
respected  by  all  the  sovereigns  'n  Eiiro|)e. 
The  kings  of  Fmiice  and  England  granted 
tliein  considerable  privileges,  exempting 
their  vessels  in  case  of  shipwreck  from  all 
demands  whatsoever,  either  on  the  part  of 
the  admirilty  or  of  private  persons,  and 
respecting  their  flag  in  tunes  of  war.  This 
good  understanding  between  them  and 
tlie  stales  of  Europe  was  considerably  in- 
creased by  the  freedom  with  which  they 
lent  their  money  lo  different  princes  in 
time  of  need,  particularly  during  the  cru- 
sades, when  they  g:ive  (Hiwerful  succours 
both  In  ships  as  well  as  in  money.  This 
confederacy  did  not,  however,  always  re- 
tain Its  moderation  ;  for,  as  they  increased 
In  wealth  and  power,  so  they  grew  ambi- 
tious and  domineering,  and  more  than  once 
they  ventured  to  set  themselves  up  against 
the  states  of  Germany  ;  in  consequence  of 
this,  the  German  princes  gradually  with- 
drew the  oities  that  were  8iili>ect  to  them- 
selves from  the  confederacy,  and  thus 
effected  lis  dissolution.  T-ie  only  cities 
whirli  now  retain  the  name  of  llaiu^ 
t'owtis,  and  some  other   vestiges  of  the 


llanseatic  league,  are  Hamburg.  Bremca 
and  Lubeck. 

The  next  important  change  in  the  state 
of  European  commerce  was  brought  about 
ill  Portugal  and  Spain,  hy  means  of  the 
discoveries  which  took  place  in  the  tifleenth 
and  subsequent  centuries.  'J'o  the  spirit 
and  enterprise  of  Emanuel,  King  of  Ptr- 
tugal,  we  are  indebted  for  the  discovery  ct 
the  Ca|ie  of  Good  Hope,  which  waselt'ected 
by  Vasco  de  Gania,  in  1498,  and  by  o|)en- 
ing  a  new  way  to  the  Indies  alforded  to 
the  Portuguese  an  opportunity'  of  making 
conquests  and  settlements  which  secured 
to  them  the  commerce  of  India,  which  the 
Venetians  had  hithertoenjoyed  through  the 
medium  of  the  Arabians.  The  discovery 
of  America  by  Columbus,  which  followed 
quickly  after,  paved  the  way  for  a  shil 
greater  extension  of  mercantile  enterprise, 
which,  though  at  first  enjoyed  only  by  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  was  at  length 
shared  by  other  states.  The  Dutch,  an 
enterprisir.g  people,  were  the  first  who 
wrested  from  the  Spaniards  a  portion  of 
their  conquered  possessions,  ^iid  made  so 
good  a  use  of  the  advantages  they  gained 
as  to  become  one  of  the  greatest  trading 
people  in  Europe.  By  the  lit-lp  of  increas 
ing  wealth,  they  converted  their  little 
fishing  villages  into  large  and  |Nipiiliuis 
cities  and  towns.  Although  their  country 
was  far  from  being  fertile,  and  .heir  ativ:- 
commodities  few  or  none,  yet  by  commerce 
they  succeeded  in  filling  their  storehouses 
with  all  the  productions  and  manufactures 
of  the  world. 

Having  given  this  general  sketch  of  com- 
merce from  its  earliest  beginnings,  we  must 
not  close  this  account  without  making  men- 
tion of  the  commerce  of  England,  which, 
though  among  the  last  to  avail  itself  of  this 
source  of  wealth  and  aggrandi/.emeiit,  lia< 
by  slow  and  gradual  steps  raised  its  coiu- 
nierce  to  a  pitch  which  has  never  hei-ii 
surpassed  by  any  nation.  It  apfiears  that 
a  commercial  intercourse  with  Britain  was 
begun  at  a  very  early  perioil,  and  thai  the 
I'hfKniciansand  C'arthasinians  tntded  with 
this  island  for  the  tin  of  C<irnwall,  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  native  Kritons  did  not  lor 
many  ages  take  any  active  part  in  this 
traffic,  or  make  any  atleiu|il  to  share  in  the 
advantages  of  commerce  beyond  the  giving 
theircommodities to siichas  wished  lotrade 
with  them.  They  had  nothing  letter  than 
leather  or  wicker  boats,  which  were  loo 
slight  to  enable  them  to  leave-their  shores, 
even  so  as  to  ernes  the  Channel. 

The  Saxons  made  considerable  endea- 
vours to  extend  their  Intercourse  w.tJl 
foreign  nations,  [larticularly  tii  ttietinteof 


COM 

Alfred  the  Great,  n'h>  sent  people  ai  fiir 
M  tile  Eciiit  for  cciiiiiiirrcial  |iiir|Muiea,  an 
also  for  the  sake  nt' pri>curiiig  iiifoniiation. 
Alter  the  Conquest,  ilie  b:n;:li!'ii  princes 
were  for  a  long  time  ttm  iiiiicli  eiisafieil  in 
political  and  iiiilitnry  concerns  to  liirii  their 
atieiitiiin  to  ttiis»ilijt-ct,an(l  liille  wasiloiie 
beyond  that  of  e^iving  enconragKinent  to 
foreiiiners  to  seitle  in  tlnglaml,  or  to  have 
dealings  with  the  [leople.  One  provision 
of  Magna  Charta  held  forth  indemnity  and 
protection  to  foreign  inercliants  in  the  pas- 
sage to  and  fru,  as  also  during  their  stay 
hi  the  country. 

Safe  coniliicts  were  afterwards  given  to 
the  English  going  abroad,  which  atforded 
them  ihp  opponimlty  of  carrying  on  a  traf- 
fic for  their  commodities  with  foreign  na- 
tions. In  conseipience  we  lind  that  staples 
or  markets  we:e  established  IhiiIi  in  Kiig- 
land  and  on  the  contiiienl,  where  English 
wool,  lead,  and  other  prodiictiiins  were 
bought  and  sold;  and  as  encourageiiieiil 
was  given  to  the  Hanseatic  League,  a  tra- 
ding com|iany  was  in  consequence  formed 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  hrst  called  the 
Company  of  Merchants  tniding  to  Calais, 
ice,  afterwards  the  Merchant  Adventurers 
of  England,  or  the  Company  of  .Merchant 
Adventurers  trading  to  Haiiibiirg,  'I'liis 
company,  which  is  the  lirst  of  the  kinil  in 
England,  was  incor|Hirated  by  Edward  I. 
in  I29t).  In  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  com- 
merce and  iiianufactiires  both  met  wi'h 
considerable  encouragement,  but  the  inter- 
course of  foreiu'iiers  with  England  was  now 
more  encoiimged  than  that  of  Englishmen 
with  foreign  nations.  In  consequence  the 
Maple  or  mart  was  conriiied  to  certain 
towns,  where,  by  the  slalule  of  the  staple 
as  it  was  called,  it  was  ordained  tliat  for- 
eigners inigM  resort  for  the  purchase  of 
English  commodities,  but  Englishmen  were 
prohibited  under  great  (lenalties  from  ex- 
porting any  themselves.  A  number  of 
other  laws  were  made  for  the  establishment 
and  governmentof  the  stapU',  which  form- 
ed that  branch  of  the  English  law  since 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Law-Merchant. 
For  the  encourageineiit  of  manufactures, 
protection  was  given  to  clothmakers  to 
come  from  foreign  parts  and  reside  here, 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  V'l.  the  principle 
cf  ronrining  commerce  within  the  limit  of 
the  country  was,  in  consequence  of  the 
recent  discoveries,  somewhat  altered.  An 
Intercourse  with  Russia  was  commenced 
by  means  of  some  English  adventurers, 
who,  poing  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  or- 
ier  to  rind  out  a  north  east  passaee  to  Chi- 
na, came  to  the  |Kirt  «f  Archangel,  where 
\Miy  were  well  receivud  by  the  Muscovites, 


COM 


Itk 


whence  they  sfterwarda  formed  a  compiuiy 
and  received  a  charier  to  secure  to  them- 
selves the  trade  to  liiissia.  This  company 
was  incor|Mirated  in  the  rcign  of  Philip  and 
Mary,  under  the  name  of  llie  Russia  Coin 
piiny  The  reign  of  Elizalielh  was  ttil' 
more  favourable  to  commercial  adveoturea 
of  every  kind.  Urake.  Sir  Walter  lialeigh 
and  tlenry  deClitfonl,  Earl  of  Cumberland, 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  voyagsa 
and  discoveries ;  besides  which  several 
fresh  companies  were  formed  under  tha 
auspices  of  this  queen.  The  Eastland 
Company  was  incorporated  under  the  title 
of  the  Company  of  Merchants  to  the  East 
the  Turkey  or  Levant  CoiuiKxiiy  was  alsi 
incorporated  in  1581  ;  but  the  most  impor 
tant  of  all  the  companies  which  had  hith 
erto  lieen  formed  was  the  E.ist  India  Com- 
pany, which  was  hrst  established  by  cliar- 
ter  in  1600.  In  the  reign  of  William  III 
a  new  East  India  Company  was  formed, 
which  was  for  a  time  a  rival  to  the  old  one, 
but  in  I70S  the  two  companies  were  con- 
solidated into  one  i  since  which  they  have 
ex|>erienced  considerable  vicissitudes,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  numerous  wars  in 
which  Ihey  have  l>een  engaged  their  affairs 
were  atone  time  so  reduced  that  they  were 
obliged  to  apply  to  the  governiiieiit  for  as- 
sistance, in  consequence  of  which  they 
have  lost  niiicli  of  their  independence,  and 
are  iiecess;irily  subject  to  more  control 
than  they  were  formerly.  Engliah  com- 
merce Continued  to  increase  from  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  till  the  present,  absorbing 
nearly  tue  whole  of  tlie  carrying  irauo 
of  the  world.  The  United  States,  com- 
peted successlully  with  tbeui  lor  a  con- 
siderable period,  but  the  closa  of  the 
war  in  lo(i4,  lound  nearly  the  whole 
transatlantic  trade  in  the  hands  of 
British  shipowners.  But  the  immense 
resources  of  the  country  and  its  ready 
Recuperative  power  must  ultimately 
assert  itseli,  and  eventually  command 
the  markets  of  the  world. 

COM.MFSSION  (in  Law).  The  warnnw, 
or  letters  patent  by  which  one  is  authorized 
to  exercise  jurisdiction  ;  in  Military  Affairs, 
the  warrant  or  authority  by  which  one 
holds  any  post  in  the  army  ;  in  Commerce, 
the  order  by  which  any  one  trafficks  or  ne- 
gotiates for  another  ;  also  the  per  centag* 
given  to  factors  and  agents  for  transacting 
the  business  of  others. 

COMMITTEE  (in  a  I  legislature).  A 
certain  number  of  memliers  ap)ioiiited  by 
the  house,  for  tl  *;  examination  of  any  mat- 
ter; in  general,  he  or  Ihey  to  whom  any 
matter  is  referred  by  lome  body  for  lUthm 
examination. 


IM  COM 

COMMODITY.  Any  merchandise  or 
ware  wliicli  a  persou  ileals  or  trades  in. 

COMMOUOKIi.  An  oliicer  m  ihe 
British  or  American  nary,  invested  uitli 
Uie  coniniaiid  of  a  detachment  of  ships  of 
war  destined  for  a  particular  purpose, 
riie  Commodore  of  a  convoy  is  the  lead- 
ing ship  in  a  fleet  of  merchantmen. 

CO.MMON  (in  Law).  A  right  or  privi- 
lege claimed  by  more  persons  in  another 
man's  lands,  waters,  woods,  &.c. 

COMMONALTY.  The  common  people, 
all  classes  and  couditions  of  people  who 
are  below  the  rank  of  nobility;  tbe  bulk 
of  mankind. 

COMMON-CARRIER.  One  who  un- 
dertakes for  hire  to  transport  goods 
from  place  to  i)lace. 

COMMON-COUNCIL.  Tlie  council  of  a 
city  or  corporate  town,  empowered  to 
make  by-laws  for  tUet'ovemmeni  of  the 
citizens. 

COMMON  LAW,  The  law  of  the  realm 
(grounded  on  general  customs  or  immemo- 
rial usage.  In  general  the  common  law 
of  England  is  common  in  this  country. 

COMMON  PLACE  BOOK.  A  sort  of 
register,  or  orderly  collection  of  things 
worthy  to  he  noted  in  a  bonk 

COM.MON  PLEAS.  One  of  the  King's 
courts  at  Westminster  Hall,  where  pleas 
orcaiiees  are  heard  between  subject  and 
(iihject  Similar  courts  exist  in  most  of 
the  United  Stales 

COMiMON  PHAVER.  The  litiirijy,  or 
public  form  of  prayer  prescribed  by  the 
church  of  England  to  be  used  in  all  church- 
es and  chapels  at  stated  periods.  The 
book  of  common  prayer  used  by  episcopa- 
lians in  the  United  States  is  so  altered 
from  the  English  ropy  as  to  .idapt  it  to  the 
local  circumstances  of  the  church. 

COMMONS  (in  England).  In  a  gene-, 
ral  sense,  the  whole  peop'-i,  as  distinguish- 
ed Irom  the  nobility  ;  in  a  particular  sense, 
the  knights  and  burgesses  who  represent 
the  Commons  in  parliament,  whence  the 
house  in  which  they  sit  is  called  the  House 
of  Commons 

COM.MONS  (in  Law).  See  Doctom 
Commons. 

COM.MONW  EALTIL  That  form  oi 
government  in  "vhich  the  administration 
of  public  affairs  is  common  or  open  to  all 
with  few  or  no  exceptions.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  monarchy  or  aristocracy 

COMMU.MO.N.  A  name  given  to  the 
Hcntnwnt  of  thr-^Ixird's  supper, 

COMMlMO.\  SERVICE.  The  office 
lor  the  administration  of  the  holy  sacra- 
tienl  in  llif  rbiirrli  nf  England. 

COllMUMo.V    TAIU.R       The    table 


COM 

erected  at  the  ea«t  end  of  the  church,  rouit4 
which  the  communicants  kneei  to  partake 
of  tlie  Lord's  supfier. 

COiMMUTATlON  (in  Law).  The  sub- 
stitution of  one  punishment  for  another. 

COMP.\.\Y  (in  Law).  A  society  of 
persons  forming  a  corporate  body;  in  Com- 
merce, a  trading  association,  in  which 
several  merchants  furni  a  joint  stock,  with 
which  they  trade  for  the  common  interest 
of  the  sluckholders,  such  as  the  East  India 
and  other  companies.     'See  Commerce.) 

CO.MP.WV  (ill  Sea  Affairs).  The  whole 
crew  of  a  ship,  including  the  otticers. 

COMi  ARATIVE  ANATOMY.  Th» 
sciencn  wi'.ch  te.ithes  the  structure  of  ll»# 
tmdy  In  aniiiials. 

COMPARATIVE  DECREE  (in  Gram- 
mar).    The  second  degree,  as,  better. 

COMPASS,  or  the  M.vrimer's  Cdmpass 
An  inslrninent  used  by  mariners  to  iKiint 
out  the  course  at  sea.  It  consists  of  a  card 
or  fly,  on  wliich  are  drawn  the  several 
points  of  the  compass  ;  the  needle,  or  m.ig- 
netic  needle,  a  small  bar  of  steel,  which 
has  the  property  of  turning  one  of  its  ends 
to  the  north  pole  ;  and  the  box,  which  co.n- 
taius  tiie  card  and  needle 


C0MP.\SSES,  or  Pair  or  Compasse.. 
A  mathematical  instrument,  consisting  of 
two  sharp  pointed  branches  or  legs  of  iron, 
brass,  or  steel. 


COMPLEMENT  (in  Astronomy).    Tlw 

di.stance  of  a  star  from  the  zenith. 

COMPLE.MENT   (in  Military   Alfaire) 
The  full  establishment  of  a  regiment. 


COM 

COMPKEMKNTOK  A.N  ARC  (in  r.e 
onietry).  What  an  arc  waiitx  of  Wh'  or 
the  qiiadranl  of  a  circle  ;  thus  the  comple- 
ment of  50^  a  40°,  and  tlie  conipleiiieiit  of 
Vf  is  50". 

COMPOStNG.  That  branch  of  the  art 
of  printiiis!  which  consists  inarruncini:  the 
types  or  letters  in  such  an  order,  as  to  fit 
tliem  for  the  press.  Tliis  the  compositor 
performs,  by  gathering  a  letter  at  a  time 
into  his  composing  stick,  which  when  full 
he  empties  into  a  frame  called  a  galley. 
Of  the  several  lines  arranged  in  order  in 
the  galley  he  makes  a  page,  and  of  several 
pages  he  makes  a  form 


CON 


Ml6 


COMPOSING-STICK.  A  compositor's 
tool  made  of  iron  plate,  and  consisting  of 
the  head,  the  bottom,  the  back,  the  two 
slides,  and  the  two  screws.  While  the 
compositor  is  in  the  act  of  composing  he 
holds  the  composing-stick  in  his  let^  hand, 
placing  the  second  joint  of  his  thumb  over 
the  slides  of  the  stick,  so  as  to  keep  the 
letter  tight  and  square  together,  as  he  pla- 
ces them  in  the  stick.  When  tlie  compo- 
sing stick  is  full,  he  proceeds  to  empty  it 
tato  the  galley. 


COMPOSTTjE.  OneofLinnieiis'natu- 
lal  orders,  comprehending  the  plants  with 
compound  flowers,  as  the  dandelion,  sun- 
flower, &.C. 

COMPOSITION  (in  Music).  A  piece 
of  music  composed  according  to  the  rules 
of  art. 

COMPOSITION  (\n  Painting).  The 
putting  together  the  several  parts  of  a 
picture,  so  as  to  set  ofTihe  whole  to  the 
best  advantage. 

COMPOSITION  (in  Commercel.  An 
•graeuient  entered  into  between  an  insol- 


vent tiflitor  and  \t\n  crcililor,  by  which  lli» 
latter  acceplx  a  |>arl  of  the  debt,  in  com- 
|)ensatinn  for  the  whole. 

COMI't)SI'i"t;  NUMRKRS.  Such  num- 
bers as  some  other  numbers  besides  unita 
will  measure,  as  13,  which  is  measured  by 
2,  3,  4,  and  6. 

Ct)MPOSITE  OKDER  (in  Architec- 
ture) One  of  the  five  orders  of  architect 
tiire,  so  called  because  it  is  compo«>'d  of 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders. 


•  COMPOSITOR  (among  Printers).  H* 
who  composes  the  matter  for  th»"  press. 

COMPOST,  pronounced  COMl'O  (in 
Husbandry).  Several  sorts  of  soils  or 
earths  and  other  matters  mixed  together, 
in  order  to  make  a  particularly  tine  kind 
of  mould. 

COMPOUND.  A  term  in  botany  appli- 
ed  to  a  flower  consisting  of  several  distinct 
lesser  flowers. 

COMPOUND  INTEREST.  Is  that  in- 
terest which  arises  from  principal  and  in- 
terest put  together. 

COMPOUNDING  FELONY,  or  Theft 
Bote  (in  Law).  Where  the  party  robl>ed 
takes  his  gmids  again  of  the  thief,  upon  an 
agreement  not  to  prosecute. 

COMI'()l'.M»IN{;  WITH  ONE'S 
CREDITORS.  Where  the  debtor,  notbe- 
i'lig  able  to  pily  all  his  debts,  agrees  with 
his  creditors  to  pay  a  part. 

CONCAVE  LE.N'S.  An  epithet  for 
glasses  ground  hollow  ot.  the  inside,  so  W 
to  reflect  on  the  hr  low  sidb 


IM 


CON 


CONCENTRATION  (in  Chemistry). 
The  act  uf  iiicreasini;  the  streiiptli  ul'tiuids 
by  vol.itili/.inK  part  ut' their  water. 

C<lNrKNTRIC.  All  epitliet  for  figures 
liavin:!  one  oiinnion  centre 

CONCERT.  A  iiiii8ical  |>erforniaiice  in 
which  any  number  of  practic.il  iiiiisiciaiii) 
unite  in  llie  exercise  nftlieir  talent. 

CONCERTO.  A  piece  of  iimsic  consist- 
ing of  several  parts  that  are  all  to  be  per- 
formed together. 

CONCHOLOGY.  That  branch  of  na.u- 
ral  history  which  treats  of  testaceous  ani- 
mals, or  such  animals  as  have  a  pern:a- 
nrntly  testaceous  covering,  which  are  com- 
prehended under  the  testacea  in  the  Lin- 
niean  system. 

CONCLAVE.  Theroom  in  the  Vatican 
at  Rome  where  the  cardinals  assemble  to 
clioose  a  pope  ;  also  the  assembly  itself. 

CONCORD  (in  Graiuiiiar).  That  fv:'. 
of  syntax  which  treatBof  the  agreement  of 
words  according  to  their  several  iiitlec- 
tions. 

CONCORD  (in   Law).     An  agreement 

between  parties  who  intend  to  levy  a  fine. 

CONCORD  (in  Music).     The  union  of 

wo  or  more  sounds  in  such  manner  as  to 

lender  them  agreeable. 

CONCORDANCE.  A  sort  of  dictionary 
of  the  Bible,  in  which  every  word  is  given 
with  references  to  the  book,  chapter,  and 
verse  in  which  it  is  to  be  found. 

CONCORDAT.  A  treaty  or  public  act 
of  agreement,  between  the  pope  and  any 
prince. 

CONCRETION.  The  growing  together 
of  several  substances  or  parts  of  substances 
Into  one  body. 

CONCRETION  (in  Surgery).  Morbid 
concretions  are  substances  formed  in  the 
animal  body,  as  tlie  calculus  or  stone,  &.c. 
CONDENSER.  A  pneumatic  engine  or 
syringe,  whereby  an  uncommon  quantity  | 
of  air  may  be  crowded  into  a  given  space. 
CONDITION  (in  Common  Law).  A 
restraint  annexed  to  a  thing,  ao  that  by  tlie 
nonperformance,  the  party  to  it  shall  sus- 
tain loss,  aid  by  the  performance  receive 
advantaee. 

CONDITION  (In  Civil  Law).  A  clause 
of  obligation  stipulated,  as  an  article  of  a 
Ueaty  or  contract. 

CONDUCTOR.  A  name  given  to  those 
■ubstances  which  are  capable  of  receiving 
and  transmitting  electricity. 

CONDUCTOR  OF  LIGHTNING.  A 
pointed  meliillic  i.rti,  contrived  by  Dr. 
Vranklin,  to  be  fiied  to  buildings,  to  secure 
them  from  the  effects  of  lightning. 

CONDUIT.  A  pipe  for  the  conveyance 
•f  water  to  any  particular  part. 


CON 

CONDOR.  A  large  kind  of  South  Amet- 
ican  vulture,  measuring  with  the  wingiiex> 
tended,  from  tip  to  tip,  twelve  or  sixt««a 
feet.  It  preys  on  birds,  lanibii,  and  kids. 
It  ia  the  largest  bud  of  (light. 


CONE  (in  Geometry).  A  solid  figiwe, 
having  a  circle  for  its  ba.se,  and  its  top 
terminating  in  a  point  or  vertex.  It  is 
produced  by  the  revolution  of  a  riglit 
angled  triangle  about  its  [terpendicularleg, 
called  ibe  axis  of  tlie  cone. 


CONE  (in  Botany).  The  fruit  ot  several 
evergreen  trees,  as  of  the  fir,  cedar,  cypress, 
so  called  from  its  conical  shape.  Jt  iscnni- 
posed  of  woody  scales,  that  are  usiinll) 
open,  each  of  which  has  a  seed  at  the  end 


CONE  (in  Conchology).  A  beautiful 
sort  of  shell,  inhabited  by  the  Umax.  Shells 
of  this  sort  mostly  bear  the  highest  price  of 


CON 

My,  one  specie*  being  valued  aa  high  aa 
ftve  hiiiiilred  dollars. 


CON 


197 


CnXFRSSION  (in  TheolopyJ.  A  public 
4eclamliiin  urnne'8  failli,  nr  tlie  faith  of  a 
piihlic  h<i<ly;  aliio  a  |i:irt  of  the  Liturgy,  in 
which  an  acl(noui«-<li!iiientof  piilt  is)  made 
by  the  whole  ronjzrreatlon.  Auricular 
c<iufes!«ion,a  private  coufession  oracknow- 
led:!nieut  of  one's  gins,  made  hy  each 
individual  in  the  Rojuish  church  to  hif> 
prieiit  or  father  confessor.  It  is  so  called 
because  it  is  made  by  whispering  in  his 
ear 

CONFERVACE.E.  A  natural  order  of 
Algffi,  or  water  plants,  of  which  the  con  • 
ferva  is  the  ^enus.  Conlervites  are 
fossil  aijise,  belonf,'in{;  to  the  order. 
Confervoid  is  a  botanical  term  applied 
to  those  plants  which  have  the  appear- 
auce  cfC'>n:erv?e. 

COXFLUENT.  In  pathology,  a  term 
applied  to  those  pustules  on  the  skin 
which  are  so  numerous  as  to  form 
patches,  the  matter  of  which  runs  to- 
gether. 

CONPLIIF.NCE.  The  meeting  of  two 
rivers,  or  the  place  where  they  meet. 

ro.VCEI-ATION.  A  coMden»ation  of 
any  fluid  by  means  of  rolil. 

CO.Vr.ER.  or  (:().\(;ER  EKU  An  eel 
of  an  exiraiirdiuary  si/.e,  and  extremely 
voracious,  which  preys  on  carcasses,  and 
other  tish. 

Cti.NyREGATION  (in  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs^  An  assembly  of  persons  who  meet 
losetbf:  for  purposes  of  divine  worship; 
(in  Physics)  a  term  for  the  least  degree  of 
mixture,  in  which  the  parts  of  the  mixed 
body  do  not  touch  each  other  in  more 
than  one  p<iint. 

CON'CRESS.  An  assembly  of  envoys, 
onnin  »sioners,depnties,&.c.  fromditTerent 
Courti  who  meet  to  agree  on  matters  of 
general  interest  ;  also  an  assembly  of  the 
deputies  from  the  different  states  in  the 
republics  of  America.  The  Consress  of 
the  L'lnled  ^^late»  consists  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives.  Each  state 
■endolwoseuatori,  and  one  representative  I 
for  every  40,00.)  inhabitants      In  the  slave  , 


states  five  slaves  are  reckoned  as  three 
freemen.  Senator'  are  chosen  for  KM 
years,  representatives  for  two. 

CU.NtJKKVE  ROCKET.  An  invenUoa 
so  called  from  the  inventor.  Sir  WllliaiM 
Congreve,  hy  wliich  b:ills  and  other  Com- 
IfUstibles  are  discharged  to  an  iuimeKM 
distance. 


CONIC  SECTIONS.  Curve  lines  an4 
plane  figures  produced  by  the  intersection 
of  a  plane  witli  a  cone.  These  section* 
are  derived  from  the  different  direction* 
in  which  the  sidid  cone  is  cut  hy  a  plane 
passing  through  it ;  they  are  the  triangle 
circle,  ellipse,  parabola,  and  hy|)erbola 

The  doctrine  of  Conic  Sections,  which 
is  one  of  the  abstrusest  branches  of  geoine- 
try,  was  particularly  cultivated  by  the  an- 
cieifts.  Ansteus  is  said  to  have  composed 
live  books  relating  to  this  subject,  but  tiiey 
have  not  been  handed  down  to  us.  The 
most  ancient  treati.se  extant  is  that  of 
Apollonius,  in  eight  books,  the  first  four  of 
which  is  said  to  have  been  written  by 
Euclid,  and  afterwards  perfected  by  A|i<d- 
limius,   with   the  addition  of   four  other 

tHKlkS. 

CONIFER.E,  or  CONIFERS.  An  order 
of  platitH,  which,  like  the  fir,  pine,  and 
edar,  bear  cones  or  tops  in  which  the 
seeds  are  contained. 

CONIM.\.  A  very  fragrant  gum-resin, 
obtained  in  Brititih  Guiana. 

CONSENSUAL.  In  physiology,  a  term 
applied  to  movements,  contrary  to,  or 
ndependent  ol,  the  will,  which  arise 
from  previous  contrary  movements,  as 
in  the  contraction  of  the  iris  when  tho 
eye  is  voluntarily  directed  upwards; 
excit«d  or  caused  by  sensation. 

CO.N'JI'JATE.  .An  epithet  to  denote  the 
junction  of  two  lines,  as  a  conjugate  axi* 
that  whirli  crosses  another  axis 

rttNJL'tiATI.M:  (in  tlnimniar).  The 
act  of  going  through  the  infleciion*  ol  a 


N8 


co.y 


««ri>  accnrdini;  to  ildaeveral  m  >nds.  tenses, 
■nd  |irr*iin«. 

0«».\JIJ(;aTION  (ill  Gnmiitsr).  The 
■hkmm.  tenrie«,  and  persons  of  m  \cr^ 
eou|tird  l-te'Ptht'r  in  re^ilar  order. 

CUXJL'NCTIU.N.  A  term  in  Astronony 
Tk  the  niretine  of  two  (Waiiels  in  tht;  same 
degree  of  the  zodiac,  which  id  marked 
U»ti*(6). 

CUXJUXCTION  (in  Orammar).  A 
part  pftpeech  which  jams  wi«tls  and  seo- 
lences. 

CONNOISSEUR.  A  persna  well  versed 
ia  anjr  art  or  science. 

CO.Voro  (in  Geometry).  A  figure  re- 
•embting  a  cone. 

CONUL't^RUR.  In  a  eeneral  sense,  one 
who  ha:9  gained  a  battle  or  any  thing  by 
means  of  ligliting  ;  particularly  applied  to 
William  I.  who  siiccreded  to  the  thrune  of 
Hn  eland  aAer  having  gained  tlic  liattle  of 
Haglingi). 

CONSAXGUIMTY.  Kindred  by  blood 
aad  birth  between  pemons  de:«ceBded  from 
the  same  common  nlock. 

CONSCRIPT  FATHERS.  An  appel- 
latiua  for  the  Roman  senators,  so  called 
because  they  were  enrolled  from  the  eques- 
trian order  into  the  list  of  senalots. 

CONSCRIPTS.  Kecrmica  in  the  French 
vmy. 

CONSEaUENCE.  That  which  follows 
from  any  principle  by  way  of  inference ; 
auKing  logicians,  the  last  part  or  propo- 
sition of  an  argument,  in  distinction  from 
the  antecedents,  being  something  gatlieied 
from  a  preceding  argument. 

CO.VSEUUEXT  (in  Geometry).  The 
•alter  of  two  trrms  of  pmportiim,  in  dis- 
tinction (rnm  tlie  former,  or  antecedent. 

CO.VSIGNME.NT.  The  sending  or  de- 
livering over  of  eoods  to  another  person. 

CONSISTORY,  or  CONSISTORY 
COURT.  In  England,  the  session  or  as- 
sembly of  ecclesiastical  persona  held  by  the 
bishop  or  his  chancellor. 

CONSONANCE  (in  Music).  An  agree- 
aentof  two  sounds. 

CONSONANT  (in  Grammar).  A  letter 
which  cannot  be  sounded  by  itself  without 
the  help  of  a  vowel ;  in  Music,  an  epithet 
for  that  interval  whirii  produces  consonant 
concords. 

CONSTABLE.  A  civil  officer,  anciently 
•r  great  dignity,  as  tlie  lord  liieb  constable 
of  Ea  gland,  and  al*<ithe  constables  or  keep- 
ers of  ras>les,  jtc;  now  an  Inferior  officer 
•f  jiwtice. 

CONSTF.I.I.ATKiN.  An  aswmblageof 
bfed  ■tarn,  imagined  to  rrprewnt  the  fonn 
if  suoie  creature  or  utber  object,  as  a  bear. 


CON 

a  ship,  and  the  like  ;  whence  rhey  ha«« 
derived  thuste  ap|iellatii>ns  which  are  cnn 
venient  in  dei^:ribing  llir  stars.  The  divi 
sioii  of  the  heavens  iiilo  coiislrllations  ia 
ver)'  ancient,  pn>liably  coeval  with  astn>- 
noiny  itself.  Fre<)uent  iiieiiiinn  is  made 
of  tiiem  by  name  in  the  siicred  wriiinga 
as  in  the  book  of  Job,  and  in  thf  pm|itiecy 
of  .Amos.  Some  of  the  consiellttioiis  are 
also  mentioned  by  Homer  and  He?<iod, 
who  tliNirished  above  9(i:i  years  before 
Christ;  and  Aratiis,  who  lived  about  377 
years  before  Christ,  professedly  treats  of 
all  such  as  were  marked  out  by  the  ancients, 
and  were  atterwards  ad  untied  into  the 
Almagest  i>f  l*toleiny.  These  were  forty 
eight  in  number,  called  the  Old  ('onstetla- 
tions,  to  which  have  since  been  added 
others,  called  .New  Constellations. 

CO.VSTITUENT  (in  Law).  In  England, 
one  who  by  his  vote,  constitutes  or  elect* 
a  member  of  (tarliament.  1'he  term  is  also 
applied  to  voters  in  the  United  States. 

CONSTITUE.\TS  (in  Physics).  The 
elementary  parts  of  any  substance. 

CONSTITUTION  (in  Law).  Property, 
any  fonn  of  government  regularly  consti- 
tuted; in  a  particular  sense,  the  mixed  ana 
popiilnr  form  of  goveminent  in  England, 
consisting  of  king,  lords,  and  commons,  o^ 
the  free  cimstitution  of  the  United  States. 

CONSTITUTION  (in  Civil  Law).  A 
law  made  by  some  king  or  emperor  ;  suti 
in  the  canon  law,  the  same  as  an  ecelesi 
astical  law  or  canon. 

CONSTITUTION  (In  Medicine).  Th» 
temperament  of  the  whole  body,  arising 
from  the  quality  and  pnip<irtion  of  the  parts 

CONSUL.  A  chief  uiagistrale  atuua( 
the  Romans,  of  which  there  were  two  that 
were  elected  every  year. 

CONSUL  An  officer  commissi  jned  by 
goverument,  to  reside  in  f<  ni-^.  coun- 
tries of  any  considerable  trrw**,  to  facilitate 
and  desfiatch  business  ail  rnitect  tlie 
merchants  of  the  nation. 

CONSUMPTION.  The  /'•.lUngand  de- 
cay of  the  body  by  disearj 

CONTEMPT  (in  Law).  A  disobedience 
to  the  rules,  orders,  or  ;ifoee8B  of  a  court. 

CONTIN F.NT.  Tije  ititin  land,  as  dis- 
tingiiished  from  the  •**. 

CO.NTORT^.  ijtt  of  Linnvtts'  natur^ 
orders,  including  ;>lanu  with  a  singie 
twisted  petal. 

CONTOUR.    The  outline  of  a  figure. 

CO.VTRABAND  GOODS.  (;oc^s  pro- 
hibited by  law  to  be  exported  or  im|K>rteC 

CONTRACT  A  covenant  or  aereeiiieat 
between  two  or  more  persons,  with  a  law- 
ful coasideratioQ  or  cause. 


CON 

CONTRACTION.  In  jtfierU,  the  di- 
■inutuog  Uie  extea;  oc  liiJieiuuwiM  of  a 
koiy. 

CONTRACTION  (la  Surety).  The 
■faritiking  up  of  the  musclea  or  arteriea. 

CONTRACTION  U"  liraaunar)  The 
le-^ucsu;  iv/n  sylUble*  into  one. 

CONTRACTION  (in  Antiunetk}.  The 
•.'i.-rteaing  u(  openuioiu. 

CONTR.\aT  iu»  Fainting).  The  due 
placing  the  ditlereut  paiU  and  objects  of  a 
6^ire,  that  they  may  be  luitably  opiKwed 
li<  e&ch  other. 

CO.N'TR  A  VALUATION,  Lisb  or.  A 
line  or  trench,  cut  round  a  place  by  the  be- 
lie^en,  to  defend  tbeniselvea  a^iust  the 
tallies  of  the  •arn:ion. 

CONTRAVENTION  (in  Law).  The  in- 
fragement  of  a  contract. 

C«  >.VTROLLER  (in  Law).  An  overseer 
r>>  c^cer  apyttiiiled  to  control  or  oversee 
the  accoun;*  of  other  othcer*. 

CON  rL'M.\CV  (in  Law).  A  refusal  to 
App^Jii  in  court  when  legally  fommoaed. 

CONV.^LESCENCE.  That  period  be- 
tw'xt  ctie  departure  of  a  disease,  and  the 
tecuvrry  of  one':i  health. 

CONVENTICLE.  A  term  applied  first 
Is  the  Mtlle  private  meetings  of  the  follow- 
as  of  John  Wicklitfe,  and  alterwards  to 
tiMc  leiigioys  meeting!)  of  the  Nonconfonn- 

COWBirriON'rinLaw).  Aavaaaem- 
Dly  of  the  states  of  the  realm  or  their  depu- 
ties ;  in  military  atlairs,  «■  agieciiiet 
entered  into  between  two  botfMS«f  tioops, 
opposed  to  each  other. 

CCNVERGLNG  LINTS.  Line*  which 
continually  approximate. 

CONVER<;iN<i  RAYS  (In  Optics). 
Those  rays  that  issue  from  divers  points  of 
an  object,  and  incline  towards  one  another 
uatil  they  meet. 

CONVEX.  Cnnred,  or  protuberaat  out- 
wards ;  a?  n  convex  lens,  mirror,  &.c. 

CONVEYANCE  v'in  Law)  A  deed  or 
tastniiurnt  by  w'a;cb  lands,  jtc  are  con- 
veyed or  made  over  to  another. 

CONVEYANCER.  One  who  (bUows 
Ike  business  of  conveyauciiig,  or  dravring 
np  conveyances. 

CONVOCATION.  Id  England,  an  a»- 
ptiibly  of  the  clergy,  consi:<ting  of  an  up- 
yer  and  lower  houae,  which  meet  when  the 
parliament  meets,  to  consult  on  the  affairs 
^tbe  church. 

C'>NVOLVULUS  or  Bi!<dwkko.  A 
plant  so  called,  bec.iuae  it  creeps  up  and 
twista  Itself  ro<uid  w  ha 'ever  <s  near  it. 
BcivM  ftw  aorts  are  cultrrated  in  gardena, 
mi  bear  a  beaalif'tl  Mae  fl'vwer. 


COP 


109 


which  accompany  merctontmen  in  tim« 
of  war,  to  protect  tbeiu  from  the  alLulia 
of  the  enemy  ;  in  military  alfain,  a  detach- 
ment of  lroi>p8  employed  loguard  any  sup- 
ply of  money,  ammunition.  ±.e. 

COOK.  One  who  practises  the  art  at 
cookery.  The  company  of  cooks  in  Eng- 
land waa  incorporated  io  the  fifleeath  cen- 
tury. 

COOLER.  A  Teasel  used  by  brewen, 
for  cooling  the  beer  alter  il  a  drawn  otf". 

COOMB.  A  measure  of  cum,  coBtainiaf 
hat  bushels. 

COOP.  A  place  where  fowls  are  keyt 
confined  ;  aUo  a  vessel  made  of  (wigs,  in 
which  fish  are  caugbt,  and  a  barrel  or  ves- 
sel for  keeping  liquids. 

COOPER.  A  maker  of  tubs,  coops,  o* 
barrels.  The  company  of  coopers  in  Eng- 
land was  incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry VII. 

COOPERY.  The  art  of  making  tnbs  Of 
barrels  with  boards  boumi  by  htiops. 

COOT.  A  waterfowl,  mostly  of  a  black 
colo<ir,called  alsoa3Iooa  II  km.  These  bird* 
frequent  lakes  and  still  rivers,  where  they 
make  their  nests  among  the  rushes,  fcc. 
floating  oa  the  water,  ao  aa  to  rise  aad  bll 
with  it. 


CONVOV. 


A  sea  term,  iur  ships  of  war 


COPAL.  .An  .'Vmeric.in  nave  far  aB 
odoriferous  gums,  but  partiodailjr  apfMed 
to  a  resinous  substance  imported  ftoD 
Guinea.  It  ia  hard,  shining,  transpareat, 
and  citron  coloured. 

COPERXICAN  SY'STEM.  A  particu- 
lar system  of  the  sphere  first  proposed  by 
Pythagoras,  and  after  .ards  revived  by 
Copemicns,  a  Polish  si  iv.iomer.  Accont- 
ing  to  this  system  lh<  sun  is  supposed  to 
be  placed  in  the  cenr  e.  and  all  the  nthet 
bodies  to  revolve  r<  4nd  it  in  a  particular 
order ;  which  noti  n  is  now  universa..y 
adopted,  under  th  name  of  the  Solar  S^-9- 
tem 

COPING.  T*  e  rtone  cowring  on  the 
top  V^  wall. 

COPr£.1.      A    netal    next  le  iroa  we 


no 


COP 


■pM-lfic  gravity  but  lighter  than  gjld, 
•ilvrr,  or  Irad.  it  18  one  ol'  the  aiz  priiiii- 
liv«  int^t^tl*. 

COPPERAS.  A  name  given  to  blue, 
er«rn,  ami  white  vitriol:  it  is  a  lactitiuus 
ttiiphate  of  iron. 

COPPERPLATE.  A  plate  on  which 
figures  are  engraven  ;  also  the  impression 
which  is  taken  off  the  |iate  on  paper,  by 
means  of  printing. 

COPPERPL.VrE  PRINTING.  The 
process  of  taking  engravin{;s  from  copper- 
plates, by  means  of  a  rolling  press,  as  in 
the  ''uhjoined  cut. 


rprPERfMTTTI.  An  artisan  who 
wixKs  copper  into  different  utensils. 

COPPICE,  or  CursE.  A  small  wood. 
Consisting  of  underwood. 

COPULA  (among  Logicians).  The 
verli  that  connects  any  two  terms  in  an 
aftirniative  or  negjitive  proposition,  as,  God 
inaite  the  world  ;  made  is  the  copula. 

COPULATIVE  (in  Grammar).  An 
epithet  for  such  conjunctions  as  join  the 
sense  as  well  as  the  words ;  as  and,  or, 

&.C 

COPY  (in  I^w).  The  transcript  ol  an 
original  writing. 

COPV  (among  Printers).  The  original 
MS.  or  the  hook  from  which  the  composi- 
tor k-ets  his  page. 

COPYHOLD  (in  Law).  In  England, a 
sort  of  tenure  by  which  the  tenant  holds 
his  land  by  copy  of  court  roll  of  the  manor 
at  the  will  of  the  lord. 

C(»l*YRIGIIT(in  Law).  Theexclusive 
right  of  printing  and  publishing  copies  of 
&'•>'  literary  performance,  which  is  now 
con  firmed  by  statute,  to  authors  or  their 
publishers,  for  a  certain  number  of  years. 
Hint  is  to  say,  in  England  for  twenty  «ight 
jrars  in  all  cases,  whether  the  author  sur- 
vive that  period  or  not ;  and  to  the  end  of 
the  Hiillior's  life  if  he  live  beyond  that  pe- 
riiMl  ;  besides,  aa  an  action  lies  to  recover 
d.imaTs  for  piruting  the  new  corrections 
hui  a  Iditioiis  to  an  oit  work,  pnblisberB 


COR 

may  acquire  almost  a  perpetual  Interest  i» 
a  work  by  republiihing  it  with  aitditinna 
and  annotations.  In  the  United  Stales, 
the  copyrigiit  law  gives  to  the  author,  the 
eiclusive  right  to  his  productions  for  four 
years,  with  the  privilege  of  renewing  it  for 
the  same  period,  if  he  is  living  within  the 
last  six  months  of  the  term. 

CORAL.  A  hard,  brittle,  calcareona 
substance,  which  was  formerly  supposed 
to  be  of  a  vegetable  nature,  but  is  now 
found  to  be  composed  of  a  congeries  of 
animals,  endued  with  the  faculty  of 
moving  sponlaiieuusly.  They  are  distin- 
guished by  the  form  of  their  branches, 
and  are  found  in  the  ocean,  adhering  to 
stones,  bones,  shells,  &.c.  The  islands  in 
the  South  Sea  are  mostly  coral  rocks 
covered  with  earth.  The  coral  fishery  is 
particularly  followed  in  the  Mediterranean, 
on  the  coast  of  France  and  Algiers,  where 
the  red  coral  most  abounds. 

CORBEL.  A  shoulder  piece  jutting  out 
in  walls  to  bear  up  a  (Kist. 

CORCLE,  or  CORCULUM  (in  Botany). 
The  essence  of  the  seed,  or  the  rudiment 
of  the  future  plant. 

CORD  OF  WOOD.  A  parcel  of  fire 
wooti,  four  feet  broad,  four  feet  high,  »ni 
eight  feet  long. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER  (in  Archite--- 
ture).  The  noblest  and  richest  of  the  fiv* 


orders,  ao  calleil  because  columns  wet* 
first  made  of  that  proportion  at  Corinth. 
Its  capital  ia  adorned  with  two  rows  ol 


COR 

.enves,  hetn-««n  winch  arise  liul«  stalks  or 
cauliciiles,  ronning  sixleea  volutes. 

CUROGI.IEKS.  in  Cathdiic  countries, 
tn  iirrier  of  luuuks,  so  railed  t>ecaU8e  tliey 
wear  a  cord  full  of  knots  about  their  mid- 
dle. 

CORDOVAN.  A  sort  of  leather  made 
of^oal  skill  at  Cordova  in  Spaiii. 

CORK  TKGE.  A  glandiferous  tree  of 
the  itak  kina,  having  a  thick,  spong>',  and 
soft  bark,  known  by  tlie  name  of  cork.  It 
grows  abundantly  in  Italy,  Spain  and  other 
parts  in  the  South  of  Europe. 

CORMORANT,  or  Ct)RVORANT.  An 
exceedingly  voracious  bird  of  tlie  pelican 
tribe.  It  build.-i  on  the  liigliest  cliffs  bang- 
ing over  the  sea. 


COR 


in 


CORN.  A  g«ner«i  term  in  England  for 
wheat.  Sonietimea,  for  all  grain  of  which 
hread  is  made.  In  the  United  States,  it 
is  a  common  term  for  Indian  corn.  See 
Maike. 

CORNEA.  One  of  the  coals  of  the  eye, 
which  IS  traiisp:ireiit  in  the  fore  part,  to 
admit  the  rays  of  light. 

CORNELIAN.  A  precious  rtone,  of  a 
flesh  colour,  of  which  rings  are  made. 

CORNET  (in  Military  Affairs).  An  in- 
rtrument  very  similar  to  a  trumpet,  which 
is  used  in  the  army  ;  also  a  coiiimii<sioned 
officer  in  a  troop  of  horse  or  dragoons. 

CORNFI.AG.  A  plant  having  a  double 
tuberose  rotit,  with  leaves  like  the  fleur 
de  lis,  and  a  flower  consisting  of  one  petal, 
shaped  like  ttie  lily. 

CORNFLOWER.  A  plant  that  grows 
wild  among  the  com. 

CORNICE.  Any  moulded  projection 
that  crowns  or  finishes  the  part  to  which 
it  is  affixed,  ss  the  cuniice  of  a  room,  a 
door,  &c. 

CORMSn  cnolTOH.  In  Enjiand,  a 
sort  of  crow,  of  a  fine  bine  or  purple  black 
wkMir,  with  red  beak  and  leg»     It  was 


reckoned  the  finest  bird  of  its  kiud,  and 
therefore  borne  in  coals  of  anus. 

CORjNUCOPIA,  or  Thb  Horh  or 
Plkntt.  Fabled  to  be  the  horn  which 
Hercules  broke  off  from  Achelous'  head. 
It  was  tilled  by  the  nymphs  with  all  raannei 
of  flowers  and  fruits,  and  made  the  emblem 
of  abundance. 

COROLLA.  The  leafy  parts  of  a  flowet 
which  IS  marked  with  divers  colours.  Eacii 
leaf  or  division  of  the  corolla  is  called  a 
petal. 

COROLLARY.  A  consequence  drawK 
from  some  proposition  already  proved  ot 
demonstrated. 

CORONARI^.  OneoflAiniBus' natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  containing  tiiose  of  ltic> 
libaceous  tribe,  which  are  most  fitted  for 
making  garlands. 

CORONAtlON.  The  act  or  solemnity 
of  crowning  a  king ;  also  tlie  ceremony  of 
investing  the  pope  with  his  sacerdotal  en- 
signs and  dignity. 

CORO.NER.  An  officer  whose  particulai 
duty  it  is  to  make  inquisition  into  the  im- 
timely  death  of  any  |>erson. 

CORONET  (in  Heraldry).  A  small 
crown  worn  by  the  nobility. 

CORONET,  or  CORNET  (in  Farriery? 
The  upper  part  of  a  horse's  hoof. 

CORPORAL  (in  Law).  An  epithet  fci 
any  thing  that  belongs  to  the  body,  as  cor- 
poral pnnishinent,  in  distinction  from  n 
Hue ;  a  corporal  oath,  so  called  because 
the  party  taking  it,  is  obliged  to  lay  bte 
hand  on  the  Bible. 

CORPOR.\L  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
ra^k  and  file  man,  with  superior  pay  to  a 
common  soldier,  and  with  nominal  rank 
under  a  serjeant. 

CORPORATION.  A  body  politic  or 
incorporate,  so  called  iiecause  the  persons 
composing  it,  are  made  into  one  body. 

CORPOSANTO,  or  COKPf)S.\NT. 
Small  luminous  balls  supposed  to  be  elec- 
trical which  play  about  the  rigging  of 
ships  in  stormy  weather  and  are  regarded 
with  superstitious  awe,  by  sailors. 

CORPS.  A  French  term  for  any  body 
of  forces  forming  the  division  of  a  grand 
army. 

CORRECTION  (in  Printing).  The  cor- 
recting of  proof  sheets  as  tliey  come  fn.ni 
the  compositor's  hands,  in  order  to  free 
them  from  all  faults. 

CORRECTIVES.  Medicines  which 
serve  to  correct  the  qualities  of  other  medi- 
cines. 

CORRECTOR.  The  person  appointed 
in  a  printing  offir«  to  correct  the  pr(«ft  as 
I  hey  come  rough  ttom  the  compositor's 
hands 


112 


COS 


CORRfrion  (in  Fortification).  A  covert 
way  roiinil  a  fnriress ;  In  Architecture,  a 
k)M|?  tallpry  leading;  to  several  chiiiiibers. 

COKROSIVES.  Saline  menstriimns, 
which  liBve  the  property  of  dissolving  bo- 
<lle8,  as  burnt  alum,  white  vitriol. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE  OF 
MERCURY.  An  oxynniriate  of  mercury, 
and  an  extremely  acrid  and  paisunuus 
preparation. 

CORRUPTION  OF  RLOOD.  An  in- 
fection growing  to  tlie  blood,  estate,  and 
Lssue  of  a  man  attainted  of  treason. 

CORSAIR.  A  pirate  or  se.-i  robber,  par- 
'jculiirly  on  the  coiist  of  Barbary. 

CORSLET.  An  ancient  piece  of  armour 
witli  which  the  body  was  protected. 

CORTES.  The  states  or  the  assembly  of 
tlie  stales  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

CORTEX.  The  outer  hark  of  a  plant. 

CORUNDUM.  A  mineral  of  the  sap- 
phire kind,  which  is  found  in  the  East 
Indies,  especially  in  Pegu  and  the  island 
of  Ceylon. 

CORUSCATION.  A  gleam  of  light  issu- 
ing from  anything,  particularly  that  which 
IS  |>ru(luced  by  the  electrical  fluid. 

CORVUS  (in  Astronomy)-  A  constella- 
tion In  the  southern  hemispheie. 

CORYDALF:s.  one  of  Linnmns'  natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  coniaining  those  which 
li:ive  helmet-shaped  flowers. 

CORYMB  (in  Botany).  A  mode  of 
dowering,  in  whicli  the  lesjer  flower  stalks 
are  proiluced  along  the  common  stalk  on 
SkiIIi  sides,  rising  to  the  same  height. 


CO  SECANT  (In  Geometry).  The  secant 
of  an  arc,  which  is  the  complement  of 
knottier  arc  to  ninety  degrees. 

COS.\lETiCS.  Preparations  which 
wtiiten  and  sulten  the  skm. 

COSMOr.RAPHV.  The  science  of  de- 
■cribiiig  the  several  parts  of  the  visible 
World. 

("OSMOPOFJTE.  A  citizen  of  the 
Mirlri. 

(.'•♦SSACKS.  Irregular  troops  attached 
tu  the  Russian  army  ;  a  predatory  tribe 
which  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Nieperand 
Don. 

COSTS  OF  SUIT.  The  expenses  attend- 
in*  a  law  suit,  which  are  In  part  recover- 
•kia  troin  the  party  wliu  loses  the  cauw 


cov 

COTTON.  A  sort  of  wool  or  flaj ,  which 
encompasses  the  seed  of  a  tree  th;it  is  much 
cultivated  in  Central  Africa,  in  the  Indie* 
and  particularly  in  America.  It  only  flour- 
ishes in  warui  climates.  The  cloth 
which  is  man II factored  from  this  wool 
when  spun,  is  also  called  cotton. 


COTTONGRASS.  A  perennial  of  the 
grass  tribe,  so  called,  because  itsseed-s  have 
a  downy  substance  attached  to  them  whicli 
resembles  cotton,  and  has  been  used  in  ita 
stead. 

COTTONTHtSTLE.  An  herbaceous 
plant,  with  a  biennial  root,  which  is  sc 
called  because  it  has  downy  leaves. 

COTYLEDONS  (in  Botany).  'I'lie  lobes 
of  the  seed,  of  wliich  there  are  mostly  two. 
1'liey  are  destined  to  nourish  the  heart  ut 
the  .seed. 

COL'ANDO.  .A  species  of  small  South 
American  porcupine. 

COUCH.  A  seat,  or  small  moveable  bed 
to  lie  on. 

COUCH  (In  Husbandry).  A  layer  oi 
heap  of  malt  or  barley. 

COUCH  (in  Painting).  The  ground  or 
bcLsis  on  which  the  coKuir  lies. 

COUCHGRASS.  A  noxious  weed, 
which  spreads  ver)'  fnsi  in  arable  land,  and 
chokes  every  thing  else  that  is  sown. 

COUCHING  (in  Surgery).  The  remov- 
ing the  opaque  lens  out  of  the  axis  of  vis- 
ion, so  as  to  restore  the  sight. 

COVENANT  (in  Ljiw).  An  agreement 
or  consent  of  two  or  more,  by  deed  »ti 
writing. 

COVERT.  A  thicket  or  shady  place  for 
deer  or  other  animals. 

COVERT-WAY  (In  Fortification).  A 
space  of  ground  level  with  the  field  on  the 
edge  of  the  ditch,  ranging  quite  round  the 
works. 

COVERTURE  (in  Law).  The  stat*^  of 
a  married  woman  who  is  under  the  pvwei 
and  protection  of  her  husband,  whenM 
she  Is  called  a  feme  coverte. 


cou 

COL'GAR.  Theliirscitanimnlof  Amer- 
ica of  the  cat  kinii,  anil  gniiielinies  called 
Jm  American  Lion.  In  ^^oiilh  America  it 
in  called  Puma,  in  .NUrih  America,  I'an- 
Uier.  It  is  of  an  a.-li  onlour,  and  so  (Kiw>r- 
fill,  that  it  will  bear  the  body  of  a  iiian  up 
a  tree. 

COVING  (in  Architecture).  The  pro- 
jection in  house.'i  (tc^ynad  the  ground   plot. 

COUNCIL,  (in  Law).  An  assemhly  of 
the  different  members  of  any  government 
who  meet  to  consult  about  alfairs.  In 
England  that  is  called  the  I'rivy  Council 
wherein  the  king  himself  and  his  privy 
counsellors  meet,  in  the  king'ti  court  or 
palace,  to  deliberate  on  affairs  of  state. 
When  the  council  is  composed  only  of 
cabinet  ministers,  or  tlie  king's  most  con- 
idential  servants,  it  is  called  a  Cabinet 
Council. 

COUNCIL  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs). 
The  same  as  the  synod. 

COUNCIL  OF  WAR  ^in  Military 
Affairs).  An  assembly  of  the  chief  otftcers 
in  the  army  or  navy,  called  by  the  general 
or  admiral  in  particular  emergencies,  to 
concert  measures  (or  their  conduct. 

COUNTERFEIT.  A  fraudulent  imita- 
tion of  any  thing,  made  so  as  to  pasa  for 
genuine,  as  counterfeit  coin. 

COUNTERMINE.  A  mine  made  by 
the  besieged,  in  order  to  blow  up  the  mine 
of  the  besiegers. 

COUNTERSCARP  (in  Fortification). 
That  side  of  the  ditch  which  is  next  the 
camp,  and  faces  the  body  of  the  place. 

COUNTER-TENOR  (in  Miu<ic).  One 
of  the  middle  parts,  so  called  bccnuieit  is, 
fts  it  were  opposed  to  the  tenor. 

COUNTING  no  USE.  An  office  in 
which  a  merchant  transacts  his  business. 

COUNTRY  DANCE  (in  Music).  A 
lively  pointed  air  calculated  for  dancing. 

COUNTY.  One  of  the  ancient  drvi- 
•ions  of  England,  which  by  the  Paxons 
were  called  shires  ;  England  is  divided  in- 
to forty  counties  or  shires,  Wales  into 
twelve,  Scotland  into  thirty.  Each  of  the 
United  States  is  also  divided  into  coun- 
ties. 

COUP  DE  MAIN.  A  sudden  unpre- 
meditated attack 

COUF  D'CEIL.  The  first  glaaceof  the 
•ye,  with  which  it  surveys  any  object  at 
large. 

COUP  DE  SOLEIL.  Any  di«>rder 
■nddeiily  produced  by  the  violent  scorch- 
uig  of  the  sun. 

COUPLE.  A  band  with  which  dogs  are 
tfed  topether. 

COUPLE-CLOSE  (in  Heraldry).  An 
•■iioaiy,  s«  termed  from  it«  cucloiiiug  ilie 
10  • 


CRA 


113 


chevron  by  conples,  being  always  borne  ia 
pairs,  one  on  each  side  a  chevron. 

COUPLES  (in  Building,.  RaOers  fra- 
med together  in  pairs  with  a  tie. 

COUPLET.  The  division  of  a  hymn, 
ode,  or  song,  vhcein  an  equul  number, o. 
an  equal  mey  |  re  of  verses  is  found  in  eMk 
part. 

COURANT.  An  epithet  for  any  hensl, 
reprettented  in  an  escutcheon  in  a  running 
attitude. 

COURSE.  A  sea  term.forthat  i>oiutof 
the  horizon  or  compass  for  which  a  ship 
steers, 

COURSE  (in  Masonry).  A  continued 
range  of  bricks  or  stones  of  the  saina 
height. 

COURSE  OF  EXCHANGE  (in  Com 
merce).  The  current  pn'ceorrate  at  which 
the  coin  of  one  country  is  exchanged  foi 
that  of  another  ;  which,  as  it  depends  upon 
the  balance  of  trade  and  the  political  relic- 
tions which  subsist  between  thetwoc<iii». 
tries,  is  always  fluctuating. 

COURSER.     A  race  horse. 

COURSING.  The  pursuing  of  any  be<i*l 
of  chase,  as  the  hare,  &c.  with  greyhounds. 

COURT  (in  Law).  In  moiiarchiiml 
countries,  the  king's  palace  or  maiisioti ; 
in  comnion  use,  the  place  wlrere  justice  ts 
judicially  administered. 

COURTS  OF  CONSCIENCE.  Courts 
for  the  recovery  of  small  debts. 

COVY.  All  assemblage  of  wild  fowl, 
particularly  partridges. 

COW.  The  female  of  the  ox  kind, 
which  is  kept  for  her  milk  and  her  calves. 

COWKEEPER.  One  who  keeps  cows 
for  the  purpose  of  selling  the  milk. 

COWPt  >.X.  A  substitute  for  the  small- 
pox. It  IS  taken  from  the  udder  of  (he 
cow,  and  used  In  that  sort  of  iitociilaiion 
now  known  by  the  name  of  vacrinalioii. 

COWRY.  A  testaceous  animal,  which 
is  said  to  have  the  power  of  leaving  its 
shell  and  forming  a  new  one.  These  ani- 
mals live  in  sand  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 
The  shell  is  used  as  a  coin  in  India. 

COWSLIP.  A  plJinl  which  grows  wii4 
in  the  meadows,  and  bears  a  pretty  yelln-v 
flower. 

C.  P.  S.  (in  England).  Custos  privsm 
sigiili  ;  i.  e.  kee|ier  of  the  privy  seal. 

CR.     .\n  abbreviation  for  creditor. 

CRAB  (in  Astronomy).  Cancer,  on««< 
the  signs  of  the  r.o«liac. 

CRAB  (in  Br>tany'.  A  wild  apple  trra, 
and  also  the  fruit  of   hat  tree. 

t:RAB  (among  Shipwrights).  An  enfin* 
with  three  claws  for  launching  of  ships. 

rK/.irs  EYE.  A  stone  found  in  Um 
craw  fish,  rusemblinc  au  eye. 


114 


CRA 


CRAB  A  Bort  of  shell  fish,  which  every 
ye^r  cast  off  their  olJ  shells,  with  much 
(KIWI  and  diliiculty. 


CRADLE.    A  moveable  bed  for  a  child. 

CRADLE  (with  Surgeons).  A  wnoden 
machine  to  lay  a  broken  leg  in  after  it  has 
heen  set. 

CrtADLR  (with Shipwrights).  A  frame 
of  timber  m.^ed  on  each  side  of  a  ship,  for 
the  irore  conv.inient  launching  of  her. 

CRAMP.  As^asinodic  affection,  which 
rjufcs  a  violent  dis.ortion  of  the  muscles, 
ner/es,  &.c. ;  also  a  dis«/ase  to  which  hawks 
»re  subject  in  their  winga. 

CRA.MP  IRONS.  Ironj  which  fasten 
•U'mfs  in  buildings. 

CR.'V.N'BKRRY.  In  Englijl,:\  paJe  red 
h(  rry  of  a  tart  taste,  the  fruit  of  I'lo  cran- 
hBrry  tree.  The  cranberry  of  Cbt  Unitel 
k^tiites  grows  on  low  bushes,  in  »a.•!Jl^y 
plHces.  It  is  of  a  bright  red  coK<v!i.  \nd 
ii':ike9  excellent  tarts. 

CRANE.  A  sort  of  heron,  with  a  lotLt; 
nei-V,  bill,  and  leg* 


CRE 

CRANK.  A  machine,  with  ropes,  pal 
leys,  and  hoops,  for  drawing  up  heavj 
weighu. 


CB.^NBSBILL.  The  English  name  for 
Uie  genvilum. 

CRA.MOLOGY.  The  science  which 
professes  to  discover  men's  faculties  ami 
characters,  from  ttM  externa)  appearances 
•fUtetkuU 


CRANIUM.  The  skull,  or  superiorpaf! 
of  tlie  head. 

CRANK.  A  machine  resembling  an  et- 
bow,  projecting  from  an  axis  or  spindle; 
also  a  piece  of  brass  work  of  a  similar 
shape,  on  which  the  bell  wire  is  fixed,  so 
as  to  move  the  hell. 

CRAPE.  A  light  transparent  stuff,  re- 
sembling gauze 

CRATE.  A  large  ease  made  of  open 
fcars,  in  which  earthen  ware  is  packed. 

CRATER.  The  mouth  of  a  volcano 
from  which  the  fire  issues. 

CRAY  FISH,  or  CRAW  FISH.  A 
Binall  sort  of  lobster. 

CRAYON.  A  small  pencil  of  any  sort 
of  colouring  stuff,  made  into  a  paste  and 
t}rled. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR.  The  common 
white  tartar  freed  from  its  impurities;  a 
salt  prepared  from  the  lees  of  wine. 

CREDIT  (in  Comn)erce).  A  mutual  loan 
of  merchandises,  &.c.  Letters  of  Credit, 
letters  given  by  merchants  to  persons 
whom  they  can  trust  to  draw  money  from 
their  correspondents. 

CREEK.  A  small  inlet,  bay.  or  cove;  a 
recess  in  the  shore  of  the  sea,  or  of  a 
river.  Creek  Indiana  is  the  name  ai>- 
IJlied  to  a  large  triba  of  the  native  in- 
habitants of  the  Uuitel  Suites  of  Amer- 
ica,  who  formerly  ociupiuvl  alltliocoun- 
tries  lying  north  of  lat.  31  (leg. 

CItSlIATION.  The  burning  of  tha 
dead,  according  to  the  custom  of  many 
au  iiont  nations. 

CIIKOLE.  A  native  of  Spanish  Ameri- 
ca or  the  West  Indies,  descended  from 
European  ancestors. 

CIiil\aQTK  Aa  oily  liquid  obtained  - 
from    wood-tar^  t-onsistiiig  of    earbou, 
o.xygen,  and  hy(in_>gen,  and  so  namei 
from  it* property  of  preserving  auiuial 
substanoeft. 

CREATIX.  Acrj'stallizablQ  substance 
obtainel  trom  lausciilar  tibro. 

CEEilAILLERE.  la  fortification,  an 
IndeatuJ  zigzag  llaa. 


CRO 

CREPITATION.  The  cnrkllng  nolfie 
made  by  snine  salts  during  the  pmcpK)  of 
ealciriHtion. 

CRKSf?.  A  earden  ii,tlad. 

CREW.  The  company  of  sailors  b«- 
lonciiie  tn  a  vessel. 

CUICKE'J'.  A  little  in:<ect  tliut  haunts 
fireplaces  and  ovens. 

CIIIEK.  An  officer  who  crien  or  nialiea 
prnrlantation 

CRIMiCS.  Offences  against  morals,  u 
Air  as  they  are  prohibited  hy  law. 

CRI.MPS.  Persons  who  used  formerly 
to  decoy  others  into  the  land  or  sea  ser- 
vice. 

CRISIS.  That  stage  of  a  disorder  from 
Which  some  judgment  may  be  finned  of 
its  termination. 

CROCODILE.  An  amphibious  animal, 
and  the  largest  of  the  Ii7.ard  tribe,  which 
inhabits  the  rivers  of  Africa  and  Asia.  It 
Is  covered  with  hard  scales,  that  cannot 
ea.oily  be  pierced,  except  under  its  belly. 

CROCUS.  A  bulbous  plant,  that  flowers 
Tery  early  in  spring. 

CROP.  The  craw  of  a  bird;  also  the 
pnidiice  of  what  is  sown  in  a  field. 

CROtsS.  A  cil'liet,  on  which  the  Romans 
used  to  nail  malefactors  by  the  hands  and 
feet 

CROSS  (in  Heraldry).  The  most  ancient 
and  the  noblest  of  all  the  honourable  ordi- 
oaries,  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  per- 
pendicular with  two  horizontal  lines,  so 
as  to  make  four  right  angles  in  the  figure 
of  a  cross,  such  as  the  cross  batonne  in 
th«  subjoined  figure. 


CRO 


lis 


CROPS  The  name  riven  to  the  right 
tide  of  a  coin,  in  distinction  from  the  pile 
or  reverse. 

CROSS  (in  Architecture).  Any  building 
which  is  in  the  figure  of  a  cross. 

CROSS  BOW.  A  kind  of  bow  formerly 


CROSSBILL.  A  sort  of  Crosheak,  « 
bird  so  called  became  the  mandibles  vt 
ite  beak  croes  each  oUmt. 


nueb  nsed    which  was  strung  and  set  in 
a  shall  of  wood,  with  a  trigger,  .Scc. 


CROSS-EXAMINATION  (in  Law).  A 
close  and  rigid  examinatiim  on  the  (lartof 
the  ad  versary  ,consist  i  ng  of  cross  questions , 
in  order  te  elicit  the  truth. 

CROTCHET  (in  Music).  Half  aminim, 
marked  thus. 


CROTCHET  (in  Printing).  Marked  thcs 
[  ],  to  separate  what  is  not  the  necessary 
part  of  a  sentence. 

CROUP.    The  hindmost  part  of  a  horse. 

CROUPER.  A  leathern  strap  fitted  logo 
under  the  tail  of  a  horse,  to  keep  the  sad- 
dle in  its  place. 

CROW.  A  sociable  noisy  bird,  Utal  feerfs 
partly  on  cat riun 


CROW  (among  Mechanics).  An  iron 
insi  rument  that  is  used  as  a  lever  for  raising 
weights. 

CROWN.  In  England,  a  coin,  in  val- 
ue five  shillincs,  wi  called  from  the  figure 
of  the  crown  which  was  originally  given 
upon  it. 

CROWN  (in  Anatomy).  The  vertex  ot 
highest  part  of  the  head. 

CROWN  (in  Architecture).  The  upper* 
most  member  of  a  curuica. 


1 16 


CRU 


CROWN.  A  cap  of  state  worn  by  sove- 
reign princes.  The  crown  of  England  is 
called  S?t.  Edward's  crown,  because  it  is 
niaile  in  imitation  of  the  ancient  crown 
tup|H>8ed  to  have  been  worn  by  that  mo- 
narch. That,  now  in  use,  was  made  at 
Jie  Restoration,  for  the  coronation  uf 
Cbarie*  the  Second 


CROWN  (among  Jewellers).  The  upper 
work  of  the  rose  diamond 

CROWN-GLASS.  The  finest  sort  of 
window  ghiss. 

CROWN-IMPERIAL.  A  well  known 
beautiful  flower,  the  root  of  which  is 
perennial. 

CROWN-OFFICE.  In  England,  an  of- 
fice twhmging  to  the  Court  of  King's  Bench, 
of  which  the  king's  coroner  or  attorney 
there  is  commonly  master. 

CROZIEIt.  A  shepherd's  crook;  also  a 
bishop's  staff,  which  is  of  a  similar  form, 
and  an  emblem  of  his  pastoral  odice. 

CRUCIFIX.  A  figure  either  in  statuary 
or  painting,  representing  our  Saviour  on 
tlie  cross. 


CRUCIFIXION.  The  act  of  nailing  or 
ttiing  to  a  eroM;  the  suifering  of  bein^ 
crucified. 

CRUCIBLE.    A  melting  pot  used  by 


CUB 

ehenilxts  for  the  melting  of  mctala 
iniuerats. 


CRUISE.  A  voyage  or  expedltkm  i» 
quest  of  an  enemy's  vessels 

CRUISER  A  vessel  appointed  fo 
cruising. 

CRUOR.  Coagulated  blood. 

CRUSADES.  The  expeditions  under- 
taken by  the  princes  of  Christendom  foi 
the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land,  in  the 
twelfth  and  three  following  centuries.  On 
these  occasions,  every  soldier  bore  a  cruci- 
fix on  his  breast,  as  an  emblem  of  spiritual 
warfare. 

CRUSTACEOUS  SHELL  FISHES. 
Fishes  covered  with  shells  which  are  made 
up  of  several  pieces  and  joints  ;  such  as 
crabs,  lobsters,  crayfish,  &;c.  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  testaceous  fish,  as  oysters. 

CRYPTOGAMI.\.  One  of  the  classes  of 
plants  in  the  Linnsan  system,  coinprehen 
ding  those  whose  fructification  or  lloweris 
too  concealed  or  minute  to  be  observed 
by  the  naked  eye,  as  tlie  mosses,  the  alga 
or  seaweeds,  the  ferns,  and  the  fungi  or 
funguses. 

CRV^PTS.  Subterraneous  places  where 
the  martyrs  were  buried,  and  the  primitive 
Christians  performed  their  devotions;  also 
underground  chapels,  such  as  the  crypt 
under  St.  Paul's  and  other  churches  which 
took  their  rise  from  this  practice. 

CRYSTAL,  or  Rock  Crystal  (in  Mine- 
ralogy). A  transparent  stone  as  clear  as 
glass.  It  is  found  in  Iceland,  Germany, 
and  France,  and  belongs  to  the  quartz  or 
siliceous  genus;  also  a  factitious  body  cast 
in  the  glass-houses,  called  crystal  elas« 
which  is  very  brittle,  and  burns  with  little 
or  no  tiame. 

CRYSTAL  (in  Chemistry).  That  pan 
of  a  salt  which  assumes  a  regular  ami  «ilid 
form,  on  the  gradual  coo'ing  of  its  iN)lutii>ii. 

CRYSTALLINE  HUMOUR.  A  pel 
lucid  humour  of  the  eye,  so  called  from 
fits  transparency  like  crystal. 

CRYSTALLIZATION.  The  reducing 
of  any  salt  into  a  regular  form,  by  dissolv 
ing  it  in  a  menstruum,  and  allowing  it  to 
cool  until  it  shoots  into  the  bodies  called 
crystals. 

CUB.  The  young  of  some  partlcu^al 
beasts,  as  of  a  fox  and  a  bear 


CUL 

CUmE  (in  Geometry).  A  repular  solid 
•ody,  supposed  to  l>e  generated  by  the 
motion  of  a  sr]ii:ire  plane  along  a  line  equal 
and  perpendicular  to  one  of  il8  sides.  It 
is  enclosed  by  six  e<iual  sides  or  faces, 
wliicli  are  square,  as  in  the  annexed  figure. 
A  die  is  a  small  cube 


CUR 


117 


CURE  (in  Arithmetic).  The  third  power 
of  any  number,  produced  by  multiplying 
the  number  into  itself,  and  then  again  into 
he  product,  as  3Xy=9X''==2~>  'l>e  cube. 

CUBE  ROOT,  'i'he  side  of  a  cube  num- 
ber; tints  3  is  tlie  cube  root  of  27. 

CUBIT.  A  measure  equal  to  about 
1  foot  9  inches. 

CUCKOO.  A  bird  which  is  lieard  about 
the  middle  of  April,  and  ceases  to  sing  at 
the  end  of  July.  It  de|K>>its  im  eggs  in 
the  nests  of  otiier  liirils,  generally  in  tliat 
of  the  hedgesparrow.  'J'lie  American  Cuc- 
koo differs  in  it^  note  from  the  Eiirofiean 
bird  of  that  name      It  is  also  smaller  in 

■tM 


CUCKOO-SPITTLE  A  whi»  froth  or 
spume,  very  common  on  the  lavemlerand 
other  plants  in  the  spring,  which  forms  the 
nidus  of  a  sort  of  ric-ida. 

CUCURIUTACEiC.  tine  of  Linna-iis's 
natural  orders  of  plants,  comprehend iiig 
those  which  resemble  the  gourd,  as  tlie 
cucumber,  the  melon,  &.c. 

CULM  (in  Botany).  'Ihe  stalli  or  stem 
of  corn  or  grasses. 

CULM  (among  .Miners).  A  sort  of  coal 
in  Wales. 

CULMLN'EyK.  One  of  the  Linnsan  na- 
tural orders  of  planu,  consisting  of  Uie 
grasavs. 

CULPRIT  (in  Law).  A  word  of  form, 
applied  in  court  to  one  who  is  indicted 


for  a  criininal  offence.  It  is  as  much  as 
to  say,  in  FVench,  'culpable  prit,  found  or 
considered  guilty.' 

CUiMMIN  SEED.  A  long,  slender  seed 
of  a  rough  texture,  unctuous  when  bruised, 
of  a  strong  smell  and  an  acrid  taste. 

CUPBEARER  Jn  Englaiidi.  An  oflicer 
of  the  king's  household,  who  was  for- 
merly an  attendant  at  a  feast. 

CUPEL.  A  chemical  vessel  made  of 
earth,  ashes,  or  burnt  tHjne,  in  wbicitassny- 
masters  try  metaU 

CUPOLA.  A  roof  or  vault  rising  in  a 
circular  form,  otherwise  cilled  the  'J'holus 
or  Dome,  as  the  cupola  of  St.  Paul's  Cii- 
thedral,  here  represeuted. 


CUPPING  (in  Purpery).  The  operation 
of  applying  the  cuppiiig-glaas  to  the  lieehy 
parts  of  the  body,  for  the  purpose  of  draw- 
ing away  blood,  or  humours. 

CURASSOW.  A  species  of  bird  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties  in  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  West  Indies,  of  which  the 
Cashew  Curassow  is  the  largest.  This 
bird  was  formerly  domesticated  in  some 
parts  of  Europe. 

CURATE.  Properly,  one  who  has  fW» 
cure  of  souls  ;  now  applied  in  England 
to  one  who  officiates  for  hire  in  the  place 
of  the  incuml>ent. 

CURB  OF  A  BRIDLE  A  chain  of 
iron  that  runs  over  the  horse's  beard 

Cl^RFEW.  Literally,  cover  fen  or  fire  ; 
a  law  introduced  fnuii  Normandy  into 
England  by  William  the  ('onqueror,  that 
all  people  should  put  out  their  lire  and 
lichts,  at  the  ringing  of  the  eight  o'clock 
bell. 

CURLEW.  An  European  water  fowl 
of  a  gray  colour,  with  a  l.irge  beak. 

Cl.'KKANT.  The  fruit  of  ashriib  having 
no  prickles;  the  leaves  of  this  plant  are 
large,  and  the  fruit,  which  is  either  bl.-wk, 
red,  or  white,  fc  kifhiy  esteemed;  also  a 
dried  fruit  that  coiues  from  the  Levant. 


lis 


CUT 


CURRENCY  (in  LkIW).  Paper  money 
issued  iiy  autlioniy,  aiiil  [ia.ssiiis  currt- nl 
Instead  of  com;  also,  in  general,  any  sort 
of  money  thai  passes  cnrreni  by  aiilliorily, 
as  the  metallic  currency,  signifying  the 
coin  of  the  realm. 

CURRK.N'l'S.  Inipetiiniiis  streams. 

CURRIHR.  A  dresser  of  tanned  leather 
to  make  it  pliable  and  fit  for  use.  1'he 
Company  of  Curriers  in  lingland  was  in- 
corporated in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

CURRV-COMH.  An  iron  sort  of  comb 
Ibr  the  dressing  of  horses. 

CURSITOR.  In  England,  an  officer  in 
chancery,  who  makes  out  original  writs 
for  any  particular  county. 

CURTAIN  (in  Kortification).  The  front 
of  a  wall  or  fortified  place,  lying  between 
two  ba.«tioii8. 

CURVE.  A  line  whose  parts  incline 
different  ways. 

CUSP.  Properly,  the  point  of  a  spear 

CUSP  (in  Astronomy).  A  term  for  the 
boms  of  the  moon. 

CUSTO.M  (in  \m\v).  A  duty  on  the 
lin|Mirtation  or  expiirlatjon  of  g(Hids 

CUSTOS  ROTULOKUM,  or  Keepek 
or  THE  Rolls.  In  England,  he  that  lias 
the  keeping  of  the  records  of  the  sessions 
of  the  peace. 

CUT.  An  ens.'aving  on  wood. 

CUTLER.  A  maker  antlsellerof knives, 
and  all  cutting  iiislrunieiils. 

CU'IPURSE.  A  sort  of  thieves  who 
rub  by  cutting  purses. 

CUTTER.  A  kind  of  bcKit  attached  to  a 
vessel  of  war,  which  is  rowed  with  six 
oars,  and  is  employed  in  carrying  light 
stores,  passengers,  &.c.  In  the  United 
States,  the  term  revenue  cutter,  is  applied 
to  small  fast  sailing  vessels,  used  In  walcli 
k^rboius  for  the  prevention  of  smuggling. 


CVANf)OEN  (in  Chemistry).  Carbon 
combined  with  azote 

CUTTLE-Fl.sn.  A  sea  ftsh  furnished 
With  many  sickors  and  holders  (or  se- 


CYM 

curing  its  prey.     It  emits  a  black 
used  lu  making  Indian  iuk 


CYBELE  (in  Heathen  Rlythnlogy).  Th« 
daughter  of  Ctplus  and  Terra,  wife  of 
Saturn,  and  mother  of  the  gods;  she  is 
always  represented  with  a  tiirreted  head 
and  accompanied  with  a  lion 


CYCLE.  A  continual  revolution  of  num- 
bers, as  applied  to  a  series  of  years  which 
go  on  from  first  to  Iilsi,  and  then  return 
to  the  same  order  auaiii. 

CVt-'LOII).  A  curve  generated  by  tn« 
rotation  of  a  curie  alons:  a  Inn*. 

C\C1,<)IM:1>I  A.    S.-H    K-ii  vrLor.vniA. 

CVl.lMlElt.  A  tianre  ronrened  ii.  Its 
geiieraifd.  liy  tlie  rotation  nt'  a  rectangle 
about  llie  side. 


CYLINDER  (in  Gunnery).  The  whole 
hollow  length  of  a  great  gun;  the  bore. 

CYME.  Properly,  a  sprout  or  shootj 
also  a  sort  of  flower'.ng,  where  the  floret! 
in  not  all  rise  from  the  same  point. 

CYUOSi£    Une  of  Linneus's  natum. 


DAV 

CTJTIC8  In  anrient  history,  snarling 
philosophers,  who  valued  themselves  on 
their  contempt  of  richea,  of  arts 
sciences,  and  amusements.  Diogenes 
was  one  of  this  sect. 

CYNOSURE.  The  constellation  of  the 
Little  Bear,  to  which,  as  containing  the 
nortb  star  the  eyes  of  mariners  and 
travelers  were  in  former  times,  contin- 
ually turned.  Hence  the  poets  have 
used  the  term  to  denote  anything  to 
whicb  attention  is  strongly  directed. 

CYPHONISM.  A  species  of  punish- 
ment frequently  used  by  the  ancients, 
which  consisted  in  besmearing  the 
criminal  with  honey,  and  exposing  him 
to  insects. 

CYPR.^rD.1:.  A  family  of  Marine  gas- 
tarpods  (the  Cowries),  with  involute  and 


DAT 


119 


higMy-enamelled  shells,  of  which  tha 
Cypresea  is  the  type. 

CYPRESS.  A  genus  of  plants  or  trees 
valued  lor  the  durability  of  their  wood; 
the  emblem  of  mourning  for  the  dead, 
cypress  branches  having  been  anciently 
used  at  funerals. 

CYTOBLAST.  In  botany,  the  nucleus 
cellule,  or  assimilative  force  from  which 
the  organic  cell  is  developed.  These 
nuclei  appear  like  dark  spots,  which 
may  be  seen  in  thefluids  of  the  growing 
l)arta  of  all  plants. 

CYTOBLASTEMA.  In  physiology,  the 
viscid  fluid  in  which  animal  and  vege- 
table cells  are  produced,  and  by  which 
they  are  held  together. 

CYTOGENESIS.  In  physiology,  the 
development  of  cells  in  animal  and  veg- 
etable structures. 


D 


As  a  numeral,  D  represents  600;  and 
when  a  dash  or  stroke  is  placed  over  it. 
It  denotes  !)000 

DACTYLIOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  en- 
graving on  gems 

DACTYLOLOGY  The  art  of  commu- 
nicating ideas  by  spelling  words  with 
the  fingers. 

DACTYLOXO:mY.  The  art  of  number- 
ing with  the  fingers. 

DACTYLOI^'EEUS.  In  ichthyology,  a 
genus  of  fishes  covered  with  large  scales 
and  the  head  long  and  flattened;  fam. 
Loricata. 

DADO.  In  architecture,  the  part  in 
the  middle  of  the  pedestal  between  the 
base  and  cornice. 

DAGUERREOTYPE.  A  process  inven- 
ted by  Dagucrre,  by  which  images  from 
the  lens  of  a  camera  obscura  are  fixed 
on  metal  plates. 

DAGOBA.  In  India  and  the  East,  a 
homi.spherical  dome  of  earth  or  stone 
with  a  small  square  erection  on  its  top 
called  a  tee. 

DALIAN  PROBLEM.  In  mathematics, 
the  duplication  of  the  cube,  or  the  pro- 
cess of  finding  the  side  of  a  cube  double 
that  of  another  one. 

DAMASK  STEEL.  In  the  arts,  a  fine 
kind  of  steel  from  the  Levant,  of  a 
«treaky  mottled  appearance,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  best  sword  and 
scimitar  blades.  Damaskeening  is  the 
art  of  adorning  steel  or  iron  with  inlaid 
gold  or  silver,  chiefly  used  for  sword- 
blades  or  locks  of  pistols. 

DANAE.  A  planet  first  observed  by 
Gcldsmidtinl8G0. 

DATHOLITE.  A  vitreous  mineral 
composed  of  silica,  lime  and  boracic 
acid,  not  transparent,  whence  its  name. 

DATUM.  A  thing  given  in  logical  and 
mathematical  premises:  a  proposition 
01  truth  granted  or  admitted.  Datum- 
line,  in  civil  engineering,  is  the  ba.se  or 
horizontal  line  o(  a  section,  from  which 
heights  and  depths  are  calculated. 

DAVYNE.  A  yellowish  transparent 
mineral  ejected  from  Vesuvius;  its  con- 
stituents being  silica,  alumina,  lime, 
iron,  and  water;  sp.  gr.  2-4. 


DAY.  An  astronomical  peried,  which 
depends  tipon  the  interval  between  two 
transits  over  the  meridian  of  any  point 
in  the  heavens,  real  or  imaginary.  But 
the  only  days  distinguished  by  that 
name  in  astronomy  are  the  sidereal  day, 
I  the  real  solar  day,  and  the  mean  solar 
day.  The  sidereal  day  is  the  interval 
between  two  transits  of  the  same  fixed 
star,  which  is  divided  info  twenty-four 
sidereal  hours.  The  real  solar  day  is 
the  interval  between  two  moons  or 
transits  of  the  sun  over  the  meridian. 
The  mean  solar  day  is  the  average  of  all 
the  real  solar  days.  The  Babylonians 
commenced  the  day  at  sun-rising,  the 
Jews  at  sun-setting,  and  the  Egyptians 
at  midnight,  as  do  many  modern  na- 
tions; the  British,  French,  Spanish, 
Americans,  &c.  In  the  computation  of 
time,  the  civil  or  mean  solar  day  is  the 
time  employed  by  thecarth  in  revolving 
on  its  axis,  ^')5'24'25  of  such  ravolutions 
constituting  a  mean  Gregorifin  year  :with 
most  of  the  modern  nations  it  com- 
mences at  midnight,  and  consists  of  24h. 
3m.  56s.,  55  of  sidereal  time.  Solar  days 
are  not  always  of  equal  length:  Ist, 
from  the  unequal  velocity  of  the  earth 
inits  orbit,  that  velocity  being  greater 
in  winter  than  in  summer;  and  2d,  from 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  A  side- 
real day,  the  day  universally  adopted  by 
astronomers  in  their  observations,  is  the 
time  that  elapses  between  two  success- 
ive culminations  of  tU»  sMne  star. 

DAY  FLY.  A  kind  ol  insect,  so  called 
because  It  lives  only  a  day. 


130 


DEC 


UEAU  £VE.  A  sea  term  for  •  iort  of 
Oal  block. 

UEAU  LANGUAGES.  Those  languages 
which  have  ceased  tu  be  i>|Hikeii  by  any 
nation,  as  Ibe  Greek  and  Liilin. 

UEAU  NETTLE.  A  sort  of  nettle 
witliuut  stings. 

UEAU  RECKONING.  The  account 
kept  of  a  ship's  course  by  the  lug,  without 
any  observation  uf  the  sun,  luooii,  or 
stars. 

UEAF  AND  DUMB.  Those  who  have 
the  misfortune  to  be  born,  witlmul  llie  fa- 
culties of  hearing  or  speaking.  Means 
Iiave  lieen  successfully  employed  to  supply 
these  defects  in  charitable  iiistilutioiis,  for 
the  beiiefil  of  these  unhappy  objucts,  where 
the  young  are  taught  to  coiiiiiiuiiicate  their 
thoughU  by  ttie  help  of  signs,  particularly 
by  the  laugiiHge  of  the  lingers,  which, 
Plough  before  but  a  cliiMish  aniuseuient, 
b)  now  turned  to  a  useful  purpose,  'i'he 
first  establishment  of  tills  kind  in  America 
was  that  at  Hartford,  winch  was  found-'l 
chiefly  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Mr.  Gallaudet. 

UE.'\  L.  The  wood  of  the  fir  tree  cut  up 
for  building. 

DEAN.  In  England,  a  dianified  clergy- 
man who  is  at  I  be  head  of  a  chapter. 

UEATIIVVA'J'CH.  A  little  insect  inha- 
biting old  woodeu  furniture,  which  makes 
a  licking  noise  in  such  a  maiiiier,  by  a 
certain  number  of  distinct  strokes,  as  for- 
merly to  be  considered  ominous  to  ihe 
family  where  it  was  heard.  This  circuin- 
luaiice  gave  rise  to  its  vulgar  name. 


DEBENTURE  (Ir  Law).  A  sort  of  bill 
ilrawn  upon  the  Government.  Custom 
House  debentures  entitle  the  bearer  to  re- 
ceive a  drawback  on  the  exportation  of 
goods,  which  were  before  imporled. 

DEBIT.  A  term  used  in  book-keeping 
to  express  the  left  hand  page  of  the  ledger, 
to  which  all  articles  are  carried  tiiat  are 
charged  to  an  account. 

DEBT  'in  Commerce).  A  sum  of  money 
due  from  one  person  to  another. 

DEDI'  (in  Law).  An  action  which  lieth 
where  a  man  oweth  another  a  certain  sum 
of  money. 

DEC.  An  abbreviation  for  December. 

DEC.'VUE    'J'he  number  or  space  often 


DEC 

days,  which  formed  the  third  part  of  tb* 

Attic  month;  alsotheiiumberof  ten  books, 
which  was  formerly  tlie  division  of  some 
volumes,  as  the  Uecades  of  Livy. 

DECAGON.  A  plane  gecmietrical  flgur* 
Consisting  often  sides  and  ten  angles. 

UECAL(XJUE.  'J'he  Ten  Command- 
ments delivered  by  God  from  Mount  Sinai 
to  Moses. 

DECAMERON.  A  volume  often  books, 
such  as  the  Decameron  or  novels  of  Boc- 
cacio. 

DECANDRIA.  One  of  the  artificial 
classes  of  Liiiiixus,  comprehending  those 
plants  which  have  ten  stameus  in  the 
flower. 


DEfJANTER.  A  glnss  bottle  made  so 
Its  to  hold  the  wine  for  immediate  use. 

DECEMBER.  The  last  moiitb  in  the 
year,  when  the  sun  enters  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn,  making  the  winter  solstice. 

DECEMVIRS.  Extraordinary  niiicis- 
trates  among  the  Romans,  chosen  for  the 
particular  purpose  of  collectiiig  tlie  laws 
of  the  twelve  tables,  which  they  gathered 
from  the  writings  of  Solon. 

DECIDUOUS  PLA.NTS.  Plants  which 
cast  their  leaves  in  winter. 

DECIMAL.  An  epithet  for  what  con- 
sists of  the  number  of  ten;  as,  Decniiai 
Arithmetic,  a  mode  of  coinpui;itii>ii  ili.ii 
proceeds  on  the  scale  of  ten  figures;  De- 
cimal Fracti(ms,suchas  have  in,  IlKl,  lO'lO, 
&c.  for  their  denominator,  and  marked 
with  a  point  thus  .5  for  five-tenths. 

DECIMATION.  A  military  punishment 
among  the  Romans,  inflicted  on  every 
tenth  man  of  the  company  who  had  be- 
haved themselves  ill. 

DECK.  The  floor  of  a  ship.  The  derks 
may  be  either  first,  second,  or  third; 
where  there  are  more  than  one,  beginning 
from  the  lowest  upwards. 

DECLARATION  (in  Law).  A  state- 
ment of  the  cause  of  action  by  a  plaint  iff 
against  a  defendant. 

DECLENSION.  The  different  inflexions 
of  nouns  throughout  their  cases. 

DECLINATION.  The  distance  of  any 
star  or  point  of  the  heavens  from  the 
equator,  either  north  or  south.    The  greul- 


DEF 

Mt  declination  is  -^:<  dc<:reei:  and  a  halT. 

UKXOl'TIo.N.  A  medicinal  luiunr. 

DECOMmsiTION  (in  Chemistry^. 
The  rediiclion  (>r  a  body  to  the  parts  of 
which  It  is  ciiniiHMed. 

DECORATIuNS.  Any  nniamenta  or 
embellishments,  such  ;ls  pritiLs  u>  a  book. 
or  the  mouldings,  and  other  Ciirved  works 
in  buildings. 

DV'COV.  A  sea  term  for  a  stratafiem 
employed  by  ships  of  war,  to  draw  any 
vessel  of  inferior  force  into  an  incautious 
pursuit,  until  she  comes  within  gun-shot. 

DECOV  (among  !5porti<nien).  A  place 
for  catching  wild  fowl. 

DECUY-DCCK.  A  wild  duck  trained 
to  decoy  others  into  tJie  decoy,  or  place 
where  they  may  be  caught. 

DEKU  ti"  I^Jiw).  A  written  contract, 
ail{iied,  sealed,  and  delivered.  It  is  par- 
ticularly applied  to  instruments  for  con- 
veying land. 

DEhr-E^E.A-LIXE.  A  sea  term  for  a 
small  line  to  sound  with. 

DEER.  An  animal  which  in  England  is 
kept  in  parks,  either  for  ornament  or  for 
the  chase;  the  flesh  of  which  is  called  ven- 
ison. In  North  America,  we  have  live 
animals  of  the  deer  kind,  the  Moose  or 
Elk  of  Europe;  the  American  KIk,  astiitely 
animal,  whose  brmcliins  horns  are  some- 
tiniec  five  feet  in  length;  the  common  fal- 
low, or  Virginia  deer;  the  mule,  or  black 
taded  deer  of  the  Rocky  mountains  ;  and 
the  Rein-deer.  The  male  of  the  fallow 
di-er,  is  called  Buck,  the  female,  Hind. 
'I  he  stag.  Hart,  or  Red  Deer  of  Europe,  the 
fenitile  of  which  is  called  Hind,  is  not 
f  >iiiid  in  this  country.  It  is  a  characteris- 
tic of  all  these  aniinals,that  they  shed  their 
.lorns  once  a  year. 

n.  F.  Detbnsor  Fidei,  Defender  of  the 
Faith. 

l>£  FACTO.  In  deed  or  fact. 

Itv.F.ALCATIOX.  A  falling  off  or  a 
failure  in  any  public  accounts. 

DEFAMATION  (in  Law).  Slanderous 
Words  spoken  or  written  against  any  one. 

DEFAULT  (in  Law).  A  nonappearance 
in  court  without  sufficient  cause. 

DEFACLTER.  One  who  is  deficient  in 
his  accounts. 

DEFECTION.  The  falling  oflT  from  a 
gi:  /eminent  or  state. 

.")EFEXCH  (in  Law).  The  reply  which 
the  defendant  makes  after  the  declaration 
is  produced;  in  .Military  .Affairs,  any  work 
that  covers  or  defends  the  opposite  |H>sts, 
as  flanks,  paripets. 

DEFENDANT  (in  Law).  One  who  ii 
■atd  in  an  action. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH.  A  title 
11 


DF.L 


121 


given  by  Pope  Leo  X.  to  Henry  VIll.  for 
writing  against  Luther. 

DEFILE.  A  n.irrow  lane  or  passaea 
through  which  a  company  of  mddiers  cait 
puss  only  in  tile. 

DEFlNnU)N.  The  determining  tht 
nature  of  things  by  words,  or  explaining 
the  siiinitication  of  a  word. 

DEFLAORA'llON.  The  burning  in  a 
criu'ible  of  any  mineral  body. 

UEFLEMO.N'.  The  turning  of  any  thing 
out  of  its  true  course. 

DEFLL'XION  (in  Surgery).  The  falling 
of  a  humour  in  the  Inidy,  from  a  superior 
upon  an  inferior  part. 

DEGRADATION  (in  Ecclesiastical  Af- 
fairs in  England).  The  depriving  a  person 
of  his  dignity  and  degree,  as  the  degrada- 
tion of  a  clergyman,  |>y  depriving  hiiii  of 
holy  orders. 

DEGRADATION  (in  Military  Afftirs). 
The  depriviiis  an  otricer  of  his  ciunmis.olcm. 

DEGREE  (in  .Mathematics;.  'I'lie  aiioth 
part  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
marked  thiis(  °). 

DEGREE  (in  Law).  An  interval  of 
relationship  between  persons,  mure  or  less 
nearly  allied. 

DEGREES  (in  a  University).  Titles  of 
honour,  conferred  on  pei-sons  for  their 
merit  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 

DEINORNIS,  also  DINORNIS.  A  gi- 
gantic bird  fimud  in  a  sub-fossil  state  in 
New  Zealand,  having  been  a  wingless 
bird  of  great  size  and  strength — called 
the  Moa  by  the  natives. 

DEINOSAUIUANS.  An  order  of  fossil 
reptiles  found  in  the  Upper  Secondary 
Formations,  of  great  size,  and  fitted  for 
terrestrial  Ufa. 

DEINOTHERITJM.  A  gigantic  fofwil 
maiuiual  lunusued  with  a  short  prob- 
oscis, and  armed  with  two  euornions 
txisks.turnedtlownwards,  and  slightly 
curved  inwards. 

DEIP>}t)SOPHIST.  One  of  an  ancient 
sect  of  philosophers,  who  were  i'amouii 
for  their  learned  conversation  at  meals. 

DELFT  WARE.  A  kind  of  potter'i 
ware,  originally  made.nt  Dell\  in  Holland^ 
it  is  covered  with  an  enamel,  or  white 
gta/.ing,  in  iniitalion  of  |Kircelain. 

DELkll.lI'M.or  nELiaUh>*rENCE. 
A  spontaneous  solution  of  some  salts  by 
exposure  to  the  air. 

DELIVERY,  or  GAOL  DELIVERY 
!  (in  I^aw).  A  term  applied  to  the  sessions 
'  at  the  Did  Baily,  &r.  in  London,  by  which 
'  the  gaol  is  delivered  or  cleared  of  prisoners 
I  DELIVERY  (in  the  .Mint).  The  qiian 
tity  of  moneys  coined  within  a  given 
I  period. 
I      DELIVERY  (in  Oratory).  The  manner 


122 


DEP 


of  pronoiinctng  an  address,  as  regards  the 
«oic«  mid  iilteraiice  ofllie  speaker. 

DG.MKSM;  LAM)S.  in  Kiigliuid, lands, 
whirli  tlie  lord  of  a  manor  has  in  his  own 
hands. 

nt;*!!.  A  half-fellow  at  Magdalen  Col- 
lege at  Oxford  Kn^ilaiid-,  also  a  term  In 
com|K>sition  siiJiiiifMn):  half,  as,  demigod, 
a  hero  who  was  enrolird  among  the  gods. 

Ut;.MOCRACV.  A  form  of  government 
where  the  sngireme  power  is  lodged  in  the 
people  at  large,  ur  in  persons  cliosea  by 
ihein. 

DEMONSTRATION.  A  proof  or  chain 
of  arguments,  serving  to  prove  the  truth. 

DK.MUKRKR  (in  Law).  A  pause  or 
stop  in  a  suit  u|Hin  some  difliculty. 

DE.M  V.  A  sort  of  pa|ier  much  U8«d  in 
printing. 

DE.MER.  One  of  the  earliest  French 
coins,  answering  nearly  to  the  English 
penny. 

DE.MZEN.  An  alien  who  is  naturalized. 

DENO.MINA'roR.  'I'hat  part  of  a  frac- 
tion which  stands  below  the  line,  as  l{)  in 
the  fraction  ^ 

DE.NtJlJEM  ENT.  The  developeinent  of 
the  plot  in  a  play. 

1)E  NOVO.  Afresh,  or  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

OE.NsjiTV.  The  property  of  bodies,  of 
containing  a  ceruiin  quantity  uf  matter 
under  a  certain  bulk. 

DEN'I'lr!'!'.  One  who  draws  teeth,  and 
prescribes  for  their  diseases. 

DKODANI).  A  thing  as  it  were  forfeited 
to  0<id,  to  alone  for  the  violent  death  of  a 
man  by  niisadveiilnre. 

DEI'AR'ri'KE.  The  easting  or-westing 
of  a  ship,  in  respect  to  tlie  meridian  it  de- 
parted from. 

DKI'HLKGMATION.  The  depriving 
any  lii|iiid  of  its  siipertlnoiis  water. 

l)i-^PO.\ENT.  One  who  gives  informa- 
tion on  iKith  before  a  magistrate. 

DEPORTATION.  The  banishment  of  a 
person,  among  the  Romans,  to  some  dis- 
tant island. 

DEPOSITION.  The  testimony  of  a 
witness  taken  upon  oath. 

DEPOT.  A  place  where  military  stores 
are  depjisilfd. 

Dr.PRES.<ION.  The  distance  of  a  star 
from  the  bori7.on  below. 

DEPRESSION  OF  THE  POUR,  ig 
■aid  of  a  person  sailing  fVum  the  pole  to 
the  equator. 

DEPKt>%J|ON  OP  TOR  VISIBLE 
HORI/ON,  or,  Dir  of  the  nuRizun. 
Ita  dipping  or  sinking  below  the  true  lio- 
rixontMl  plane,  by  the  oli^erver's  eye  being 
abuvc  Ule  surfucr  uf  the  sea. 


DKT 

DRPRIVATION.  In  England,  a  taklnff 
away,  as  when  a  parson  or  vicar  is  de- 
prived of  Ins  preftriiient. 

DEI'L'TY.  a  prrsoii  appointed  by  com- 
niisiijoii  to  act  for  .iiMillier. 

DERELICT.  Forsaken,  left;  as  derelict 
lands,  lands.wliK'b  tlie  sea  has  left;  dere- 
lict ships,  vessels  left  at  sea,  &,c. 

DEKIVATIVE  (in  Graiiiii.ar).  Any 
Word  which  is  derived  from  another. 

DKR.MIISTES.  An  insect,  called  ia 
vulgar  liinjiiiage  the  Leather  eater. 

UEllMER.  LiL-si,  as  a  tribunal  of  der- 
nier resort,  the  last  or  highest  court  of 
appeal. 

DERVISE.  An  order  of  religious  per- 
sons in  .Vlalioinetan  countries,  who  prac- 
tise great  aii^terities  on  themselves. 

DESCENSKJ.N.  An  arc  of  Ilie  equator 
which  descends  or  sets  with  any  sign  or 
point  III  the  zodiac.  Descension  is  either 
right  or  obli<|iie,  according  as  it  takes 
place  in  a  riglu  or  obli(|ue  sphere. 

DESCENSION AL  DIFFERENCE.  The 
difference  between  the  right  and  oblique 
descension  of  a  star,  &.c. 

DESt'ENT.  In  general,  the  tendency 
of  heavy  bodies  towards  the  earlh. 

DESt;E.\T  (in  Law).  Hereditary  suc- 
cession to  an  estate. 

DESCENT  (in  Military  Affairs).  I^nd 
ing  in  a  country  fur  tlie  pur^mse  of  in 
vasion. 

DESCRIPTION.  An  imperfect  kind 
of  definition,  that  includes  many  accidents 
and  circijinsiaiices  peculiar  to  an  object, 
wilhont  detining  its  nature  precisely. 

DESERTER.  A  soldier  wln>  runs  away 
from  his  colours,  or  goes  over  to  the 
enemy. 

DESII)ERATir.M  (in  Literature).  What 
is  wanted  or  iiKpiired  after.  A  work  is  a 
desideratum,  which,  though  wanted,  is  not 
executed. 

DESIGN.  The  first  draught,  or  sketch 
of  any  picltire. 

DESPt/riS.M.  A  form  of  governnieiit 
where  the  monarch  rules  by  Ins  sole  and 
sovereign  aulborily. 

DESIJNT  Ci*:TERA.  The  rest  waniing; 
words  put  at  the  end  <if  any  ch:L<iii  or 
deficiency,  in  an  im(terfect  or  inulilaUfd 
work. 

DETAtMIMR.VT  fin  Military  Affairs). 
A  certain  nnmlwr  of  men  Kele'cled  lor  a 
partixilar  expedilli'ii  or  service. 

DETAINER.  A  writ  for  holding  any 
one  ill  cnstixly. 

DETENTS.  The  stops  in  clock-work 
which,  by  being  lifted  up  or  let  down, 
lock  or  unlock  the  clock  in  striking. 


DlAs 

DKTERGF.NTS.  Medicines  which  re- 
move viacid  huiiiiiura. 

ItKTliRMI.NATIi  PROBt.KM  That 
which  had  uiie,  or  a  liiiiiied  niiiiibcr  u( 
kii.^wf  ra 

IJKTON.VriON  The  noise  and  explo- 
•toii,  which  siiine  mitislaiict-.s  make  iiptui 
the  iipplicatidii  uC  tire  to  them,  as  guii- 
puwder,  Sic. 

DirrONATrNG  powder,  or  FuL- 
Mii<iATi;<in  I'uwuKR.  A  preparation  of 
nitre,  rjiilphurj  &.C. 

UE'J'RITL/'S.  Tliat  which  is  washed 
down  fruiii  the  inuuntaiii:i,  and  forms  a 
new  soil. 

DEUCALION.  The  son  of  Prometheus, 
who,  with  his  wife  I'yrrlia,  were  saved 
during  a  deluge,  in  a  ship  on  Mount  Par- 
nassus 

DEVISE.  A  girt  of  lands  by  last  will 
and  testament. 

DKUTERONOMV.  The  fourth  book  of 
Moses. 

DEW.  The  moisture,  which  is  first  ex- 
baled  friim  the  earth  hy  llie  i^un,  and  then 
falls  again  upon  the  earth  in  gentle  drops 
during  the  night. 

DEWLAP.  The  loose  skin  that  hangs 
down  under  the  throat  of  an  ox,  cow, 

&.C. 

DEXTER.  The  right,  or  on  the  right 
hand  or  side,  as  the  dexter  point;  in  He- 
raldry, the  right-hand  side  of  the  es- 
cutcheon. 

DKV.  The  supreme  governor  of  Alciers. 

DIABETES  (in  .Medicine).  An  exces- 
kive  discharge  nf  crude  urine. 

DIACOUt^TICs?.  The  science  of  re- 
fracied  soiintls. 

DIADELI'HIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
the  I.innEPan  classes,  conipreheiidiiig  such 
plan's  !is  b«?ar  hermaphrodite  (lowers  with 
two  sets  of  united  stamens. 


DIA 


128 


DrADCM  A  headband  or  fillet,  an- 
ciently worn  by  kings  as  <an  emlileni  of 
digiiiPy. 

DI/KRESIS  (in  nrammar).  The  divi- 
sion of  one  sylltble  into  two,  marked 
(bus  (.. ;. 


DIAGNOSTIC  SIGNS.  SIpns  by  which 
diseitses  are  distinguished  from  eachnlher. 

DIAGONAL.  A  straight  line  drawn  from 
one  angle  of  a  figure  to  another 

DIAGRAM.  A  scheme  drawn  by  waj 
of  ilhistratiiig  any  thing. 

DI.AL.  A  plate  marked  with  lines,  foi 
showing  the  hour  of  the  day  liy  the  shadow 
of  a  gnomon,  style,  or  pin  when  the  sun 
sliint's.  The  diversity  <if  sun-dials  arises 
from  the  dirferent  situation  of  the  plane, 
and  from  the  dllfrreiit  figure  of  the  sur- 
faces upon  which  they  are  described.  The 
subjoined  hgure  represents  an  hori/.onta 
dial. 


DIAI.ECT.  A  manner  of  speech  peca 
liar  to  any  parts  of  a  country.  Thediatrcts 
of  Greece  were  admitted  to  form  a  iMirt  of 
their  langiiace,  as  the  Attic  dialect,  s|Miken 
by  the  Atlieiiians;  so  the  lolilC,  I'oetic, 
JEiiiir,  and  Doric  dialects. 

DI*ALE(.TICS.  The  art  of  logic. 

DIALLI.NC.  The  art  of  drawing  dials 
on  any  surlace. 

DIALLIST  One  who  constructs  sun- 
dials. 

DLVLOGUE.  A  written  dUcourse  be- 
tween two  or  more  persons. 

DIALY.«!iS.  A  mark  or  character,  con- 
sisting of  two  points  placed  over  two  vow- 
els, as  poeiiiata,  to  show  that  they  must 
l>e  soundeit  distinctly. 

DIAMEPEK.  A  right  line  passing 
through  tile  centre  of  a  circle,  or  aiiv 
cnrveil  hsiiire. 

DIALLAGE.  A  mineral  of  a  brilliant 
greeu  eolor,  with  a  silky  or  pearly  lustre. 
It  consists  of  Hilica,  alumina,  lime,  mag- 
nesia,  oxide  ofcUrouie,  and  oxide  ofiroii. 

Ei.v:»I.\GNETIU.  A  term  applieil  by 
Farrartay  to  a  class  of  substances  which, 
under  the  infiueiice  of  magnetism,  take 
a  position,  when  freely  suspended,  at 
right  angles  to  the  lua^iuetic  meridian. 


124 


DIA 


DIAMOND.  The  most  valuable  and 
the  hardest  of  all  precious  stones  or 
j^ems.  Itispurt  carbon:  and  its  prim- 
itive crystals  are  the  regular  octahed- 
ron, wtich  reflects  all  the  light  falling 
on  its  posterior  Burt'ace  at  an  angle  of 
inciJence  greater  than  24"  13,  whence 
its  great  brillicncy  is  derived.  The 
diamond  has  various  tints  of  color; 
sometimes  of  a  yellowish,  bluish,  or 
rose-red  tinge,  though  sometimes  per- 
fectly colarle.ss.  The  largest  diamond 
known  is  siid  to  have  belonged  to  the 
Kmperor  of  Brazil;  but  the  celebrated 
Kohi-noor  diamond,  which  passed  from 
the  hands  of  the  Mogul  princes  to  tho 
possession  of  Queen  Victoria,  is  among 
the  most  valuable  in  Europe.  In  geom- 
etry, diamond  is  tlio  name  of  a  quad- 
rangular or  rhomboidal  figure. 

DI  APHONIES.  The  doctrine  of  refract- 
ed sound. 

DIANA.  The  goddess  of  hunting,  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  (..itona,  and  twin 
lister  nf  Apollo;  she  is  coiiitnonly  repre- 
leiited  with  a  bow  and  arrow. 


DIANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
clitsses  in  the  Linnsan  system,  consisting 
of  such  plants  as  have  hermaphrodite  flow- 
ers with  two  stamens,  as  the  olive,  the 
privet,  the  nightshade,  &.c 


DIAPASON  (in  Ancient  Music).  The 
biteival  of  an  octave;  among  Musical  In- 
■trument  Makers,  the  diapason  is  a  scale 
ar  measure. 

DIAPER.  A  kind  of  linen  for  the  table, 
wrought  with  fluwen 


DIF 

DIAPHANOUS.  Transparent  like  gla-og 

DiAl'HONIA.  'i'he  precepts  forinerij 
taught  fur  the  use  of  the  organ. 

UIAI'IIOKb:'l'ICS.  Medicines  which 
promote  |)erspiration 

DIAPHRAGM.  A  muscular  membrane 
which  divides  the  thorax  from  tlie  abdo- 
men 

UlARKHCEA  A  disorder  which  con- 
sists in  llie  frequent  discharge,  by  stool,  of 
a  bilious  humour  from  the  intestines. 

DlAllV.  An  account  of  what  passes  in 
the  course  of  a  day 

DIATESSICKON  (in  Music).  An  inter 
val  composed  of  a  greater  and  less  tone. 

DIATi:SSERUN  (in  Tlieology).  The 
four  Uospels. 

DIA'i'lllliE.  A  disputation  or  contro- 
versial discourse 

DIltBLli:.  A  pointed  tool  for  making 
holes  to  plant  in. 

DICE.  Pieces  of  bone  or  ivory,  of  a 
cubical  form,  and  marked  with  dots  on 
each  of  their  faces  from  one  to  six. 

DICTATOR.  An  extraordinary  magis- 
trate among  the  Romans,  cliosen  u[Hin  par- 
ticular occasions;  aiul  invested  with  abso- 
lute power.  He  laid  down  his  office,  as 
soon  as  the  occasion  ceased,  for  which  he 
had  been  appointed. 

DICTIONARY.  A  collection  of  the 
words  of  a  language,  explained  in  alpha- 
betical order. 

DIC'I'I'M.  The  positive  opinion  pro- 
nounced by  an  individual. 

DIDACTIVE.  An  epithet  for  what 
serves  to  teach  or  explain  the  nature  of 
tilings,  as  didactic  pieces. 

DIUYNAMIA  (in  Bot.iny).  One  of  tlio 
Linn:ean  cbisses,  includiii!!  such  plants  as 
have  rtowers  with  four  stamens  in  two 
pairs  of  ditl'erent  lengths. 

I)  K.  The  stamp  usetl  in  coining. 

DIE  (in  Architecture).  I'he  middle  of 
the  pedestal. 

DIER  One  who  follows  the  trade  of 
dyeing. 

DIER'S  BROOM.  A  shrub  so  called 
from  its  flowers,  which  yield  a  colour  used 
hy  diers  in  dyeing  wool  green. 

DIES  NON;  that  is.  Dies  non  juridici. 
Hays  on  which  no  pleas  are  held,  ni  any 
court  of  justice. 

DIET.  Food  regulated  by  the  rules  of 
medicine. 

DIETETICS.  That  branch  of  the  medi- 
cal science,  which  treats  of  the  diet  oi 
food  suited  to  particular  cases. 

DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT;  that  is,  God 
and  my  right.  The  motto  on  the  arms  of 
the  Kini!  of  England. 

DIFFERENCE  'in   A'ithmetic).    Th« 


DIM 

eniairier,  wliec  one  number  has  been 
■ubtracted  from  another. 

DIKKKUENCE  (in  Heraldry).  What 
U  added  in  Uduts  of  anus,  as  a  mark  to  dis- 
tinguish younger  families  from  tlie  elder. 
UiFFEKKNCK  OF  LONOl'J'UUE  (in 
Astlronomy).  An  arc  of  the  equator,  com- 
prehended between  the  meridianii  of  two 
places  on  the  earth. 

IJlI-'FEKE.NTlAh  CALCULUS  A 
nietliod  of  finding  a  diflerential,  or  that 
Rihniiely  small  quantity,  which  taken  an 
intinite  number  of  tunes,  ise(iualtoagiveii 
quantity. 

DIGESTER.  An  apparatus  for  reducing 
Bub.<tance8  to  a  pulp  or  jelly. 

UIGESTIO.V.  'J'lie  dissolving  or  con- 
cocting food  in  the  stomach,  so  that  its 
various  parts  may  be  applied  to  their 
proi>er  uses. 

DIGESTION  (in  Chemistry).  The  C(m- 
tinual  soaking  of  a  solid  substance  in  a 
liquid,  so  that  by  the  application  of  heat, 
it  may  be  reduced  to  a  soli  substance. 

DIGESTIO.N'  (in  Surgery).  The  dis- 
posing a  wound  to  suppurate  or  discharge 
good  pus. 

DIGESTIVF.S.  Medicines  which  help 
digestion. 

DiGESTS.  The  first  volume  of  the  civil 
law. 

DIGIT.  A  niea!*ure  equal  to  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch;  also  a  character  denoting 
a  figure,  as  I,  for  one;  2,  for  two,  JStc. 

DIGIT  (in  Astronomy).  The  twelfth 
part  of  a  diameter  of  the  sun  or  moon. 

DIGITALIS,  or  Foxolote.  A  kind  of 
plant  which  is  for  the  most  part  herba- 
ceous, with  a  root  that  is  either  biennial 
or  perennial.  The  stalk  of  this  plant  rises 
two  or  three  feet  high,  and  bears  spikes  of 
iron  coloured,  or  purple  Uowers.  'J'he  pur- 
jile  fo.xglove  is  a  native  of  England,  and 
is  much  used  in  medicine. 

DiGNITY  (in  Law).  Honour  anil  au- 
thority. 

DIG  YNIA  (in  Botany).  An  order  in  the 
Linnxan  system,  consisting  of  plants  that 
have  two  pistils. 

DILAPIDATION  (in  Law).  The  ruin 
cr  damage  which  accrues  to  a  hou.sc,  in 
ec^sequence  of  neglect. 

DILEM.MA.  An  argument  which  cannot 
be  denied  in  any  way,  without  involving 
the  (>arty  denyini  in  contradictions. 

DILETTANTE.  A  lover  of  the  fine  arts. 

DIMENSIO.N'.  The  measure  or  compass 
of  a  thing;  a  line  has  one  dimension, 
namely,  length;  a  surface  two,  namely, 
length  and  kreadth;  a  solid  three,  namely, 
length,  breadth,  and  thickne.ss. 

DIMLNUTIVK  (in  (Jrammar).  A  word 
II  • 


DIP 


12S 


or  ending,  which  lessens  the  meaning  of 
the  original  word;  as,  rivulet,  a  small 
fiver. 

DIOCESAN.  A  bishop  who  has  charge 
of  a  particular  diocese. 

D.OCKSE.  'I'lie  district  or  circuit  of  • 
bishop's  jurisdiction. 

DiOECl.^  (.in  Botany).  A  class  in  the 
Liiina?an  system,  comprehending  such 
plants  as  have  iii>  licrmaphrndite  tlowers, 
but  the  males  and  females  on  distinct  in- 
dividuals, as  the  poplar,  aspen,  amber  tree, 
willow,  ozier,  itc. 


DIOPTRICS.  That  branch  of  optica, 
which  considers  the  dillereiit  refractions 
of  light  in  its  passing  through  ditTerenl 
mediums,  as  air,  water,  glass,  &.c. 

DIP  OF  THE  MAGNETIC  NEED1>:. 
The  property  of  the  needle,  when  rubbed 
with  the  loadstone,  of  inclining  tlie  north 
end  below  tlie  level  of  the  horizon. 

DIP    OF    THE    HURI/ON      See    De- 

rRESSION. 

DIPHTHONG.  Two  vowels  sounded  an 
one;  as,  s. 

DIPLO.M.V.  A  liw^nse  or  certificate 
given  by  colleges,  &c.  to  a  clergyman,  to 
exercise  the  ministerial  functions,  or  to  a 
lihysician,  to  practice  physic. 

DIPLOMACY.  The  functions  of  an 
ambassador  residing  at  a  foreign  court. 

DIPPING  NEEDLE.  The  magnetical 
needle  so  duly  poised  about  an  liorizontal 
axis,  that,  besides  its  direction  towards  the 
pole,  it  will  always  point  to  a  determined 
degree  below  the  horizon.  The  dipping 
needle  was  invented  by  Robert  Norman, 
a  compiiss  maker  at  Kalrliffe,  about  the 
year  I.t80,  and  arose,  according  to  his  owe 
account  of  the  matter,  from  the  following 
circumstance.  It  was  his  ciistoni  to  finish 
anil  hang  the  needles  of  his  compasses 
before  he  touched  them,  and  he  always 
found,  after  the  touch,  the  north  point 
would  dip  or  decline  downward,  pointing 
in  a  direction  under  the  horizon;  so  that 
to  balance  the  needle  again, he  was  always 
forced  to  put  a  piece  of  wax  on  the  south 
end,  as  a  counterpoise  After  having  ob- 
served this  effect  frequently,  he  was  al 
length  led  to  mark  the  quantity  of  the 
dip,  or  to  measure  the  greatest  angle  which 
the  dip  Would  mal' '.  with  the  horizon;  he 
found   at    London  it  was  71"  50',  ►vt  by 


12i! 


DIS 


•iibMeHjiieiit  eiperiineiits  the  dip  is  found 
U-  (lt-crtra.se  aliiiul  1'  4"  every  >eur. 

IMPTKRA  (ill  Entomology;.  An  order 
III  liie  LiiiiiKaii  system,  cumprelieiiding  in- 
<*iis  that  liave  two  wings,  with  a  poiser, 
««  llie  lly,  the  glial,  &E.C. 

UIREC'I'IUN  (in  Astronomy).  The 
motion  and  other  phenomena  of  a  phinet 
when  it  is  direct,  or  going  forward  in  llie 
'/.udiac  according  to  the  iiutunU  order  of 
the  signs. 

UlRCCTION,  LINE  OF  (in  Gunnery). 
Tlie  direct  line  in  wliich  a  piece  is  pointed. 

DIRECTION  OF  A  LET'lER.  llie 
•uperscription  or  address. 

DIRECTION  POS'l'.  A  post  set  up  in 
roads,  to  direct  the  traveller  to  particular 
places. 

DIRECTION  WORD  (in  Printing). 
The  Word  which  begins  the  next  page, 
which  used  to  be  set  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  preceding. 

DIRECTOKV  (in  England).  A  form  of 
prayer  set  fortti  by  the  assembly  of  divines, 
and  used  by  order  of  the  Long  Parliaiiient, 
instead  of  the  Coininon  Prayer,  'i  he 
word  is  applied  in  tlie  United  States  to 
thinks  in  the  large  cities  which  point  out 
liie  names  and  residences  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

DIRGE.  A  song  of  lamentation  at  fune- 
rals. 

DIRK.  A  kind  of  dagger. 

DISBANUKU.  An  epithet  used  for  a 
regiment  discharged  from  service. 

DISC.  The  body  or  face  of  the  sun  or 
uu>on  as  it  ap|>ear8  to  us 

DISC  (in  Optics).  The  magnitude  of  a 
tflescope  glass,  or  the  width  of  its  aper- 
ture. 

DISCHARGE  (In  Law).  A  release  from 
roiifinement. 

DISCHARGE  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
reniissiu?!  of  service  for  the  time  that  a 
tMildier  has  been  engaged. 

DISCHARGER,  or  DISCHARGING 
ROD.  An  instrument  made  of  glass  or 
baked  wool,  by  the  help  of  which  an 
electrie  jar  is  discharged 


DISCLAIMER  (In  Law).  A  plea  con- 
ttiinlng  an  express  denial. 

DISCIPLINE.  In  general,  a  rule  or 
method  of  government. 

DISCIPLINE  (in  Military  Affairs).  The 
training  up  soldiers  for  service. 

DISCORD.  An  inharmonious  combina- 
ion  of  soanda. 


DIS 

DISCOVERY  (in  Law).  The  disclosinf 
or  revealing  any  thing  by  a  defendant,  in 
his  answer  to  a  bill,  tiled  against  hitu  in  a 
couit  of  equity. 

DIKJOL/'iNT  (in  Commerce;.  An  allow- 
ance made  on  a  bill,  or  any  other  debt  not 
yet  become  due,  in  consideration  of  i(Kme- 
diule  payment. 

DlSb;ASi:.  Tha.  state  of  a  living  body 
which  interrupts  any  of  its  ( inclions. 

Dl.-^E.MliOGUINO.  A  term  applied  to 
rivers,  whicii  discharge  tliemselves  inla 
the  sea. 

DISJUNCTIVE.  An  epithet  for  con- 
junctions, which  separate  the  sense,  as 
but,  nor,  &c. 

DISLOCATION.  The  putting  a  bone 
out  of  its  place. 

DISPATCHES.  Letters  sent  to,  or  from 
goveriinient,  on  public  business. 

DISPENSARY.  A  charitable  institu 
tion,  where  medicine  and  advice  are  giver 
gratis  to  the  poor. 

DISPENSATK)N  (in  Law).  In  Eng- 
land, an  exclusive  privilege,  to  do  any 
thing  that  is  otherwise  prohibited  by 
law,  granted  by  the  King  in  council. 

DISPENSATION  (in  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs).  An  iiuliilgeiice  granted  by  the 
Pope,  to  do  what  is  otherwise  forbidden 
by  the  church,  us  the  marriage  of  first 
cousins,  &.C. 

DISPENSATORY,  or  pHARMACOHoriA. 
A  book  which  directs  apothecaries,  in  the 
cumpouiiding  or  making  U|>  medicines. 

DISPERSION  (in  Optics).  The  diverg- 
ency of  the  rays  of  light. 

DISPOSITION  (in  Military  Affairs). 
'I'he  placing  an  army  ready  for  attack  ot 
defence. 

DISPOSITION  (in  Architecture).  The 
jii.st  placing  all  the  several  patu  of  a 
building. 

DISSECTION.  The  cutting  asunder 
animal  bodies,  in  order  to  come  at  the 
knowledge  of  tlieir  parts. 

DISSEISIN  (in  Law).  The  wrongful 
putting  out  of  one,  that  is  seised  of  his 
freehold. 

DISSt;NTER.  One  who  dissents  or 
departs  from  the  forms  of  the  Church,  as 
established  in  England. 

DISSIPATION  (in  Medicine).  An  in- 
sensible loss  or  consumption  of  the  minute 
parts  of  a  body. 

DISSIPA'llON  (in  Optics).  The  Circle 
of  Dissipation  is  that  circular  space  upon 
the  retina,  which  is  taken  up  by  the  rays 
of  each  pencil  in  indistinct  vision. 

DISSOLVENT.  A  liquor  proper  to-x 
reducing  a  solid  body  to  the  etazo  of  a 
fluid 


DIV 

DI?<=ni,i;TIO.\.  The  reducing  of  a 
siilid  Ikxly  into  a  fluid  stale,  by  ihe  acciuii 
ufauiur  iiK^iistruum  or  dis^solvenl. 

DlSS(».\'Ai\CE  (in  Music).  A  disagree- 
able interval  between  two  souiida,  which 
bc-iiig  cuntinued  together,  otfends  the  ear. 

DISTAFF.  .\n  instrument  anciently 
w-fd  in  spinning. 

DISTEMi'lOR  (in  Painting].  Colours 
ii.it  mixed  with  oil  or  water,  but  with  size, 
M'hites  of  eggs,  &.C. 

DISTE.MPER  (in  Farriery).  A  disease 
incident  to  dugs,  horses,  and  other  domes- 
tic anim.Us. 

DISTICH.  \  couplet  or  couple  of 
verses  in  poetry,  making  complete  sense. 

DISTILL.ATION.  A  chemical  process 
of  drawing  out  the  humid,  spirituous, 
oleaginous,  or  saline  parts  of  mixed  bodies, 
by  means  of  heat,  these  part.s  being  lirst 
resolved  into  a  gas  or  vupnur,  and  then 
recondensed  into  a  lluid,  by  means  of 
cold. 

IIISTILLER.  One  who  follows  the  trade 
of  distilling.  The  distillers  art- one  of  the 
city  CAinpanieK  in  London,  incorporated  in 
the  reisn  of  Uueen  Klizalietb. 

DIS'I'RESS  (ill  Law).  The  distraining 
or  sei/.iMg  upon  a  person's  goods,  for  the 
puyiiieiit  of  rent  or  taxes,  &.c. 

ijliJTKlBL'TlON  (in  Printing^.  The 
c.ikins  a  form  asunder,  so  as  to  separate 
the  Itttert:. 

DISTRIBITTIO.V  (in  Medicine).  The 
circalalion  of  the  chyle  with  the  blood. 

DlSTRIBUTIO.\iin  Logic).  The  dis- 
tinzuishing  a  whole,  into  its  several  cun- 
■tituent  parts. 

UlSTRIIlt'TIVE  JUSTICE.  Justice 
administered  by  a  Judge,  so  as  to  give 
every  man  his  due. 

DI!«TR1BUTIVE  NOUNS.  Words 
which  serve  to  distribute  things  into  their 
several  orders,  as  each,  either,  every,  &c. 

DSI'RICT  (in  Law).  That  circuit  or 
territory,  within  which  a  man  may  be 
forced  to  make  his  apitearance. 

UITCII.  A  trench  cut  in  the  ground 
about  a  field. 

KITCUER.  A  labourer  who  makes 
ditches. 

DIIHVRAMBIC.  A  sort  of  hymn  an- 
ciently sung  in  honour  of  Bacchus-,  any 
poem  written  with  wildness. 

DITTO,  abbreviated  I>o.  The  same  as 
the  aforesaid;  a  term  used  in  accounts. 

DIVA.N.  A  council  of  state«among  tlie 
rurks;  also  a  court  of  justice. 

DIVER.  A  waterfowl  that  frequents 
lakes,  and  goes  with  difliciiltv  on  land. 

DIVERGENT,  or    DIVERGING      An 


DIV 


127 


epithet  (nr  several  things  which  have  the 
property  of  divergency. 

DIVERGl.NG  RAVS  (in  Optics).  Those 
which,  issuing  from  a  radiant  point,  cob- 
tinually  recede  from  each  other. 

DIVERGLVG  SERIES  (in  Mathema- 
tics). A  series,  the  terms  of  which  always 
become  larger,  the  farther  they  are  con- 
tinued. 

DIVIDEND  (in  Arithmetic).  The  num- 
ber to  be  divided. 

DIVIDEND  (in  Commerce).  The  share 
of  profit  in  a  joint  stock,  which  is  to  be 
divided  among  the  shareholders;  also  that 
part  of  a  debtor's  effects,  which  is  to  be 
divided  among  the  creditors. 

DIVINATION.  A  practice  among  the 
heathens  of  foretelling  future  events,  by 
the  flight  of  birds  or  other  signs. 

DIVINE.  A  minister  of  the  gospel;  a 
clergyman. 

DIVI.N'ER.  One  who  professes  the  art 
of  divination;  a  conjuror. 

DIVING.  The  art  of  descending  under 
water  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  remain- 
ing there  for  a  length  of  time,  as  occasion 
may  require.  The  practice  of  diving  is 
resorted  to,  for  the  recovery  of  things  Uiaf 
are  sunk,  &c. 

DIVING-BELL.  A  contrivance,  bj 
which  persons  may  descend  below  the 
water,  and  remain  for  some  time  without 
inconvenience.  It  is  used  for  the  recovery 
of  property,  chat  is  sunk  in  wiecka. 


DIVISION.  One  of  the  four  flret  nites 
or  operations  in  arithmetic,  by  which  we 
find  how  often  one  quantity  is  contained 
in  another.  There  are  three  numbers  con- 
tained in  this  o|ieration,  namely,  the  divi- 
dend, or  number  to  be  divided;  the  divisor, 
or  that  by  which  one  divides;  and  the 
quotient,  or  that  number  w  hich  shows,  bow 
ofteu  the  secuiid  ia  euatauied  in  the  fint 


.28 


DOG 


DIVISION  (in  Military  Affairs)  A 
ecxly  of  men  conimauded  by  a  particular 
«lticer. 

DIVISION  (in  Music).  That  part  into 
which  an  octave  is  divi<leit,  as  quavers,  &c. 

DIVISION  (in  Printing).  .A  mark  to 
dividecoinpouiiil  word*,  as(-)  in  May-pole. 

Di\OKCE  (in  Law).  A  lawful  se|»ara- 
tioii  of  man  and  wile,  pronounced  by  a 
competent  Judge,  on  cognizance  had  of  the 
cause. 

DILTRETICS.  Medicines  which  promote 
the  urinary  discharee 

D.  M.  Doctor  .Medicini,  Doctor  of  Me- 
'^icine. 

DOCK  (in  Shipbuildingl.  A  trench  near 
R  harbour,  fitted  for  the  building  and  re- 
pairing of  sliips 

DOCK  (in  Botany).  A  plant  whieli  grows 
wild,  and  infects  corn  fields;  some  species 
of  it  iiave  medicinal  virliies. 

IXX;K  (in  Farriery).  The  stump  of  a 
horse's  tail. 

DOCKET  (in  Commerce).  A  bill  with 
a  direction  tied  to  goods. 

DOCKET  (in  Law).  A  small  piece  of 
paper  or  parchment,  containing  the  headjs 
of  a  large  writing;  also  a  subscription  at 
the  foot  of  letters  patent.  '  To  strike  a 
docket,'  is  the  same,  as  to  make  a  man  a 
bankrupt  by  process  of  law. 

DOCKING.  Cutting  off  a  horse's  tail  to 
the  stump. 

DOCTOR.  Literally,  a  teacher;  the 
hishest  degree  in  any  faculty  in  a  univer- 
sity, as  1).  D.  Doctor  of  Divinity,  M.  D. 
Doctor  of  Medicine,  I).  Mus.  Doctor  of 
Music,  LL.  D.  Doctor  of  Laws. 

DOCTOR'S  CO.M.MONS.  In  England, a 
college  of  civilians 

DODECAHEDRON  (in  Geometry).  A 
■olid  bounded  by  twelve  equal  and  t-qui- 
lateral  pentagons. 

DODECANDRIA.  One  of  the  Linn.-ean 
claries,  comprehending  those  plants  which 
have  flowers  with  twelve  stamens  and  up- 
irnrds,  as  far  as  nineteen  inclusive,  as 
4]r«r'*  yreed,  purslane,  houseleek,  Slc, 


DODO:  the  Monk  Swan.    A  fspecies  of 
large  birds  now  extinct.    At  th?  discov- 
ery of  thi' iHland   of  Mauritius,  in  1598, 
the  Do<li)  was  very  abundant  there. 
DOO.  A  domestic,  faithful  and  valuable. 


DOM 

animal,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  v». 
rieties  are  the  mastiff,  bulldog,  hound, 
greyhound,  spaniel,  terrier,  pointer,  &.c 
The  .Monks  of  St.  Bernard  on  the  Alfw, 
have  a  peculiarly  sagacious  breed  of  tha 
spaniel,  one  of  which  saved  the  life  of  a 
boy,  whose  mother  was  frozen  to  deatli  iii 
the  snow 


'iM~rt 


DOG-DAYS.  Certain  days  in  the  month 
of  July  and  August,  which  are  usually  vi-ry 
hot,  owing,  as  is  supposed,  to  the  inrliieiue 
of  the  Dogstar,  which  then  rises  and  arts 
with  the  sun. 

DOGE.  The  chief  magistrate  in  the  re- 
publics of  Venice  and  Genoa. 

DOGFISH.  A  fish  <,f  the  shark  kind. 

DOGGREL.  An  irregular  kind  of  vir!«i- 
fi  cat  ion. 

DOG.MATTC  SECT.  An  ancient  serr  ..f 
physicians,(if which  IlippocKitesandiJalen 
were  at  the  head.  They  supposed  princi- 
ples, and  from  tliem  drew  inferences  appli- 
cable to  particular  ca^es;  they  were  opiNi,<ed 
til  the  einpirici,  or  theorists,  answering  tc 
the  quarks  of  modern  days. 

DOGSTAR,  or  Sibius.  A  star  of  the 
greatest  magnitude  in  the  constellation 
can  is. 

DOLLAIi.  A  silver  coin  of  the  United 
Stato.'j,  and  aUo  of  several  other  cjuu- 
tricf,  havius  an  average  value  of  100 
cents.  The  U.  y.  silver  dollar  coutaina 
371,'4  grains  of  puro  .silver 

DOLrHLV.  An  annual  which,  though 
commonly  reckoned  among  the  fishrs,  i:i 
cla-ssed  by  Linnasus  under  the  mammalia. 
It  has  an  oblong  body,  and  awiaiK  Willi 
great  rapidity. 


DOME.   A  vaulted  roof  rr  tower  of  a 
church. 

DOME.SDAY  BOOK      An   ancient  r» 


DOR 

tM.l.madcinlhereisii  i)f  WillianiUieCon- 
qiii-riir;  ura  binik  nt'the  survey  <if  England, 
ciiiiiuiiiiiiK  :iii  accuuiit  oCuIl  tht;  demetinea 
of  llie  crown. 

1M».\IIM(AL  LEITF.R.  One  of  the 
first  seven  letters  in  the  alphabet,  with 
whirh  the  Sundays  throughout  the  whole 
year  are  marked  in  the  Aliiiaiiac.  After 
tlic  isrm  of  twenty-eight  years,  the  game 
letters  return  in  the  suiiie  order  again. 

D<i.MI.\0.  A  game  played  by  two  oi 
four  persons,  with  twenty -eight  pieces  of 
ivory,  called  c-irds. 

iKj.Mi.VO  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs).  A 
sortuf  litHid  worn  by  canons  of  a  cathedral. 

UU.\.  A  title  of  honour  in  Spain,  answer- 
ing to  Dooi,  or  Doiiiinus,  Lord. 

DONATIVE  (in  Law).  A  beneficegiven 
to  a  clerk  by  the  patron,  without  presenta- 
tion 1(1  the  bishop. 

I)(».\'J().\  (ill  Fortification).  A  t.iweror 
redoubt,  where  the  fortress  may  retreat  in 
case  of  necessity. 

[XiRlC  ORDER  (in  Architecture).  The 
.most  ancient  of  the  Grecian  orders,  made, 
as  is  said,  in  imitation  of  the  hovels  erected 
hy  tJte  original  iniiabitants  of  Greece 


DOW 


129 


DORMER,  or  OORMEKT  (tn  Ardii- 
Cectura).  A  window  made  in  the  roof  of  a 
•uildinz. 

DOKSAI^.  Anepitl>et  ft  rwh.it  lielonp 
or  rrlntes  to  the  back,  as  ft  <  dorsul  hits  of 
the  t)  sites 


DOR.MOUSE.     An  animal  of  the  mouse 
kind,  wlucb  remaiaa  torpid  diiruig  winter 


DOSE.  The  quantity  of  any  medicir* 
prescribed  by  the  pliysician  to  be  taken  bj, 
the  patient  at  one  time 

DOUAV  BIBLE.  An  English  transla- 
tion  of  the  Scriptures  sauciioned  by  the 
EomanCatholio  Church,  and  bo  oallod 
from  Douay,  a  town  iu  France. 

DOUBLOON.  A  Spanish  and  South 
Aiuerican  gold  coin,  which  weighsliV-'iO 
grains  troy,  of  which  3Gj-i9  aro  pure; 
value,  $16.00.  There  are  also  halt  ajid 
quarter  doubloons,  of  proportionate 
value. 

DOCCHE.  The  name  given  to  a  jet  or 
fiiidieu  rush  of  water  directed  on  name 
diseased  part  of  the  body,  with  a  view 
to  Ktreiigthea  it. 

DOUCINE.  In  architecture,  an  orua- 
ineutal  niouldiii<;,  concave  above  and 
convex  below,  being  the  French  term 
for  the  <rvtn."v. 

IHJt'CtUR  A  gift  made  to  gais  the 
favour  or  interest  of  a  person. 

DOVE.  A  wild  pigeon,  of  which  there 
are  three  sorts,  namely,  the  ring  dove,  th«! 
lar^st  of  tile  pigeon  tribe,  so  wild  that  it 
cannot  be  domesticated  ;  tile  stock  dove, 
that  is  migratory  ;  and  the  turtle  dove,  a 
shy  and  retired  bird  living  in  the  wochIs. 
These  descriptions  apply  to  tlie  Euroiiean 
varieties.  In  .America  we  have  several 
kinds  of  pigeon,  of  which  the  passenger 
pigeon  is  the  most  remarkable.  In  the 
n^estern  states  ihe.se  birds  assemble  in  such 
countless  numbers,  as  to  darken  the  air  by 
their  flocks,  and  desolate  (he  whole  coun- 
tr>'  for  miles  around  their  breeding  places. 
The  turtle  dove  of  America  differs  in  son*e 
measure,  fruni  the  turtle  dove  of  Europe. 

DOVE-TAILIN'G.  A  method  ofjnining 
one  iHuird  iiiio  another,  by  pins  in  ttie  uu« 
fitted  to  boles  in  the  otlier. 

DO\VA<iER  (in  Law).  Properly,  a 
widow  who  enjoys  a  dower,  commonly 
applied  as  a  title  to  the  widows  of  prince* 
and  nobility. 

DOWER  (in  1.K1W).  The  portion  which 
a  widow  has  of  liar  husband's  lands  at  hi» 
decease 

D<)V\'LAS.       A  sort  of  linen  cloth. 

DOWN.  The  finest  and  softest  partof 
the  feathers  of  a  goose  or  other  water  (hwl. 

DOWNS.  .\  bank  of  sand  formed  hy 
the  sea  along  its  shores  ;  also  a  larce  open 
pluiu. 


130 


DRA 


DR.  An  abbreviation  for  debtor  and 
doctor. 

DRACHM.  The  eighth  part  of  an 
ounce. 

DRACO.  A  constellation  in  the  north- 
«>rn  neniis|ihere. 

DRACO  VOLANS.  A  meteor  in  the 
form  ofa  Hying  dragon,  sometimes  visible 
in  marshy  countries. 

DRAFT  (in  Commerce).  A  bill  drawn 
by  one  person  upon  another  for  a  sum  of 
ninucy. 

DRAG.  A  sort  of  hook  to  catch  hold  of 
things  under  water. 

DRAGOMAN.  .An  interpreter  in  the 
Ea.stern  countries,  whose  office  it  is  to  in- 
terpret for  the  European  ambassadors  at 
the  Otloinan  court. 

DRAGON.    See  Pi,yifioDRAG0!». 

DRAGON  FLY.  A  particularly  raven- 
ous Insect,  which  hovers  over  stagnant 
waters. 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD.  A  gum  or  resin 
of  a  tree  in  the  Canaries  and  New  Spain, 
formerly  called  Draco  Arbor,  now  Astra- 
galus ;  it  is  hard,  compact,  moderately 
I'leavy,  and  of  a  dusky  red  colour,  but  ofa 
br^i<!lil  scarlet  when  powdered. 

DRAGON'S  HEAD.  One  of  the  nodes 
of  the  planets,  particularly  the  moon,  as 
distinguished  from  the  dragon's  tail.  The 
former,  marked  thus  (^X),  is  the  northward 
point,  as  sha  ascends  from  the  south  to  the 
iiiirUi ;  the  latter  is  the  southward  point, 
marked  (5S)- 

DRAGOON.  A  soldier  who  fights  some- 
times on  foot  and  sometimes  on  horseback. 

DRAGS.  Floating  pieces  of  timber, 
joiiird  so  that  they  may  earr>-  a  load  down 
!'.  river. 

DRAIN.  A  watercourse  sunk  in  the 
ground  for  the  purpose  of  carrjing  off  the 
WHier. 

DRAINING,  or  LAND  DRAINhXG. 
The  process  of  carrying  water  off  fmin  the 
l.iiid,  sometimes  by  means  of  open  drains, 
l<ul  more  coinmonlir  by  drains  made  to  a 
lerlain  depth  under  the  ground,  which  are 
tilled  with  bushes  so  as  to  admit  the  water. 

DRAM.  See  Drachm. 
DRA. MA.  A  play,  or  any  piece  fitted 
for  theatrical  representation.  Dramas  are 
either  tragedies,  comedies,  operas,  or  farces. 
DRAMATIS  PERSONiE.  The  per- 
formers and  characters  in  any  particular 
ptpce  , 

DRAPER.  A  sellerof  cloth ;  as  a  woollen 

iraper  and  a  linen  draper.    The  Drapers 

M  London,  are  one  of  the  city  companies, 

'ncorporated  in  the  reign  of  He  iry  VI. 

DRAUGHT,  or  DRAFT  (ii    Arcliitee- 


DRE 

ture).  The  figure  of  an  intended  building 
described  on  pu|)er. 

DRAUGHT  (in  .Navigation^.  Thequan- 
tity  of  water  which  asliip  draws  wlien  blia 
is  afloat. 

DRAUGHT  (in  Militao'  Affairs).  A 
detachment  of  soldiers  drawn  off  from  tit* 
main  army. 

DRAUGHT  (in  Husbandry).  What  per- 
tains to  drawing,  as  draught  horses. 

DRAUGHTS.  A  game  played  with 
pieces  on  a  checkered  board,  like  a  chess 
board,  where  by  particular  nuivemeiits 
they  are  enabled  to  take  each  other,  accord- 
ing to  certain  rules. 

DRAUGHTS.MAN.  One  who  follows 
the  profession  of  taking  plans  and  sketch- 
es, of  buildingsand  places. 

DRAWBACK  (in  Commerce).  An  al 
lowance  made  to  merchants  on  the  e.Ypor- 
tation  of  goods  which  i>aid  duty  inwards. 

DRA W13RIDGE.  A  bridge  made  ao  aa 
to  let  up  and  down  at  pleasure. 


DRAWER    Aboxinaca8e,ftomwhiek 

it  may  be  drawn. 

DRAWfclR  OF  A  BILL.  One  who 
writes  and  signs  a  bill  for  a  sum  of  money 
to  be  paid  to  aimther. 

DRAWING.  The  art  of  representing 
objects  on  paper,  eanvas.-*,  ice.  by  mean.i 
ofa  pencil  or  a  pen  ;  al.so  the  representa- 
tions so  made,  as  drawings  in  India  ink, 
{lencil  drawings,  &c. 

DR.\WlNGROO.M.  The  room  in  which 
compfiny  assemble  at  court ;  or  to  which, 
in  common  c;ise.<,  parties  withdraw  after 
dinner ;  also  the  company  assembled  -it 
co>irt,  in  Europe,  to  pay  their  respects  to  thi 
sovereign. 

DRAW-WELL.  A  deep  well,  in  which 
water  is  drawn  up  by  means  of  a  wlieel,  a 
rope,  and  a  bucket. 

DRAY.     A  brewer's  cart. 

DRAYMAN.     The  driver  of  a  dray. 

DREAM.  The  acting  of  llie  imaginalioa 
in  sleep,  which  represents  object:!  withoul 
the  help  of  the  senses. 

DREDGE.  A  kind  of  net  for  catching 
oysters 

DREDGING.     The  process  o)  matching 


DRC 

iyttt!t%  by  the  removing  or  dragging  the 
viuri  with  dred|!e.s,  &.C. 

PItESS.     (^othinL'  for  tlie  t...4>. 

f)KESS(in  Husbandry).  Any  sfiifT,  siirh 
t.<i  loam,  sand,  kc.  which  i«  put  on  IhihI  to 
im|n-(ivt'  the  soil. 

OUKSSER.  One  employed  in  pntiing 
on  the  clothes  of  another,  particularly  for 
the  purposes  ofomanif  nt. 

DRESSER  (in  Military-  Arfairs).  One 
who  dresses  a  line  of  sitMlcrs,  or  makes 
them  stand  with  an  even  front. 

DUESSER  (ill  Housewifery).  A  bench 
on  which  meat  is  dressed  or  prepared  for 
the  cooft. 

DRESSING  (in  Husbandry).  The  clean- 
ing of  hemp,  f1a.t,  &.C.  so  as  to  prepare  it 
for  spinning. 

DRESSING  (among  Letterfounders). 
The  scraping,  bearding,  Slc.  of  letters,  be- 
fore they  are  used  by  the  printer. 

DRESSING  (in  the  .Manege).  Theclean- 
ing  and  trimming  a  hur.-e. 

DRIFT.  A  sea  term  for  any  thing  that 
floats  iipcm  the  water;  alsi>  the  course 
which  a  sliip  makes  when  she  is  driven  by 
a  storm. 

DRIhI.IN(;  (in  Military  Affairs).  The 
teachinu  young  ri-crui!«  the  first  principles 
uf  military  movements. 

DRILLI.\(;(in  lluslmndry).  A  modern 
mode  of  piittiii!!  seed  into  the  ground  by  a 
machine  called  a  drilling  machine,  which 
makes  channels  in  the  ground,  and  lets  the 
seed  into  them,  so  that  it  conies  up  in  rows 
at  regular  distances  from  each  other. 

DRINK.  A  liquid  medicine  given  tea 
horse. 

DRIP.    The  projecting  part  of  a  cornice. 

DRO.MEDARY.  The  Arabian  camel 
having  one  bunch,  which  is  said  to  oe  ver}' 
swift,  and  able  to  travel  more  than  She 
hundred  miles  in  a  day,  though  its  com- 
mon rate  does  aot  exceed  40  miles.  Ssx 
Cambl 


DUG 


in 


DROP.  An  ornament  in  pillar*  of  the 
Doric  order 

DRorsY.  A  collection  of  watery  hu- 
mour either  throughout  the  whole  body,  oi 


in  Mnne  part  of  it,  aa  the  e&vity  of  tb* 
abdomen. 

DRONE.  A  large  kind  of  bee  or  wasp, 
which  is  without  a  sting.  It  is  the  utato 
of  this  tribe  of  insects. 


DROVERS.  Men  employed  to  driv* 
cattle  to,  or  from  market. 

DRUGGET.  A  kind  of  woollen  stuff. 

DRUGGIST.  A  dealer  in  drugs. 

DRUGS.  All  kinds  of  simples,  whichare 
for  the  most  part  dry,  and  tit  for  medicinal 
uses. 

DRUIDS.  A  sort  of  priests  among  the 
ancient  Gauls  and  Britons. 

DRUM.  A  musical  instrument  much 
used  in  the  army,  consisting  of  vellum, 
strained  over  a  wooden  cylinder  on  each 
end,  and  beaten  with  sticks. 


DRUM  (in  Anatomy).  A  membrane  of 
the  cavity  of  the  ear 

DRUMMER  (in  Military  Afl^airs).  A 
soldier  who  beats  the  drum. 

DRU-M  MAJOR.  He  who  has  the  com 
maud  over  the  other  drummers 

DRUPE  (in  Botany).  A  pulpy  fruit 
containing  a  nut  or  stone,  with  a  kernel 
like  the  plum. 

DRYADS.  Nymphs  inhabiting  woods. 

dualism:.  The  doctrine  of  Manic  h- 
teism,  or  the  belief  in  two  eternal  prin- 
ciples, the  one  good  and  the  other  ev.i, 
to  which  all  the  pheiiomaaa  of  nature 
are  attributed. 


132 


DUM 


DITCAL  CORONET.  A  circle  of  gold 
with  eight  strawherry  or  parsley  leaves  of 
equal  height,  about  the  rim. 


DTJCATOON  A  silver  coin  in  Holland, 
worth  about  $1.2.'). 

DUCK.  A  water  fowl,  both  wild  and 
tame. 


DUCK,  or  RUSSIA  DUCK  (in  Com- 
merce). The  best  sort  of  canvass. 

DUCKWEED.  A  plant  growing  in 
ditches  and  stagnant  waters;  it  is  an  an- 
nual much  liked  by  ducks. 

DUCT.  A  channel  or  passage  for  any 
fluid  in  the  body. 

DUCTILITY.  A  property  possessed 
by  certain  bodies,  particularly  metals,  of 
yielding  to  any  pressure,  by  which  their 
parts  may  be  expanded  by  hammering. 

DUEL  (in  Law).  Originally  a  combat 
between  two  persons  for  the  trial  of  the 
truth  ;  but  now  an  unlawful  battle  between 
two  persons  on  some  private  quarrel,  in 
the  which,  in  England,  if  death  ensue,  both 
the  principal,  and  the  seconds  are  guilty 
of  murder.  In  most  of  the  United  States, 
the  laws  are  similar. 

DUES  (in  Law).  Moneys  due  to  the 
clergy,  as  Easter  offerings,  &c. 

DUET.  A  little  soiig  in  two  parts. 

DUKE.  A  sovereign  prince  in  Germany; 
the  highest  title  of  honour  in  England 
next  to  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

DUMOSjE.  One  of  Llnna;us's  natural 
orders  of  planLj,  (  on  'iisting  of  shrubs  and 
MMlies.  as  laurels,  firs.  &c 


DYS 

DUNGEON.  The  darkest,  ar.d  closer 
part  of  a  prison. 

DUODECIMALS,  or  Cross  Multifu 
CATION.  A  nile  used  by  workmen  and 
artificers,  in  computing  the  couteuiK  of  their 
work.  Dimensions  are  usually  taken  in 
feet,  inche.s,  and  parts. 

DUODENARY  ARITHMETIC.  That 
in  which  the  local  value  of  the  figures  in- 
creiises  in  a  twelvefold  proportion. 

DUPLICATE.  jVny  manuscript  copied 
after  anotlier. 

DUPLICATE  RATIO  (in  Geometry) 
The  product  of  a  ratio  multiplied  into 
itself. 

DURA  MATER.  One  of  the  membranea 
which  encloses  the  brain. 

DURANTE  (in  Law).  During,  as  Du- 
rante \tene  placito,  during  pleasure ;  Du- 
rante minore  aitate,  during  minority. 

DURESS.  An  unlawful  imprisonment. 

DUTCHY.  In  England,  a  seignory  or 
lordship,  formerly  established  by  the  king, 
with  several  privileges,  honours,  &.C. 

DUTY.  What  is  paid  or  due,  by  way  of 
custom  on  merchandise  in  general. 

DWARF.  A  man  much  below  the  ordi- 
nary size. 

DWARF  (in  Botany).  A  term  for  plants 
that  grow  low,  as  distinguished  from  those 
of  the  same  kind  which  rise  to  a  consider- 
able height. 

DYKE.  A  bank,  mole,  or  causeway 
raised  to  stop  the  floods. 

DYNAMICS.  The  science  of  moving 
powers,  particularly  of  the  motion  of  bodies 
nnitually  acting  on  one  another.  It  is  a 
branch  of  the  science  of  mechanics,  and  ia 
distinguished  from  statics  in  this,  that  the 
former  considers  bodies  only  as  regards 
their  motion,  but  the  latter  considers  those 
bodies  when  in  a  state  of  rest,  as  to  their 
equilibrium.  When  fluids,  instead  of 
solids,  are  the  subjects  of  investigation, 
that  which  treats  of  their  equilibrium, 
weight,  pressure,  iftc.  is  called  hydrostatics, 
and  that  which  treats  of  their  motion, 
hydrodynamics. 

DYNASTY  A  series  of  princes  who 
have  reigned  successively  in  any  king- 
dom, particularly  applied  to  the  Egyptian 
kings. 

DYSENTERY.  A  difficulty,  or  disturb- 
ance in  the  i  itestiiies,  which  impedes  titeu 
func'.  \»u» 


EAR 


£AS 


ISS 


E,  the  fifth  tetter  of  the  alphabet,  stmxl  as 
a  numeral  fur  350;  stands  a^i  an  iililirevi- 
Rtioii  for  est,  as  i.  e.  id  est ;  also  fur  eu«t ; 
a-i  a  si|:n  of  particular  notes  in  music. 

EACiLE.  A  bird  of  prey,  said  to  be  the 
Bwitlest,  stronwest,  and  boldest  of  all  birds. 
It  lias  a  long  hooked  beak,  yellow  scaly 
legs,  thick  crooked  talons,  a  short  (ail,  and 
a  very  keen  sight.  The  common  eagle  is 
bere  represented. 


The  ea^Ie-,  as  a  bearing  in  coat  armour, 
(s  reckoned  as  honorable  ataung  the  birds, 
as  the  lion  is  among  the  twasts.  The  bald 
eagle  is  the  national  emblem  of  the  United 
States. 

EAR.  The  orgiin  of  hearing  in  an  animal 
body,  which  consists  of  the  external  ear, 
or  all  thai  lies  without  the  external  oriice 
of  the  meatiis  aiidilorius,  and  the  internal 
ear,  or  that  which  lies  within  the  cavity  of 
the  OS  tem|ioris. 

KARL.  In  England,  a  title  of  nobility, 
lietweeii  a  inar<|uis  and  a  viscount,  now 
the  thiril  degree  of  rank. 

KAlll/S  CORO.NET.  Has  no  flowers 
raised  above  the  circle,  like  that  of  a  duke 


and  a  marquis,  biit  Mnly  points  rising,  and 
•  pearl  on  each  of  litem. 
12 


EARL  MARSHALL  (in  Enjr.^  VVb« 
has  the  care  and  direction  <if  funeral  soi 
enmities.  Tliisodice  belongs  by  hereditary 
right  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

EARNEST  (in  Commerce).  Money  ad- 
vanced to  bind  the  parties  to  tlie  perform- 
ance  of  a  verbal  bargain. 

E.\R-RL\G.  All  ornament  iiung  on  the 
ears,  particularly  of  women. 

EARTH  (in  Mineralogy).  A  substance 
formerly  considered  as  one  <  f  tiie  four 
elements  of  which  the  material  world  ia 
composed.  The  term  is  now  applied  to 
such  substances  as  have  neither  taste  nor 
smell,  that  are  incoinhustible,  and  nearly 
insoluble  in  water,  the  siiecitic  gravity  be- 
ing under  five,  as  lime,  barytes,  silica. 
clay,  &c. 

EARTH  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  tlie 
primary  planets,  marked  by  the  character 
©.  According  I  •  'he  Ptolemaic  system 
it  was  supposed  to  Im  immoveuble  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  but  according  to  that 
of  Copernicus,  it  moves  from  west  to  east, 
so  as  to  occasion  the  succession  of  day  and 
night,  and  also  annually  round  the  sun,  so 
as  to  cause  the  ditlerent  seasons. 

EARTH  NUTS.  A  kind  of  plant,  th« 
po^a  or  nuts  of  which  ripen  under  ground 
The  nuts  yield  a  quantity  of  oil. 

EARTHaUAKE.  A  violent  shock  or 
concussion  of  the  earth,  or  some  parts  of 
it,  caused  by  an  accumulation  of  electrical 
matter  within  the  bowels  of  the  earth, 
which  fores  a  passage,  and  cause  much 
destnictiof  of  houses,  cities,  trees,  and 
whole  trar»!i  of  country.  In  hot  countries, 
eartli(|uakes  are  most  frequent. 

EARTHWORM.  A  worm  bred  under 
ground,  being  the  common  species  of  the 
worm. 

EARVVIO.  An  insect  with  sheath  wings, 
which  was  formerly  imanined  to  creep  into 
the  ear,  but  this  idea  does  not  appear  to 
be  borne  out  by  the  fact,  no  case  of  the 
kind  having  yet  been  witnessed  or  re- 
corded. 

EASEL.  A  frame  on  which  a  painuw 
sets  the  cloth,  &.c.  to  Ih*  painted. 

EAST.  One  of  the  four  cardinal  points, 
where  the  sun  rises. 

E.ASTER.  A  solemn  Festival  observed 
among  Christians,  In  commemoration  of 
the  resurrection  of  our  blessed  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  (.'lirist.  This  feast  was  fixed 
by  the  council  of  Nice,  in  the  vear  325,  t« 


134 


ECU 


be  held  on  the  Sunday  which  falU  upon, 
or  inimeilialely  after  the  full  iiuHm,  which 
happens  next  after  the  twenty-tirst  of 
March. 

EASTKR  (IFFERINGS.  In  England, 
money  paid  at  Easter  to  the  parson  of  the 
parish 

EASTERIJ.NG.  \  money  coined  by 
Eichard   H  ,  which  is  supposed  to  have 

v«n  rise  to  the  mime  of  sterling,  as  applied 
jO  EnglUh  money. 

EAU  UE  LUCE.  A  fragrant  liquor, 
made  chiefly  of  mastic  dissolved  lu  alcohol. 

EAVES.  The  edges  of  the  roof  of  a  house, 
which  overhang  the  wall,  for  tlie  purpose 
of  throwing  off  the  water. 

EAVESDROI'PER.  One  who  stands 
undertheeavesofhousea.forthe  purpose  of 
listening  to  what  passes  within.  Any  one 
who  listens  silly  to  what  is  said  hy  others. 

EBB.  The  retirement  or  going  away  of 
the  tide. 

EBONY.  A  sort  of  black  wood,  which 
admits  of  a  fine  polish.  It  is  the  wood  of 
the  ebeu  tree,  which  grows  in  India,  Ethi- 
opia, and  the  Levant. 

EBULLITION'.  The  effervescence 
which  arises  from  the  mixture  of  an  acid 
and  alkaline  liquor. 

ECCE  HO.MU.  A  painting  which  repre- 
sents our  !?aviour  in  a  purple  robe,  and 
with  a  crown  of  thorn*  on  his  head. 

ECCE.NTIUC  CIRCLES  Circles  not 
havine  the  same  centre. 

ECCE.NTRIC  CIRCLE,  or  ECCEN- 
TRIC (in  Modern  Astromuny).  The  circle 
that  circumscribes  the  elliptical  orbit  of 
the  planet. 

ECCENTRICITY  (in  Modern  Astrono- 
my). Is  the  distance  between  the  sun  and 
the  centre  of  the  eccentric. 

ECCLESIASTIC.  A  clerg>'map  /  one 
dedicated  to  the  ministerial  office. 

ECHO.  A  sound  reflected,  or  reverbe- 
rated from  some  body,  and  thence  returned 
or  repeated  to  the  ear.  Eclioing  bodies 
may  t)e  so  contrived,  as  to  repeat  the  echo 
<everal  times.  At  Milan  there  is  said  to 
be  an  echo,  which  reiterates  the  report  of 
8  pistol  lifly-six  times,  and  if  the  repurl  be 
exceedingly  loud,  the  reiter:ttiiiii  will  ex- 
ceed that  number.  The  celeUrateil  echo 
at  Woodstock,  In  Oxfonlslnre,  Kngluiid, 
repeats  the  same  sound  tit^y  times.  Hut 
the  mo.st  singular  echo  liitlicrlo  spoken  of, 
is  that  near  Rosneath,  a  few  miles  from 
Glasgow,Scotlnnd.  If  a  person  placed  a: 
a  proper  distance  from  lliis.echu,  plays 
eight  or  ten  notes  of  a  tune  with  a  trumpet, 
they  are  correctly  refieated  by  the  echo, 
Out  a  tliiril  lower ;  after  a  slmrt  pause, 
utotber  reiwtition   is   heard,  in   a  lower 


EDI 

tone;  and  then,  after  another  interval, 
third  repetition  lollows  in  aslill  lower  tone 

ECHO  (III  Arcliltecture).  Any  vault 
arch,  coiistrucleil  so  as  to  produce  an  art; 
ticial  echo.  These  are  generally  of  a  |iara. 
bolic  or  elliptic  form  :  of  tins  kind  is  the 
whispering  gallery  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
Limdoii,  and  some  other  large  buildings. 
The  vault  of  the  Panthen,  Paris,  is  con- 
strutted  on  similar  princiines. 

ECHO  (ill  Poetry).  .^  sort  of  verse  wliicn 
returns  the  sound  of  the  last  syllable. 

ECHOMETEK.  A  kind  of  scale  or  rule 
to  measure  the  duration  of  pounds. 

ECLECTICS.  Ancient  philosophers, who 
adhered  to  no  sect,  but  selected  what  was 
best  and  most  rational. 

ECLIPSE.  An  obscuration  of  the  sun, 
moon,  or  any  heavenly  body.  An  eclipse 
may  be  either  partial,  when  only  jxirt  of 
the  body  is  darkened,  or  it  may  be  a  total 
eclipse,  when  the  whole  is  darkened.  A 
lunar  eclip.se  is  the  depriving  the  miMm  of 
the  sun's  light,  by  the  interposition  of  the 
earth  between  the  sun  and  the  iikkui.  A 
solar  eclipse  is  the  privation  of  light  which 
the  sun  suffers  in  regard  to  us,  by  the  in- 
terposition of  the  moon  between  the  ann 
and  tlie  earth. 

ECLIPTIC.  A  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 
in  which  the  sun  performs  his  apparent 
annual  motion.  It  is  supposed  to  be  ilrawn 
through  the  middle  of  the  zodlac,aiid  makes 
an  angle  with  the  equinoctial  of  nearly 
ai"  30',  which  is  called  the  oblnpilty  oT 
the  ecliptic. 

ECLOGUE.  A  pastoral  poem,  wherein 
shepherds  are  iiitroiliiced  discoursing!  toge- 
ther. It  is  so  called  aller  the  Eclogues 
of  Virgil. 

ECONO.MY.  In  the  general  sense,  the 
regulation  of  thinas,  or  the  due  distribution 
of  means  to  an  end.  Political  ecoiioiiiy 
is  a  science  which  treats  of  the  wealth  and 
resources  of  a  nation,  and  the  inanner  iij 
which  they  may  be  best  emplojeil  to  in 
crea.-<e  the  pri(sperity  <if  the  people.  Adiini 
Smith  lias  Healed  at  large  on  this  subject 
in  Ills  Wealth  of  .Nations. 

K  CO.\"l'K.\.    On  the  contrary. 

ECTIILIPSIS.  The  cutting  off  a  vowel 
or  consonant. 

KDCi;.  The  sharp  cutting  part  of  an 
ilislniment. 

EDGE  TOOL.  A  tool  mads  sharp  for 
cutting. 

EDIBLE  ROOTS.  Roots  that  are  fit 
for  food,  as  the  potato*,  carrot,  &.c. 

EDICT.  A  public  ordinance  or  decree 
i.ssued  by  a  prince. 

KDITIO.N.  The  whole  number  of  bocirt 
of  \  kind  struck  off  at  one  time 


EGG 

EOrLCORATION  (is  Chyinlslry).Tlie 
wasliingor  tiling  that  liuve  l.eeii  Ciilciiieil, 
in  oriler  to  |>iirify  lliein  from  llirir  suits. 

EOULCUUATION  (in  I'lmniiacy).  The 
•wt-ri^iiiiig  any  meiliciiial  |)rf|ianilinn. 

EKL.  A  voracious  slimy  tish,  very  similar 
to  a  li/.ar<l,  lliat  lurks  ami  feeds  in  nind. 

EEI.  I'OI'T.  A  younu  rel. 

EKL  i^I'EAR.  A  forked  uislrunient  with 
wliicli  eelii  are  cauglit 


ELE 


ISA 


EFFECTIVE  (In  Military  Affairs).  A 
cerm  for  any  body  of  men  tiial  are  lit  for 
acivice. 

EFFECTS.  The  moveables  or  goods  of 
any  nifrrhaut,  trailesman,  tec. 

EFFERVESCE.N'CE  (in  t^Semistr)). 
A  violent  coniniolion  in  tlie  pans  of  any 
liqnor,  accompanied  willi  some  degree  of 
neat. 

EFFICIENT  CAUSE.  Any  canse  th.it 
ACtnally  proiliices  an  etTert. 

EFFIGY.  Any  repre.-ientation  whatever 
which  sive.s  or  is  intended  to  give,  the 
fii^ire  of  a  person  :  thus,  the  licnre  of  h  man 
dresse<l  lip  aiul  carried  nluint  in  derision 
of  any  one,  is  called  his  erli:r>'  ;  when  this 
is  hiiriit,  the  person  is  said  to  he  Imrnt  in 
fctfigy. 

EFFLORESCENCE  (in  Botany)  The 
flowering  of  plants. 

EFFLOKEriCENCE  (in  Chemistry). 
The  conversion  of  any  body  into  a  dry 
powder. 

EFFLUVIA.  Small  particles,  penvtii- 
ally  Mowing  out  of  ini.xed  bodies  in  the 
form  of  va|Kinrs,  which  are  sometimes 
visible,  as  in  the  ca.«e  of  smoke  or  sleain  ; 
and  sometimes  not  perceptible,  as  insensi- 
ble perspiritioii. 

EFFUSION.  The  poiirins  out  a  liquor, 
so  that  the  sedimeni  may  remain. 

EFFUSKt.V  (in  Surcery).  The  natural 
Bccretion  of  rinids  frim  the  vessels. 

EFT  A  sort  of  li/.  ird,  which  has  a  body 
covered  with  scales. 

E.  G.  An  abbreviation  for  Exempli 
p^tia.  that  is,  for  example,  or  by  way  ol 
exam;)le. 

E(Jf!.  The  ffptns  or  production  of  feather- 
ed fowls;  that  which  they  hiy,  and  'roiii 
which  they  hatch  iheir  young:  also  the 
•pawn  or  sperm  of  other  crennires.  The 
eggs  of  birds  are  conii>n.<ed  of  the  shell,  or 
sxtemal  cu:iling,  a  thin,  while,  and  strcmi; 


membrane,  the  albumen  or  white,  and  the 
yolk. 

EOLANTINE.  The  wild  rc«e 

EtJKE'l".  .A  bird  of  the  heron  lrib«. 

EIDEK-DUCK.  A  kind  of  d.ick  remark 
able  for  the  soHness  of  its  down 

EIDOUR.AMON.  An  exhibition  of  th« 
heavens  and  the  heavenly  bodies. 

FJECTME.N'T.  A  writ  or  action  which 
lies  for  the  les.«ee  for  a  term  of  years,  who 
is  cast  out  l>efore  his  term  is  expired  •  also 
tlie  putting  any  one  out  of  an  estate  by  a 
legal  process. 

ELASTICITY.  That  property  of  bodies, 
of  restoring  themselves  to  I  heir  former  figure 
after  any  external  pre.-siire.  Elasticity  is 
increased  by  auianeiiiiiig  the  density  of 
iMidies;  thus  metals  are  remlered  more 
elastic  by  bein2  t>eaien  by  a  hammer:  it 
is  also  sometimes  increased  by  mid  ;  thus 
the  strings  of  a  violin  recover  their  situa- 
tion with  less  force  in  hot,  than  in  cold 
weather. 

ELECTION  (in  I^w).  The  choice  of 
two  remedies,  either  of  which,  when  cIk>- 
sen,  the  party  is  comiielled  to  abide. 

ELIXri'lO.N.  The  choosing  of  person* 
to  a  particular  office  or  sitnatnm  by  a  ma- 
jority of  voices,  as  in  England  iheelerliun 
fif  parish  officers,  or  the  election  of  mem- 
bers of  parliament,  which  lakes  phice  eve- 
ry seven  years.  The  stale  elections  here, 
are  generally  annual.  The  President, 
and  Vice  President  are  elected  once  in  four 
years. 

ELECTIVE  ATTRACTION.  Another 
name  for  chemical  altiniiies. 

KLF.CTOR  (in  Political  AtTaiin).  The 
title  of  such  German  princes  as  formerly 
had  a  voice  in  the  election  of  the  emperor 
of  Germany. 

ELECTOR  (in  English  Ijiw).  Any  one 
who  has  the  right  of  giving  his  voice  at  an 
election,  particularly  at  an  electnui  of  • 
member  of  parliament.  The  term  is  appli- 
ed in  America  to  voters  genenlly.  In 
most  of  the  slater,  those  citizens  who  pay 
laves  are  electors. 

EL.\TEKITE.  A  mineral  pitch,  a  ma-s- 
sive  variety  of  bitumen;  also  culled  el- 
astic bitumen. 

EL.VTERIUM.  The  Squirting  Cucum- 
ber, of  the  order  Cucurbitaceie.  E.\tni»:t 
of  eliterium  is  gathered  from  this  plant 
before  it  ripens,  tlie  juifo  bein^  fieutly 
expressed,  when  a  green  sediment  ia 
deposited,  which  is  collw^ted  and  dried; 
one-eighth  ol  a  fer<u.u  operates  as  a  draa- 
tic  purge. 

EL.\TKOMETER.  In  physics,  an  in- 
strument lor  measuring  the  dagree  of 
diversity  or  rareluction  of  air  coutainod 
I  iu  the  receiver  ol  au  air-pump. 


136 


ELE 


ELECTRIC,  or  ELECTRICAL.  Con- 
taining electricity,  or  capable  ot  exhibit- 
ing it  wiien  excited  by  Iriction;  derived 
from  or  produced  by  electricity ;  com- 
municating a  shock  like  electricity. 
Electric  aura  is  a  current  ot  electrified 
air,  employed  as  a  mild  stimulant  in 
electrifying  sensitive  parts,  as  the  ear 
or  the  eye.  Electric  circuit,  or  Electric 
current,  is  the  transmission  of  electric- 
ity from  a  body  overcharged  to  one  that 
is  undercharged,  through  the  agency  of 
metallic  wires  or  conductors.  Electric 
columa  is  a  sort  of  electi-ic  pile  invented 
by  De  Luc,  composed  of  thin  plates  of 
dififerent  metals,  with  paper  interposed 
between  them.  Electric  telegraph  is  a 
mode  of  jrausmittiug  messages  and  in- 
telligence by  means  of  electricity  over 
■wires,  either  for  long  or  short  distances. 
Electric  wire  is  thep  )pular  name  for  the 
■wires  of  the  magueiic  telegraph. 

ELECTttlCITi'.  The  subtile  agent  cal- 
led the  electric  fluid,  usually  excited  by 
friction;  the  science  which  unfolds  the 
phenomena  anl  laws  of  the  electric; 
fluid.  It  was  so  called  from  the  Greek 
■word  for  amber,  because  it  was  in  the 
friction  of  this  substance  that  it  was 
first  observed.  The  phenomena  of  el- 
ectricity are  such  as  attraction  and  re- 
pulsion, heat  and  light,  shocks  of  the 
animal  system,  and  mechanical  violence. 

ELECTRO.  A  term  e.Ktensively  used 
as  a  prefix  in  the  composition  of  words 
appertaining  to  electricity;  as  Electro- 
biology,  the  science  of  electrical  foices 
as  shown  in  mesmerism.  Electro-chem- 
istry, that  portion  of  electric  science 
which  treats  of  the  agency  of  electricity 
and  galvanism  in  effecting  chemical 
changes.  Electro-chemical,  that  which 
pertains  to  electro-chemistry.  Electro- 
dyaamics,  the  phenomena  of  electricity 
in  motion.  Electro-gilding,  a  mode  of 
gilding  copper  or  silver  by  the  agency 
of  voltaic  electricity.  Electro-magnetic, 
designating  what  pertains  to  magnet- 
ism, as  connected  with  electricity,  or 
affected  by  it.  Electro-magnetic  Tele- 
graph, an  apparatus  for  conveying  in- 
telligence, by  means  of  electricity 
moving  between  two  places  on  iron 
■wires.  Electro-magnetism,  that  science 
which  treats  of  the  agency  of  electricity 
and  galvanism  in  communicating  mag- 
netic properties.  Electro-metallurgy, 
the  art  of  depositing  metals  held  in  sol- 
ution, as  silver,  gold,  &c.,  on  prepared 
surfaces,  through  the  agency  of  voltaic 
electricity  or  galvanism.  See  EUectro- 
type.  Electro-motion,  the  motion  of  el- 
Ictricity  or  galvanism,  or  the  passing  of 
it  Iroin  one  metal  to  another.  Electro- 
motive, producing  electro-motion.  El- 
ectro-negative, a  term  denoting  the 
natural  state  ot  a  body,  or  a  particle  of 
matter,  which  makes  it  tend  to  the  pos- 
itive pole  ot  a  voltaic  battery.  Electro- 
polar,  a  term  applied  to  conductors,  one 
ena  or  suriace  of  whicu  is  positive  and 
tbe  otner  negative.  Elei;tro-po8itive,  a 
ttiriu  auuoiiug  tiie  natural  state  of  a 


ELE 

body,  or  a  particle  of  matter,  which 
makes  it  tend  to  the  negative  pole  of  a 
voltaic  battery.  Electro-telegraphic, 
belonging  to  the  electro-magnetic  tele- 
graph, or  by  its  means. 

ELECTRODE.  A  name  applied  to  what 
is  called  the  pole  of  the  voltaic  circle. 
The  electrodes  are  the  surfaces,  air, 
water,  metal,  inc.,  which  serve  to  convey 
an  electric  current  into  and  from  the 
liquid  to  be  decomposed. 

ELECTROLYSIS.  The  act  of  decom- 
posing a  compound  substance  by  the 
action  of  electricity  or  galvanism.. 

ELECTROLYTE.  A  compound  which 
may  be  directly  decomposed  by  an  elec- 
tric current. 

ELECTROLYZE.  To  decompose  a  com- 
pound substance  by  the  direct  action  of 
electricitv  or  galvanism. 

ELECTROJIETER.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  quantity  or  intensity  of 
electricity ,  or  tor  indicating  the  presence 
of  electricity;  an  instrument  tor  dis- 
charging electricitj'  from  ajar. 

ELECTRON.  Amber;  also  a  mixture 
of  gold  with  a  fifth  part  of  silver. 

ELECTRO-PLATE.  A  precipitation  of 
silver  or  gold  on  a  surface  of  copper,  or 
German  silver  metal. 

ELECTROSCOPE.  An  instrument  for 
rendering  electrical  excitation  apparent 
by  its  effects. 

ELECTRO-TINT.  The  art  or  process  by 
which  an  etching  is  produced  through 
the  means  of  galvanism.  The  plate 
used  for  the  purpose  is  of  mixed  metal, 
presenting  a  white  surface,  such  as 
German  silver.  The  artist  sketches  his 
design  on  the  dull  white  surface  by 
means  of  brushes  and  composition.  All 
the  parts  which  are  white  in  the  im- 
X^ression  are  left  uncovered  by  the  paint. 
When  the  picture  is  finished,  it  is  coated 
with  black-lead,  and  exposed  to  the 
electro-coppering  process,  by  which  a 
plate  is  produced  for  working  in  the 
copper-plate  press,  having  the  lines  of 
the  device  marked  in  intagUo,  or  sunken. 

ELECTROTYPE.  The  art  of  depositing 
metals  held  in  solution,  and  of  executing 
fac-simile  representations  by  galvanism, 
sometimes  called  Electro-metallurgy. 
Electro-plating,  which  is  effected  on 
this  principle,  is  a  process  by  which  a 
pattern,  cast  in  alloy  or  white  metal, 
composed  of  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc-^ 
hard  white,  and  fusible  only  at  a  high 
temperature  —  after  being  properly 
chased  and  prepared,  and  dipped  in  a 
vessel  containing  a  solution  of  phos- 
phorous, is  transferred  to  a  tank  or 
trough,  and  subjected  to  galvanic 
agency.  In  the  tank  is  a  chemical  solu- 
tion of  silver;  and  the  wires  of  a  galvan- 
ic battery  are  so  arranged  that  the  cur- 
rent, in  completing  its  circuit,  must 
necessarily  pass  through  the  solution. 
The  result  is,  the  solution  is  decom- 
posed, and  a  fine  film  of  metaUio  sUver 
is  deposited  on  the  surfaces  of  the  ar- 
ticles suspended  iu  the  trough. 


ELE 

ELECTRO-BALLISTIC  APPARA- 
TUS.  Au  iustrumciit  lor  (Ibteimining 
by  electricity  the  velocity  of  a  projec- 
tile at  any  part  of  its  fli};ht. 

ELECTKO-BIOLOGY.  A  term  np- 
plied  to  ascertain  mental  pheitoiueiia, 
8upp<>«e<l  by  some  to  bo  jiroilncetl  by 
the  varioua  ajjplicatioiis  of  iiiesiiierism 
to  the  himiaii  boil  v. 

ELECTRO  CALICO-PRIXTIXG. 
Tlio  art  of  jiroiliicing  patteni.s  on  clotli 
by  tlie  chemical  action  of  tlie  voltaic 
current.  The  ])rocess  may  bo  thus  tle- 
scriheil:  if,  for  instance,  a  blue  pattern 
is  to  be  printed  on  0,  wliito  grouu<l,  the 
cloth  bas'ing  been  -netted _>vith  a  very 
dilute  hydro-chloric  acid,  i.s  placed  on 
a  sheet  of  tinfoil  or  other  conducting 
surface  connected  ■with  the  negative 
electrode  of  a  voltaic  battery.  A  j>lato 
of  iron  upon  which  the  required  pattern 
has  been  painted  in  varnish,  is  now 
connected  ■with  the  positive  electrode 
of  the  apparatus,  and  applied  to  the 
cloth.  Electro-chemical  action  is  at 
once  set  up,  and  the  exjiosed  iM>rtion8 
of  the  metallic  .surface  are  dissolved  by 
the  acid,  and  the  chloride  of  iron  thus 
forme<l  becomes  fi.Ked  in  the  cloth.  To 
develop  the  pattern,  the  cloth  is  now 
passed  through  a  b.-ith  of  prussiate  of 
l)(>ta8h,  which  produces  a  beautiful  blue 
color  wherever  the  iron  has  touched, 
but  which  does  not  affect  the  parts 
which  the  varnish  has  shielded. 

EI-ECTRICITY,  Histort  of.  It  does 
tint  appear  that  the  ancients  had  anything 
more  than  an  imperfect  and  partial  know- 
leilge  of  the  electric  fluid.  Thales,  the 
Milexian,  who  lived  about  six  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  was  aware  of  the 
rlpctrical  property  of  amber,  that  when 
ridihed  it  would  attract  light  bodies  to 
itself;  and  Theophrastus  observed  that 
ly  ncnrlum  or  tourmalin  possessed  the  same 
property,  but  beyond  this  there  is  no  men- 
tion of  the  subject,  either  by  this  or  any 
other  writer,  until  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  Dr.  W'iHiam  Gilbert,  a  nallre  of 
Dolcliester,  published  his  treatise  '  De 
Matmete,'  in  which  we  find  many  impor- 
tant and  interesting  particulars.  'J'hese  re- 
ceived farther  illustration  from  the  experi- 
ments of  Boyle,  Otto  Guericke,  Dr.  Wall, 
and  «onie  others,  but  more  especially  from 
Mr.  Hawksbee,  who,  in  his  work  on  elec- 
tricity, first  noticed  the  electrical  power  in 
glass,  and  the  Halit  proceeding  from  it. 
lie  also  first  heard  the  suappine  noise  that 
arconipaiiies  excuation,  ami  noticed  the 
dilferent  phenomena  relating  to  electrical 
Rttraction  and  repulsion  :  besides,  by  intro- 
ducing the  |lass  glol>e  into  the  electrical 
apparatus,  i>e.  much  facilitated  his  own 
•xperiments  and  those  of  others.  After 
an  inten'al  of  abiut  twenty  years.  Mr. 
Stephen  Grey  addi-d  wry  materially  to  the 


ELE 


im 


science  of  electricity  by  numemui  impor- 
tant experiments.  He  first  showed  how 
the  power  of  native  electrics  might  b« 
communicated  to  other  bodies  in  which  it 
cannot  be  excited,  by  supporting  them  on 
silken  lines,  hair  lines,  cakes  of  resin  oi 
glass.  He  also  more  accurately  distinclll^h- 
ed  between  electrics  &ind  nonelectrirs,  and 
displayed  the  effect  of  electricity  on  watei 
more  clearly  than  Gilbert  bad  done. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Grey  wjt* 
elucidated  and  enlarged  by  M.  du  Fay, 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris.  He  observed  that  electrical  oper.i 
tions  were  obstructed  by  great  heat,  as 
well  as  by  a  moist  air  ;  that  all  bodie*,  l>ut|i 
solid  and  fluid,  would  receive  electricity, 
when  placed  on  warm  or  dry  glass  or  seal- 
ing wax  :  that  those  bodies  which  are  nat- 
urally the  least  electric  have  the  greatest 
degree  of  electricity  communicated  lo  them 
by  the  approach  of  the  excited  tube,  lie 
first  observed  the  electric  spark  from  a 
living  body  suspended  on  silken  lines, 
and  established  a  principle  first  suggested 
by  Otto  Guericke,  that  all  electric  bodies 
attract  others  that  are  not  so,  and  repel 
them  as  soon  as  they  are  become  electric 
by  the  vicinity  or  contact  of  the  electric 
body.  He  likewise  di8tinguii>hed  elec- 
tricity into  two  Rinds,  which  he  called  vit- 
reous, as  belonging  to  glass,  rock,  crystal. 
See,  and  resinous,  as  applied  to  that  of  am- 
ber,  gum,  lac,  jcc. ;  the  former  of  these 
has  since  been  called  positive  electricity, 
and  the  latter  negative. 

Mr.  Grey  resumed  his  experiments  in 
1734,  the  result  of  which  was  the  discovery 
of  conductors.  He  also  concluded  from 
several  experiments  that  the  electrical 
power  was  of  the  same  nature  as  that  of 
thunder  and  lightning.  Desaguliers  and 
other  experimentalists  in  France,  England, 
and  Germany,  followed  up  the  experiments 
of  Mr.  Grey  with  further  researches,  which 
displayed  the  power  of  electricity  in  new 
forms,  particularly  by  the  discovery  that 
if  electricity  be  accumulated  in  a  phial,  it 
may  be  discharged  again  so  aa  to  occasion 
the  electric  shock.  Mr.  Van  Kleist,  of 
Leyden,  first  observed  the  property  of  the 
phial,  and  Ciina-ns  followed  it  by  exhibit- 
ing the  experiment.  Mr  Miischenbrork, 
who  also  tried  the  experiment  with  a  very 
thin  bowl,, issnred  M.  Reaumur,  in  a  letter, 
that  he  fell  himself  struck  in  his  arms, 
shoulder,  and  breast,  so  that  he  lost  hia 
breath,  and  was  two  days  before  he  reco- 
vered from  the  efiects  of  the  blow,  and 
the  terror  which  this  unexperled  result 
produced.  He  added  that  he  would  nut 
receive  a  second  shock  for  the  whole  ktn( 


188 


ELF 


dotii  of  France.  M.  Allemand  made  the 
experiment  with  a  coinninn  beer  glass, 
from  which  he  found  himself  powerfully 
affected  in  his  breath,  and  felt  so  severe  a 
pain  all  along  his  rlglit  arm,  that  he  appre- 
hended serious coiise<iuences  Irmn  it. These 
inconveniences,  however,  passed  olf  after 
a  few  days,  and  otiiers  bein-;  induced  to 
repeat  the  experiment,  tlie  practice  of 
electricity  became  soon  after  common,  and 
was,  after  a  time,  also  applied  to  medical 
purposes.  Macliinesofdiflerenl  forms  were 
now  invented,  and  the  electrical  apparatus 
was  continually  enlarged,  by  some  new 
device,  to  increase  the  force  or  direct  the 
operations  of  the  electricity  ;  among  other 
things,  when  it  was  ascertained  that  light- 
ning was  no  other  than  electrical  matter, 
ronducting  rods  began  to  be  employed  on 
the  tops  of  buildings  and  on  the  masts  of 
vessels,  for  the  purpose  of  saving  them 
friimlheetfectsofslorins.  Many  important 
treatises  on  the  science  of  electricity  have 
been  written  within  the  last  century,  by 
Adams,  Cavallo,  Cavendish,  Ferguson, 
Galvani,  Fiauklin,  Farailav,  &c. 

ELECTRIFYING.  The  communication 
of  electric  matter  to  any  body  ;  when  this 
is  etferted  by  means  of  a  cliarged  phial,  it 
is  called  an  electric  shock. 

ELECTROMETEIl.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  i|uantity  and  deteriiiining 
the  quality  of  tlie  electricity  in  any  electri- 
fied body 


BT.ECTRornORUS.  A  machine  con- 
struing of  two  plates,  one  of  which  is  a 
resinous  electric  and  the  other  metallic. 
When  the  former  is  once  excited  by  a 
Heculiiir  application  of  the  latter,  the  in- 
Btmment  will  furnish  elee.ricity  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  This  is  one  of  the  inge- 
nious  contrivances  devised  by  Professor 
Volta,  about  the  year  1774,  which  may 
•erve  as  a  good  gubs*itute  for  tie  electrical 
WMbine     When  p  >perly  constructed,  it 


ELE 

has  been  known  to  retain  it«  electricity  ftji 
three  weeks. 

ELECTUARY  (in  Pharmacy).  A  me- 
diciiiai  com{tositi(m,  in  wliirli  honey  oi 
sirup  fiirins  a  necessary  iiigrcdif-nt. 

ELE(;iAC  VERSE.  A  sort  of  verse  ased 
in  elemes 

ELEGY.  A  plaintive  kind  of  poetry,  or 
a  funeral  song 

ELE.\1EXTS  (in  Chemistry)  Tlie  first 
principles  of  which  bodies  were  supposed 
by  the  ancients  to  be  composed  ;  these  were 
fire,  air,  earth,  and  water.  In  modern 
chemistry  no  such  elementary  principlea 
are  admitted,  because  it  is  considered  that 
all  bodies  either  are  or  may  be  decom 
posed 

ELEMENTS  (in  Geometry).  The  infi- 
nitely small  parts  of  a  right  line,  curve,  or 
solid. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Science).  The  first 
principles  of  any  science. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Divinity).  The  bread 
and  wine  prepared  for  tlie  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper. 

ELEMENTS  (in  Grammar).  The  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  which  are  the  elements  of 
language 

ELEI'ir.\NT.  The  largest, strorigest.and 
most  sensible  of  all  quadru|>eils.  It  is  not 
carnivorous,  but  feeds  on  herbs,  and  al) 
sorts  of  pulse.  It  is  naturally  very  gentle, 
but  when  enraged  is  very  terrible,  it  is 
common  in  the  central  and  soullierii  parts 
of  Africa,  and  in  India.  In  tlie  tatter 
country  it  is  tamed  and  rendered  useful  as 
a  beast  of  burden.  There  is  a  while  spe 
cies,  which  in  the  Rirnian  Empire,  is  re- 
verenced by  the  people.  1  n  central  Africa 
Major  Oenham  saw  a  herd  of  ISO 


ELEVATION  (in  Astmnomy),  Tb 
heieht  of  the  equator,  pole,  or  star,  Sl* 
above  the  horizon. 

ELEVATION  (in  Arrhitectiire).  ♦ 
draught  or  descriptitui  of  the  fice  or  prin 
cipal  side  of  a  hiiiidine,  which  *ncuiuuia>* 
lati|(ua£e,  is  called  the  upright 


ELM 

ELEVAT70N  (in  Gunnen-).  TIip  anjrie 
•rhich  the  chase  of  a  caiindii  or  inoniir 
kiakes  with  the  place  of  the  horixor*. 

ELEVATION  OF  THE  HOST  (in  the 
Romish  Church).  That  part  lift  lie  ceremiiiiy 
of  tlie  niajis  which  coiisi.-<ii)  in  the  priest's 
raisinp  tlie  host  above  his  head,  for  the 
adomtion  of  the  |>*-ople. 

ELF.  A  wandering  spirit  supposed  to  be 
•een  in  unfrei|iieiiteil  places. 

ELGIN  MARliLES.  Curious  marbles 
hroiii^ht  by  the  Karl  of  Elgin  out  of  Greece, 
ind  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 

ELISIO.V  (in  Grammar).  The  striking 
out  a  vowel  at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  '  Ui' 
arch,"  for  'the  arch.' 

ELIXIR.  A  very  powerful  tincture. 
The  Grand  Elixir  is  another  word  for  an 
all-powerful  medicine. 

ELK.  The  largest  of  the  deer  kind,  and 
inhabits  the  nortliern  parts  of  both  conti- 
ueiils.    It  is  called  Moose  in  America^''^ 


EMB 


la 


KT>L.  A  measure  of  leneth,  different  In 
dIflVrentcoiinlnes.  The  English  and  Flem- 
ish ells  are  the  most  used  :  the  former  of 
H  hich  is  three  feet  nine  indies,  or  one  yard 
-nd  a  nnarter ;  the  latter  only  three  quar- 
wTS  of  a  yard. 

ELLIPSIS,  or  ELLIPSE.  A  curve 
wh  ch  cuts  tlie  cone  obliquely  through  both 
aides     It  is  vulgarly  called  an  oval,  as  in 


Oie  Eiihjrtned  figure,  A  H  B  I,  where 
A  B  is  tl  ;  transverse  diameter,  H  1  the 
toitjiigate  dianiettir 


EI>M.  \  sort  of  tree  which  grows  to  a 
very  great  height,  and  thrives  best  in  a 
rich  black  eartli.  The  tiiiiber  of  elm  in 
England  is  next  to  tliat  of  oak  fur  value, 
being  particularly  iiseliil  for  mills. 

ELOCCTION  (in  Rhetoric).  Thead3p^ 
ing  words  and  sentences,  to  the  Ih'ngs  or 
sentimental  to  be  expressed.  It  consists  ID 
apt  expressiiiiis,  the  happy  order  in  dis- 
posing the  words,  and  a  certain  musical 
cadence  which  arises  from  the  whole. 

ELONGATION  (in  Astronomy).  The 
removal  of  a  planet  to  the  farthest  dist&ic« 
it  can  be  from  the  sun,  as  it  appears  lo  an 
observer  on  t!ie  earth. 

ELOPE.MENT  (in  Law).  The  volun 
tary  departure  of  a  wife  from  lier  husband 
to  go  and  live  with  an  ndullerer ;  in  com- 
mon acceptation,  the  secret  departure  of 
any  female  with  her  lover. 

ELVSIAN  FIELDS.  The  paradise  of 
the  heathens. 

E.MANCIPATION.  A  deliverance  from 
slavery  or  servitu.'e ;  also  the  release  of 
the  Roman  Cntholics  from  tlie  disabilities 
which  prevented  iheni  Iroiii  tilling  offices 
of  state. 

E.MBAL.MrNO.  The  filling  a  dead  body 
with  spices,  gums,  ami  other  antiseptics,  Ic 
prevent  it  from  pulrifyiiig.  The  Eg^ptianf 
practised  this  art  most  surcessfiilly,  soth.il 
bodies  which  they  eiiihalmed  two  thousand 
years  ago,  remain  whole  to  this  day. 

EMBARGO  (in  Commerce).  A  prohi- 
bition i.ssiied  by  authority  on  all  shipping, 
not  to  leave  any  port. 

EMBER  DAYS.  Partirnlar  da>-s  of  fast- 
ing and  humilialion  in  the  F.nitM-r  weeks. 

E.MBER  WEKKS.  Four  seasons  In  tli« 
year,  more  particularly  set  apart  for  praver 
and  fa.sting,  namely,  the  lir^t  vvearh  in  Lent 
the  next  after  Whitsuntide,  the  fourteenth 
of  September,  and  the  thirteenth  of  De- 
cember. 

E.MBEZZLE.^EXT.  The  appropriatinf 
a  thing  to  one's  own  use,  which  has  been 
intrusted  to  one. 

E.MBLE.M.  A  kind  of  painted  entpma, 
or  certain  figures  palmed  or  cut  uiel^hor- 
ically,  expre.ssiiig  some  action. 

E.MBOSSING.  A  sort  of  sculpture  or 
carving,  where  the  figure  is  protuberant, 
and  projects  from  the  plane  in  which  it  il 
cut. 

E.MBR.ASrRE  (in  Architecture).  Aa 
enlargement  made  lu  a  wall. 

EMBRASIRE  (in  Fortification).  A 
bole  in  a  parapet  for  the  reception  of  a  gun. 

EMBROCATION  A  kind  uf  fomei.ta- 
tion. 

E.MRROTDERY.  Figured  work 
wrought  on  nilk,  cluth,  or  stuHa 


140 


EN  A 


EMnRYO  The  fittiis,  or  child  in  the 
womb. 

EMENDATION.  An  altenitioii  made 
III  the  text  uraiiy  book  by  verbal  criticism. 

fc;.MKM»ATl6.N  iiri  Lawj.  The  correc- 
tion of  abuses. 

E.MEKALL).  A  precioiia  stone  of  a 
green  colour,  and  next  in  hardness  to  the 
ruby. 

K.MERSION  (in  .Astronomy).  The  re- 
ap|)earaMce  of  the  sun  and  miMin  after  they 
have  undergone  an  ecli(>se  ;  also  of  a  star 
that  emerges  from  under  the  rays  o[  the 
sun. 

E.MERY.     A  Bort  of  iron  ore,  of  a  pray- 

ishblack  colour,  so  ver>'  hard  astoscratch 

to|>H7.,  and  not  to  be  fran):ible.     It  consists 

f  alumina,  silica,  and  iron,  and  is  used  In 

'  form  of  a  powder  for  |Hilishing  hard 
Yrals  and  metals. 

TO.  A  large  bird  of  New  Holland, 
fi  to  the  ca.ssowary  and  ostrich.  Its 
^  jgs,  which  are  useless  lor  flight,  serve 
t^  >alance  the  body  wheu  ruuuiug.  The 
El,  I  wren  is  also  an  Australian  bird, 
bev    ng  a  close  resemblauce  to  the  emu 

E-trfOLIiESCENCE.  In  metallurgy,  the 
soft  jiing  of  a  metal  when  beginning  to 
mel\  ■  the  lowest  degree  of  fusibility. 

E^  ?AISTIO.  In  the  arts,  a  kind  of  in 
laid  v.'ork,  which  bears  some  resem 
blanct  to  the  modern  buhl,  and  consists 
of  inlai'^  threads  or  pieces  of  diflerent 
metals  ioipressed  into  other  Oietals. 

EM  .ME'^.     An  ant  or  pismire. 

EMOLL  BNTS.    Softening  medicines. 

EMPAU  ME  NT  (in  Botany).  The 
flower  cup,  rtlie  green  leaves  which  cov- 
er tlie  Howe 

EMPA.N.N  '.1..  The  writing  the  names 
of  a  jury  invi  a  small  pannel  or  panh- 
nient,  or  nuik\  <g  out  a  list  of  such  as  are 
to  be  snmmoiH   t  to  serve  on  a  jury. 

EMJ'EROR.  \mong  the  Romans,  im- 
peratnr,  or  com  uider,  a  title  of  political 
dtsinity  assumet  f  Augustus  and  his  suc- 
cessors :  now  a  s  ereigrf  prince  who  bears 
rule  ovf>r  large  countries. 

F.MPIRK'.  Ltterally,  a  trier  or  experi- 
menter ;  particularly,  one  who,  without 
reBard  to  the  rules  of  science,  makes  ex- 
periuientB  ivith  medicines;  a  iguack. 

E.\IPORII?M.  Acommon  resortof mer- 
chants for  trade. 

EMPVREIIMA  Thr  peculiar  smell  of 
Itiirnt  substances  In  distillation. 

E.Mni,.si(».V.     A  medicinal  drink. 

ENAMEI,  (in  Anatomy).  The  fineox- 
t^rior  rovoring  of  the  leetli. 

ENAMEI,  (in  Painting).  A  roinpnsjtinn 
of  mineml  colours,  formed  from  metallic 
oxide,  and  used  in  jmlteries. 

ENAMRI.I.KR.  One  whoiirofe«se«  the 
•ft  ii'iKiii'ting  with  enamel  colours. 


ENG 

ENCAMPMENT.  The  pitching  at 
tents  or  dis|M>sing  an  army  in  an  opea 
country. 

KNCIIA.NTMENT.  Maclcal  charm* 
|)ractisi-d  for  purposes  of  fraud. 

E.N'CllASl.Xt;.  Thf  beautifying  gold 
silver,  and  other  metal  works  by  fijiures. 
It  IS  practised  only  on  hollow  thin  woi  ks, 
as  watchcases,  c:ineheads,  and  the  like,  it 
is  performed  by  piincliiiig  or  drivnig  out 
the  metal  to  form  the  tigure,  so  as  to  stana 
out  promiuenl  from  the  surface  of  the 
metal. 

ENCHYRIIUO.V.  A  manual  or  small 
volume. 

E.NCLOSl.NH.  The  inrting  otT of  com- 
mon grounds,  into  ilistinct  iMissessmns. 

E.\t;uKE.  Literally,  agani  ;  to  be  re- 
peateil,  as  applied  lu  any  song  or  perliirm- 
ance  in  a  theatre. 

ENCROACIl.ME.Vr(in  Law).  An  un- 
lawful gaining  u|>oii  the  rights  and  po.sse»- 
siuns  of  another. 

ENCVCLOP/EDIA.  Adictionarj- which 
professes  to  explain  the  whole  circle  of  the 
sciences. 

K.\  D  EM  rC.  An  epithet  for  disorders  to 
which  the  liiliabitants  of  particular  coun- 
tries are  subject. 

E.VDIVE.  An  herbaceous  plant,  a  sort 
of  succory,  used  as  a  vegetable  lor  the  ta- 
ble. 

ENDOR55ING.  Writing  on  the  hack  of 
a  bill  of  exrhapge  or  check. 

ENDOVVME.NT    (in     England).    The 
giviiii;  or  assuring  a  dower  to  a  woman 
also  the  assigning  certain  rents  and  reven- 
ues for  the  maintenance  of  a  vicar,  ulius- 
lionses,  &c. 

ENFRANCHISEMENT  (in  Law).  The 
making  a  person  a  delli^en,  or  free  citi- 
zen. 

E.N'OINE  (in  .Mechanics).  A  com[)ouiitf 
machine,  consisting  of  one  or  more  me- 
chanical [uiwers,  as  of  screws,  levers,  piil- 
lies,  &r.  in  order  to  raise,  cast,  or  sustain 
any  weisihty  body. 

E.NGINEER.  One  whose  office  is  to 
conduct  the  attack  and  defence  of  all  for- 
tresses. 

KNOLI.'^n.  or  the  ENGLISH  LAV- 
Cl'AtJE.  A  compound  of  the  original 
British  or  UVIsh,  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Nor- 
man, French,  I^itin,  and  Creek,  which  is 
now  spoken  not  only  in  all  parts  of  Gre.it 
Rritain,  but  throughout  North  America  and 
all  the  Knulish  colonies  in  differeiil  parts 
of  the  habitable  globe. 

ENGR  A  VING.  The  art  of  repreivnting 
figures  in  metal,  wood,  or  stone,  by  meani 
of  lines  cut  thereon. 

ENlJRAVfNG.   HisTORT   or.     Engrav- 


ENGRAVING. 


141 


tng,  as  far  as  resards  the  rpprewntation  of 
fiiivires  or  cliaractfrs  on  metal,  stone,  or 
W(hmI,  was  one  of  the  tirs't  arts  on  which 
hniiian  inceniiily  was  exerciseil.  Moses 
sjiealis  of  the  art  of  engraving  as  no  new 
invention.  The  tallies  which  <Jod  rieliver- 
eil  to  Mnites  are  said  to  he  the  irurk  oltJod, 
and  the  wri'inc  was  the  writing  of  (JimI 
encraved  npon  the  tables.  The  first  en- 
gravings of  hnnian  workmanship  nieni lim- 
ed in  the  t?rri|itiires,  were  executed  hy  Aho- 
liiili  and  Bezaleel,  for  the  decoration  of  the 
taliernacle  and  the  ornaments  for  the  dress 
of  Aaron.  It  is  also  said  that  the  lahles  of 
Seth  contained  the  astrimomical  discove- 
ries of  that  patriarch  and  his  sons.  In 
process  of  time  we  tiiid  that  tlie  clasps, 
buckles,  rings,  and  other  ornaiiienlal  parts 
of  dress,  as  also  the  cups  and  other  house- 
hold furniture,  together  with  the  arms  of 
military  chiettains,  were  probably  enriched 
with  the  first  specimens  of  engraving.  The 
shields  of  the  Carians,  as  de.scribed  by 
Herodotus,  were  ornamented  with  rude 
portraitures,  as  were  also  those  of  the  an- 
cient Celtic  nations,  but  the  hieroglypliic 
figures  of  the  Eg>'ptiansaff(>rd  the  best  and 
earliest  specimens  of  engraving  properly 
■ocalled.  The  riiienicians  probably  learn- 
ed this  art  from  the  Egyptinns  ;  and  their 
coins,  which  are  looked  upon  to  be  among 
the  most  ancient  extant,  prove,  as  Mr. 
Strutt  observes,  that  they  were  hy  no  means 
indifferent  artists.  It  is,  however,  gener- 
ally siipfMised,  that  there  are  no  remains  in 
aiiti(|iiity,  either  in  sculpture,  painting,  or 
engraving,  prior  to  those  of  Etruscan  orig- 
inal. Some  of  those  which  are  preserved 
in  the  British  .Museum  are  exceedingly 
rude,  and  evidently  executed  with  the 
graver  only  upon  a  flat  surface,  and  if  fill- 
ed with  ink  and  run  through  a  printing 
press,  provided  the  plate  would  endure  the 
operation,  might  pro«luce  a  fair  and  perfect 
impression. 

The  art  of  engraving  on  their  shields 
was  practised  by  the  Saxons,  in  common 
with  the  other  northern  tribes.  Alfred  the 
fireat  encouraged  this  among  the  other 
arts,  and  the  works  of  the  Saxon  arti.sts, 
as  their  shrines  and  caskets,  rose  hy  his 
encouragement  and  that  of  his  successors, 
<;onsiderably  in  estimation,  not  only  in 
England  but  on  the  continent.  Stnitt  men- 
tions a  c'irious  remnant  of  antiquity  in  the 
Museum  at  Oxford,  namely,  a  very  valu- 
»ble  jewel,  made  of  gold,  and  richly 
anoriied  with  a  kind  of  work  resembling 
filagree,  in  the  midst  of  which  Is  seen  the 
half  tignte  of  a  man,  supposed  to  be  Saint 
Outhbert.  The  hai-k  of  this  jewel,  which 
was  engraved  by  command  nf  Alfred,  i? 


ornamented  with  foUsjre  very  skilfully 
executed.  Saint  Dniislan,  the  celebrated 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  died  a.  o. 
988,  is  also  noted  for  his  skill  in  the  arts. 
Osborn,  his  biographer,  enumerates  among 
his  other  eviilowments  that  he  could  'scal- 
pello  imprimere  ex  auro,  argeiito,  tere,  et 
ferro.' 

After  the  Conquest,  it  apivears  that  en- 
graving, which  hail  hitherto  beei:  mostly 
followed  In  conjunction  with  the  sisterarts 
of  carving  and  chasing,  was  now  followed 
as  a  distinct  art,  and  carried  to  a  higher 
state  of  perfection,  as  may  be  learned  from 
the  brass  plates  so  frequently  to  be  met 
with  in  the  English  churches  or  on  the 
tombstones  in  the  fourteenth  and  followiiii; 
centuries.  These  are  usually  ornamented 
with  the  efltgies  of  the  person  to  wlios* 
memory  they  are  dedicated,  and  are  evi 
dently  executed  by  the  graver  only ;  the 
outlines  being  first  made,  then  the  shad- 
ows are  expressed  by  strokes  strengthenet? 
in  proportion  as  they  required  more  force, 
and  occasionally  crossed  with  other  stroke* 
a  second  or  third  time,  precisely  in  th» 
same  manner  as  cop[»erplate  is  at  present 
engraved  for  printing.  Thus  we  see  that 
the  art  of  engraving  was  for  a  long  time 
practised,  before  it  was  made  to  answei 
the  noble  purpose,  of  |ierpeliiating  the  la 
hours  of  the  painter 

That  branch  of  the  art  of  engraving 
which  consists  in  taking  impressions  on 
paj)«r  was,  according  to  Giorgio  Vasari, 
first  practised  by  the  lUilians,  and  took  its 
rise  from  an  accident.  One  Maso  Fiiii- 
guerra,  an  ingenious  goldsmith  and  sculfi- 
tor  of  Florence  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
nsed  to  design  and  emh<iss  figures  on  gold 
and  other  metals,  and  l)efi>re  he  inlaid  them , 
he  used  to  fill  the  engraving  with  earth, 
and  cast  melted  sulphur  on  it,  which  gave 
it  a  sort  of  olive  colour,  after  which, 
pressing  a  piece  of  danip  paper  on  it  with 
a  smiHith  w(MHlen  roller,  the  engraving  on 
the  met.ll  remained  imprinted  on  the  paper 
just  as  if  it  had  been  designed  with  a  pen 
in  consequence  of  which  And  ew  Man 
tegna  set  about  making  regular  prints  from 
his  engravings.  'I'he  correctness  of  thif 
story,  however,  as  far  as  regards  the  prior 
ity  of  the  discoverer,  is  disputed  by  Stnitf 
and  others. 

It  should  seem  that  impression!  from 
engravings  on  wood,  had  been  taken  in 
Germany  prior  to  this,  and  that  the  brief 
malers,  or  the  makers  of  playing  cards, 
practised  the  art  of  card  making  about  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  from  the  making  of 
r.irds  WHre  led  to  Hip  execution  of  other 
figures  of  a  devnnf  nature,  so  as  to  form  a 


142 


ENN 


Kind  iif  bfinks  »ii>ianiinc  H  lilslory  of  the 
Olil  iiiid  .NfW  'IVitlaiiiriil,  wliic.li  wad 
priuled  only  on  ..ne  mde  of  tbi*  paprr.  In 
tills  manner  ihe  engraving  both  in  wood 
■lid  ItriW!*  lOnlinurd  to  be  followed  by  Ihe 
game  artisis,  nnd  in  tlicir  Dundx  made  great 
advances  lo  perfection.  Martin  r>ch»)en. 
of  Cjlnibacli,  was  one  of  the  lirsl  who 
diBtiigut-xhed  himself  in  this  art.  Inrael 
von  Meclieln,of -Meclielen,  was  the  rival  of 
of  Schoen  ;  the  style  of  wliicli  latter  artist 
was  followed  by  Allien  Diirer.  After  this 
arose  a  succession  of  distinguished  en- 
grivers  in  France,  BnglaiM,  and   Holland. 

Kiigraviiig  ill  cliiaro-scun-  is  justly  as- 
cribed to  the  Germans,  and  was  first 
practised  by  Muir.  At  w  hat  tune  etching 
was  Introduced,  is  not  known.  One  of  the 
most  early  S|iec.iiiiens  of  a  print,  by  Albert 
Durer,  is  known  by  Uie  name  of  the 
Cannon,  dated  15m. 

Engnviiig  with  dots,  called  stippling, 
WM  of  Italian  inveiilum,  and  was  lirst 
pmcti.-ml  by  Agostino  Ue  Musis.  The 
method  of  engniving  in  mez/.otinlo  was 
commenced  about  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
euteentn  century.  Engraving  in  aipiatiiiUi 
IM  a  recent  invention.  In  modern  limes, 
every  si>ecies  of  engraving  has  made  great 
atlvatices  Riward  perfection.  For  mezzo- 
tiiiio  and  line  engraving,  steel  has  been 
lately  brought  into  use,  which  not  only 
enables  llie  engraver  to  give  greater  delica- 
cy ,  and  a  higher  hnisli  to  his  works,  but 
alfords  ten  tiinesjusiiiaiiy  giMid  impressions. 
Copper  is  now  little  used  for  tine  engra- 
vings. 

In  wood  engraving  there  has  bten  still 
greater  improvement.  A  few  years  since 
it  was  imagined  that  the  birds  and  beasts 
of  Bewick  could  never  be  surpassed. 
Itiit  liraiisione  Wright,  Thompson  andotli- 
Br».  Ill  Kniiland  have  given  a  degree  of 
K|iiril.  delicacy  and  beauty  to  tlieir  (iroduc- 
lioiis,  of  which  it  was  supposed  that  wikiU 
engravings  were  unsusceptible.  They 
have  shown  that  the  art  is  one  of  great 
■('i>|ie,  and  is  capable  of  producing  ef- 
fe<  IS  superior,  in  some  departments,  to  line 
eiiiiravir.g. 

I:.\(;K0SSING.  The  writing  any  thing 
fair  III  a  large  hand. 

K.M.ISTI.N'G.  The  entering  for  a  soldier 
Into  the  military  service  for  a  certain  stip- 
ulated time,  as  fir  a  term  of  seven  years, 
or  during  a  war  &.c. 

KNS|i;\  Tlie  banner  under  which 
the  Koldiers  are  ranged,  according  to  the 
dlfTerenl  reiriuienls  to  which  they  belong  ; 
atHo  the  otticer  who  carries  the  ensign  or 
tolcMirs. 

KSSiH   LutleM  rBtli;u«. 


ENT 

.  E.\.\EAXl)RIA  (in  Botany;.  One  f4 
Liiiiia^us's  classes  of  plants,  imludingsucb 
as  bear  liermaphrodile  tlowers,  with  nine 
siauiens,  us  the  bay,  tbe  casliaw  nut,  Um 
dowering  rush,  lt» 


ENTABLATURE.  That  part  ofa  columii 
which  is  over  the  capital,  coiupreheuding 
the  architrave,  fri/.e,  and  cornice. 

ENTAIL.  All  entailed  estate,  or  an 
estate  abridged  and  limited,  by  certain 
conditions  prescribed  by  the  lirsi  donor. 

EN'l'EKTAINMENT.  A  species  of  the- 
atrical representation  following  u  tragedy 
or  comedy  ;  it  may  be  either  a  farce  or  a 
pantomime,  &.C. 

LN'I'O.MOLOfiY.  The  science  which 
treats  of  insects,  a.<»  to  their  structure, 
habits,  and  varieties.  The  body  of  an  in- 
sect consists  of  four  princi|r,il  parts,  namely, 
the  head,  the  trunk,  the  abdomen,  and  the 
limbs  or  extremities.  The  head  is  fur- 
nished in  most  insects  with  eyes,  anteiin* 
or  liiiriis,  and  a  mouth.  The  eyes  are 
various,  bolli  in  colour,  slin|>e,  and  number, 
in  dillerent  kinds,  some  lieingol  a  d liferent 
odour  from  that  of  the  head,  and  siuiie  of 
the  same  colour,  some  placed  close  to- 
geth-fr.  or  almosi  touching encli  other,  some 
having  the  pupil  glassy  and  transparent, 
others  having  It  scarcely  distinguishable 
Many  insects  have,  besides  the  large  eyea, 
also  three  small  spherical  botiies  placed 
triangularly  on  the  crown  of  the  head, 
called  ocelli,  or  slemmata.  The  antennie 
are  two  articulated  moveable  processes, 
placed  on  the  head,  whicli  are  also  subject 
to  great  variety  in  their  form  and  struc- 
ture, lieing  setaceous,  or  bristle  sha|ied 
tiliforin,orthread-sha|)ed,&,c.  The  mouth 
in  most  insects  is  situated  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  head,  and  consist  of  the  lips, 
upper  and  lower  ;  the  mandibles,  or  horny 
subst'iiices,  one  on  each  side  of  the  month; 
the  maxilUe,  or  jaws,  two  membranaceous 
substances,  differing  in  figure  from  the 
mandibles,  under  which  they  are  situated; 
the  tongue,  an  involuted  tubular  organ, 
which  constitutes  the  whole  month  in  some 
insects,  as  the  sphinx  ;  tbe  ro«triim,  beak, 
or  snout,  a  moveable  articulated  member 
in  the  grasshopper,  the  aphis,  &c  ;  the 
prob<><ri«,  or  trunk,  which  serveB  as  ■ 
mmjth  ID  the  Jouae  Ay,  bee,  and  ioib* 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


149 


aCtwr  tB»0cti ;  tbr  ttaleri,  suiaU  luoi  entile 
fihrorm  or::ani,  plurt* d  inoaily  ou  eacb  8iile 
the  jatt,  «ii4  reaeuiMlut!  tlie  aulrnnie,  but 
ibucli  aiuiiler ;  tiiose  vary  m  Duciber  fruiii 
tu»  lu  SIX  in  ditferelit  infecls. 

'i'lie  cruuk,  M'bicli  U  Che  second  general 
division  ofwliicti  an  insecl  cuiis^isls,  cuiii- 
prvlimdj  tiuU.  )x>rti<iii  siluated  between 
Uie  head  and  Ui«  alHlnmen.  'I'liis  consists 
of  llw  thorax,  ur  upiwr  part  of  tlie  body, 
to  which  llic  I^rsl  pair  uf  le<;;i  is  utuched  ; 
the  breast,  or  uuiler  (>art  u(  the  tiiurax,  lo 
which  the  four  p<isteriiir  feel  are  attached; 
tlie  breast  bone,  a  rid;:e  running  uiiiler  the 
breast,  which  is  conspicuous  in  some  in 
■ects  ;  and  the  sculelluiii,  or  escutclieun,  a 
loheliKe  process,  situated  at  the  posterior 
part  of  the  thorax. 

The  abdunieii,  or  third  principal  portion 
of  an  insect's  iH>dy,  is  composed  of  annular 
joints,  or  segments,  wliich  vary  in  form 
•lid  Biimber  in  dllTereiil  insects ;  this  is 
distinguished  iutii  the  back,  or  upper  payt, 
and  tile  belly,  or  under  part.  The  motion 
of  the  abdomen  is  must  visilile  in  the  tiy 
and  tM:e  tribes.  To  this  division  belong 
also  tiie  t.-ill  and  the  stiii».  The  tail  some- 
times spreads  like  a  leaf,  as  in  the  cock- 
roach ;  and  in  other  insects  is  bristle- 
sh.'tped.  The  stin;;,  winch  i«i  peculiar  to 
Insects  of  ttie  bee  tnbe  and  s<iiue  few 
otliers,  ia  sometimes  simple,  having  but 
oned.irt,and  s»inelimesr(«m)ioiind, having 
two  darts,  in  bees  and  wasps  the  sting  is 
retractile,  that  is,  ca|>!tb4e  of  Iwiiig  drawn 
in  ;  but  in  otiicr  insects  it  is  aluiosl  always 
hid  in  the  body,  or  seldom  Ihrusl  out.  In 
Bonie  tribes  of  insects  it  exists  in  the  males, 
in  others  in  the  females  only,  but  seldom 
in  both  sexes. 

The  members  or  extremities  of  insects 
are  the  legs  and  the  wings  Insects  have 
toiiietiiiies  six  legs,  but  never  more,  excejit 
what  are  observable  in  the  larvie,  which 
are  teriiMid  spirlous  feet.  Tlie  feet  vary  in 
their  lorm  and  use,  being  formed  either 
for  running,  swiiiiining,  or  leaping,  with 
or  without  claws  or  spines,  jcc.  The  wings 
are  nuistly  two,  but  sometimes  four  in 
number ;  mostly  placed  on  each  side  the 
insect,  so  as  that  each  |>air  should  corres- 
pond in  silu^ition,  form.  Sec.  ,  hut  where 
there  is  more  than  one  pair,  the  tirst  are 
nostly  larger  than  those  behind.  The 
winp  are  greatly  diversified  as  to  form, 
figure  texture,  construction,  &.c.  To  the 
winga  belong  al<o  the  elytra,  or  wing 
cases,  and  the  halleres,  or  poisers.  The 
elytra  are  two  coriaceous  wings,  which 
are  expanded  in  (light,  but  when  a(  test 
•erve  to  rover  the  abdumen  and  enclose 
Itleir  ineiabranaceous  \Mngs,  as  in  insects 


of  the  beetle  Lribe  ,  the  p<>is«ra  are  two 
globular  boUuw  placed  on  slender  atalk* 
bcuiod  the  wings  lu  lae  tribe  of  wingeiS 
iusecls,  so  called  because  they  are  su|>- 
posed  to  keep  the  ftsect  vleady  in  ite 
tlighU 

Tile  internal  part*  of  insects  are  leas 
perfect  and  distinct  than  tliose  of  larger 
auiinals,  and  of  couise  less  known.  Tfi« 
brain  of  insects  is  altogether  diflerent  rruiii 
the  substance  which  bears  tliiM  name  in 
oilier  animals,  being  little  more  than  gan- 
glions of  ner\'es,  two  in  number,  that  aie 
obser\'ed  in  the  crab,  lobster,  &c.  The 
muscles  consist  of  fasciculi  of -t'lbree,  that 
serve  apparently  the  office  of  producinjc 
two  inotioiif,  namely,  that  of  exteudiug 
and  that  of  bending.  Some  insects  appear 
to  be  furnished  with  some  tioating  vessels 
which  secrete  a  fluid  varying  in  colour  ia 
dilferent  tribes,  but  very  similar  to  saliva 
The  cesofihagus,  or  organ  of  deglutiliou,  is 
a  straight  short  tube,  consisting  of  anniilai 
muscular  fi'ires,  like  the  proboscis  of  ihe 
common  Hy. 

The  organs  of  digestion  vary  very  much 
in  dirterent  tribes  of  insects.  }Iost  have  a 
single  stomach,  but  some  h.ive  it  dut.ble, 
aud  others  have  a  manifold  stomach.  In 
l>ees  the  stomach  is  membranaceous,  lilted 
to  receive  tlie  nectar  of  (lowers  :  the  bug, 
the  boat  Hy,  and  such  as  feed  on  animal 
substances,  have  a  muscular  stomach.  The 
beetle,  ladybird,  eju^vig,  and  some  others 
that  feed  on  other  insects,  have  a  dcfiible 
stomach,  tlie  tint  of  which  is  muscular, 
after  the  manner  of  a  gizzard,  and  itie 
second  is  a  membranaceous  canal.  Iiisertii 
such  as  the  cricket  and  grdsshopi«r,  which 
have  many  stomachs,  seem  loeiiipjoy  them 
much  after  the  manner  of  the  runnnatiug 
animals. 

Instead  of  organs  of  respiration,  it  bus 
been  found  that  they  have  spiracula  run- 
ning on  eacb  side  the  body  that  serve  for 
tile  reception  of  the  air,  and  other  veasels 
proceeding  from  these  that  serve  for  the 
exspiratiun  of  air.  Insects,  among  riie 
ancients,  were  reckoned  to  be  bknidless 
animals  ;  but  it  has  since  been  ascertained 
that  the  process  both  of  Circulation  and 
secretion  goes  forvvard  in  the  bodies  of 
insects,  although  in  a  different  manner. 
The  process  of  secretion  is  supposed  to  he 
performed  by  means  of  a  number  of  long 
slender  vessels,  which  float  in  the  interiAd 
cavity  of  the  body,  serving  to  »e;rete 
different  fluids,  according  to  the  naltire  of 
the  animal ;  thus  the  bee,  wasp,  sphinx, 
&c.  have  two  vessels  situated  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sting,  throush  which  tliey  discharge 
an  acrid  fluid.     From  Ihti  aul  is  extncted 


144 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


tn  acifJ  u-ell  knou-n  to  chymistsjiiid  otiier 
inKeru  have  other  tliiiils  peculiar  to  tlieiii- 
BClV''«.  As  to  the  process  of  circiilnlion  in 
tiisecrs,  little  more  is  known  iit  i)reseiit 
thnn  that  a  contraction  ami  itilatatiuii  of 
the  vessels  is  oliservalile  in  some  kinds, 
partictilarly  in  caterpillnrs  :  bnt  the  tliinl 
which  IS  sii|iposeil  to  suii|il\'  the  plate  of 
blooil  is  not  of  llie  same  colonr. 

TliP  sexes  in  insects  are  of  three  kinds, 
namely,  tlie  males,  the  females,  anil  the 
neuters,  which  have  not  the  nsnal  marks 
of  sillier  sex.  The  sexes  are  distinguished 
liy  the  ilitferenre  of  size,  brightness  of 
colours,  form  of  the  anteiniie,  &c. ;  the 
male  is  always  smaller  than  the  female, 
and  in  some  cases  the  female  is  sevenil 
hundred  limes  biager  than  the  male  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  males  have  liri^'hter 
Colours  and  larcer  antenna;.  In  many 
esses  the  females  have  no  wiirfPi;  and  in 
H4>me  instances,  as  that  of  the  bee,  the 
female  has  a  slinc,  bnt  the  male  none. 

The  metamorphoses  of  insects  is  one 
chnrarienstic  of  these  animals  which  dis- 
tinpiishes  them  from  all  others.  In  most 
inserts  the  efta  is  Ihe  tirsi  stale  ;  hut  there 
nre  examples  of  viviparous  inserts,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  aphis,  the  t\y,  &c.  The 
insect  in  the  second  or  caterpillar  state,  is 
now  called  the  larva,  l.iil  formerly  the 
eriica.  The  larvie  differ  very  much  in 
rtlfferelit  inserts  ;  those  uf  the  butterfly  and 
niiitli  are  proi»erlr  called  caterpillars,  those 
of  the  tiles  and  l>ees  are  called  iitaccots. 
The  larvie  of  the  beetle  Iribe  riifferfrom  Ihe 
complete  insect  only  by  being  destitute  of 
wiitsrs.  Butterflies,  in  their  caterpillar 
stale,  are  very  vortciotis,  but  in  their  roin- 
|><ete  state  they  are  satisfied  with  the 
liLdiiest  and  most  delicate  ntttrtnieiit.  The 
Ihtril  state  into  which  insects  imiisforni 
rhemselves  is  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis.  In 
iiiitsi  of  the  beetle  tribe  the  pupa  is  fur- 
nished with  short  le(»s,  but  the  pupa  of 
the  biillerfly  trilie  is  wtlbout  lejrs  ;  that  of 
the  Hy  tribe  is  oval,  but  that  of  Ihe  bee 
tribe  is  very  shapeless.  The  last  and  [ler- 
feci  state  of  insects  is  called  hy  I.iiinteiis 
Ihe  imasc,  in  which  state  it  continues 
until  its  extiDction.  The  life  of  insects 
varies  as  to  its  duration.  Sfune,  as  bees 
and  spiders,  are  supposed  to  live  fhr  a 
Considerable  time  ;  but  others  will  not  live 
beyond  a  year,  a  day,  or  some  hours,  tn 
llieir  perfect  state,  illhouirh  they  will  con- 
tinue for  some  time  in  their  larva  state. 
Water  insects  generally  live  longer  than 
iand  insects. 

As  to  the  ciRssifiwtlon  of  inserts,  it 
suffices  here  to  observe,  that  l.innirus, 
iriiiMe  system  is  nov  generally  followed, 


has  classed  them  according  to  iheir  winga 
into  seven  orders,  namely,  I.  Coleoptera, 
or  such  as  have  shells  that  cover  the  wings, 
as  the  beetle  tribe.  2.  Ilemiptera,  or  half 
wiiiged  insects,  as  the  cock-roach,  locust, 
grassliop|)er,  bug,  (fee.  3.  Lepidoptera,  or 
scaly  winged  insects,  as  the  butterlly  and 
the  moth.  4.  Netiroptera,  or  nerve-winged 
or  tibre-vvinged  Insects,  the  wings  of  which 
are  furnished  with  conspliiious  nerves, 
fibres,  or  ramifications,  as  the  dragon  tly, 
May  fly,  trout  fly.  5.  Ilymenoptera,  or 
insects  with  four  wings  and  a  sting,  a.sthe 
bee,  wasp,  hornet,  termes,  or  white  ant, 
&c.  6.  Diptera,  or  two-winged  insects, 
as  the  gnat,  common  fly,  nnistpiittu,  horse- 
leech, cScc.  7.  Aptera,  or  Insects  without 
wings,  as  the  spider,  flea,  lobster,  scorpion, 
&c. 

K.VTO.MOLOGY,  History  of.  There 
are  scattered  notices  resi)ecting  insects!  at 
an  early  period,  from  which  we  iii.iy  inlrr 
that  they  had  not  escaped  the  notice  of 
iiuiuirers  into  the  animal  kingdom.  Amcuig 
the  b(Kiks  of  Solomon  now  lost  to  the 
world,  it  IS  recorded  that  he  treated  on 
iiisects  or  creeping  things.  Hip|K>craies 
wrote  a  work  on  insects,  from  which  I'liiiy 
has  given  some  few  extracts.  The  labtnirs 
of  Aristotle  on  this  subject  are  still  extant, 
and  show  that  he  had  made  Insects  his 
particular  study.  What  he  has  written  on 
this  subject  has  not  been  surpassed  in 
accuracy  by  any  thing  that  has  followed. 
Nicander, I'alliiuachiis,  andaboveall  The- 
ophrastiis,  are  mentiiuieil  as  writers  on  in- 
sects ;  but  there  is  no  work  extant  on  that 
subject  before  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
Virgil  treats  on  the  subject  of  bees,  which 
were  much  cultivated  In  Ins  time.  Pliny 
has  devoted  the  eleventh  book  of  his 
Natural  History  to  this  subject,  and  men- 
tions several  Latin  writers  who  had  direct- 
ed their  attention  to  it.  yf'li.in,  in  his  work 
on  aniinalM,  devotes  sevenil  chapters  to 
particular  insects,  as  the  spider,  scorpion, 
cricket,  tec.  ;  besides  that,  the  subject  is 
slightly  touched  upon  by  the  medical 
writers  .fltius,  Tatilus  ilCgineta,  Trallian, 
and  Oribasius,  and  also  by  the  Arabian 
authors  Rhazes,  Avicenna,  .Avenzoar,  and 
.Averrhoes.  From  the  tweltlh  to  the  fif- 
teenth century  no  writer  of  any  note  rx-ciirs 
on  the  subject  of  entomology.  Albertns 
Magnus  has  devoted  some  small  part  of 
his  work  He  Animalibus  to  this  subject. 
Agricola,  in  his  work  De  Aniinantibiia 
yubteraneis,  which  appeared  in  1549,  baa 
given  the  first  sysletiialir  arraageloent  of 
inseclK,  hv  dividing  theni  into  creeping 
insects,  flying  insects,  and  swimming  in- 
sects.   This   work   waj   followed   In  th* 


ENT 

Mme  f.enfiiry  by  Dr.  Wotloii'u  work,  De 
Oirterciiliis  Aiiiiiialiiiin,  and  cursory  re- 
marks uii  insects  i:i  Rundeletius  Libri  de 
Piscibii:<  Maniiis,  and  in  Conrad  Gesner's 
work  De  ;>erpttiitiiini  Naturli. 

A  far  more  iiiiportiint  production  on  tiie 
«ubjecl  of  insects  appeared  in  ll>02,  from 
Uie  pen  of  that  industrinua  naturalist  Al- 
drovandus,  entitled  De  Aniuialiluis  Insec- 
tis,  in  wliicli  he  divided  them  iiitu  two 
elksaes,  terre!<tri;i  and  aijuutica,  and  sub- 
divided tbeni  into  orders,  according  to  tjie 
■  umber,  nature,  position,  &.c  of  their 
wings.  This  work  was  followed  by  (he 
Historta  Animaliuni  Sacra  of  Wolfanc 
Fnsnzius,  and  other  works  from  tlie  pen  of 
Fa!>iusColumna,  Hoefuagle,and  Archibald 
Simpson.  This  latter  work  is  entitled  to 
notice  because  it  was  the  first  work  on  en- 
omoloey  that  had  appeared  in  Britain. 

The  graphic  art  was  also  called  intu  aid 
About  this  |)eriod,  to  illustrate  the  subject 
nf  entomologN',  as  appears  from  the  works 
of  the  celebrated  engravers  Hoefnagle, 
Robert  Aubret,  De  Bry,  Vallet,  Rubin, 
Jonston,  &c.  The  invention  ul  the  niicro- 
■cope  also  afinrded  great  facilities  tu  the 
■tudy  of  entomology,  and  enlarged  the 
■phere  of  observation  very  considerably. 
Of  these  facilities  many  naturalists  amply 
availed  themselves,  as  Hooke,  Leuwen- 
buek,  Hartsoeker  and  others.  The  latter 
writer  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  llu- 
idf  in  insects.  Christopher  Manet  publish- 
ed, in  1667,  a  work  containing  an  account 
of  British  insects  ;  and  a  particular  des<:rip- 
tiinofthe  tarantula  was  published  about 
til )  sanie  time  by  Wolferdus  Saiiguerdius  ; 
but  the  must  important  work  on  this  sub- 
ject was  Swammerdam's  General  History 
of  Insects,  which  displayed  an  anatomical 
knowledge  of  these  animals  that  raised 
the  reputation  of  this  writer  very  higli. 
This  appeared  in  1669,  and  in  ItiTH  Lis- 
ter's valuable  History  of  Engiish  Spiders  ; 
the  year  following  the  first  part  of  Madame 
Merian's  extensive  work  on  the  metanior- 
phoses  of  lepidopterous  insects,  which  was 
followed  by  other  parts  in  10K3,  1718,  and 
I7S6,  which  last  is  a  splended  performance 
OH  the  insects  of  Surinam,  l^uwenhoek 
also,  ab-  lUt  the  same  time,  added  materially 
to  the  stock  of  eatomntogical  knowledge, 
by  giving  an  accuiint  of  the  inatoiny  of 
insects,  drawn  from  micrngc^picaj  obser- 
vations. Ray  published,  in  17 lU,  bis  Hts- 
toria  Insectoruin,  which  was  ifae  join^ 
labour  of  liiMiseK  and  his  friend  Williuigfa- 
by.  Id  this  history  iiwecis  are  divided 
into  the  transiiiutabilia  and  inlransuiuta- 
bilia.  The  trunsiiiutablliu  are  divided  into 
fuur  orden    namely,  vaginipeunes,.  Uuian 


EPH 


14t 


which  have  wings  covered  with  a  sheiUh  , 
papilinnes,  Che  lepidopterous  iii»Tts  ;  (]ua- 
dri|iennes,  four  winged  insects  ;  and  IM- 
penius,  two  winged  insects :  which  are 
again  subdivided  into  families.  In  ITtiS, 
the  sysieiii  i>f  Linii.-eus  was  published, 
which  has  saice  been  universally  a<liipt<-tl. 
It  consisted  at  first  of  four  orders,  which 
he  afterwards  increased  to  the  number  of 
seven.  Some  writers,  as  Desrer.  «f  itzius, 
and  Fabrii  ins.  have  attempted  to  improve 
iip<iii  the  LiniKPaii  .system,  but  thrir  allcr- 
atioiis  have  not  been  admitted. 

As  to  the  history  of  in.secls,  nuiny  natu- 
ralists since  his  time  have  contributed  (heir 
share  to  the  stock  of  information,  either 
by  the  description  of  the  insects  in  par 
ticular  parts,  or  by  the  description  of  in- 
sects generally.  In  1753,  appe.tied  Ih* 
Entomologia  Caiaiolica  of  Scuixili ;  in 
176^,  Birkinfroiit  published  Ouil:M«ti  of 
Natural  Hutor>'  of  Britain  ;  in  Seward'* 
Natural  Hisior>'  is  given  an  arrount  of 
iiiauy  exotic  insects.  In  1770  were  pub- 
lished Illustrations  of  .Natural  Hisiurv',  iii 
1775  Pabricius  published  his  Sysiema  E<|- 
toinolugiie  j  and  within  the  last  Irw  >ean 
we  have  had  Donovan's  Natural  llistury 
of  British  Insecti;,  in  15  vols.  ;  ]»k-ii:iick'G 
Systeine  des  Aiiimaux  sans  vrrttl>ri-»; 
Marcham's  Entomologia  Britaniiira,  and 
Kirhy's  .Moinigrapliia  Apiiiiii  .Aiiulie 

ENTRY  (in  Commurce).  Tin-  a.  i  of 
setting  down  in  merchant's  accoiuit  iKioka 
tiie  particulars  of  trade. 

ENTRY  lat  the  Custom  House).  The 
pa.ssing  tile  bills  through  the  hands  nf  Iho 
pro|H-r  otfic<rs. 

ENTKV  (in  I>aw).  The  taking  pnoceit- 
sion  of  Innd.s. 

ENVELOPE.  The  cover  that  encloses 
a  letter  'IT  note. 

E.\VIBt.)NS.  T*e  counio"  lying rtmnd 
a  large  low  n  or  city. 

E.WoV.  A  person  in  degree  lowei 
than  an  aiiikassador,  sent  on  siMiie  par- 
ticular occasion  from  one  gnverument  to 
another. 

EPAl,T  (in  Chronology).  A  ninnbet 
arising  from  the  excess  of  the  comiiwn 
solar  yeaj  above  the  lunar,  by  u  liich  ti»e 
age  of  tbe  'moen  may  be  found  e\'ery 
year. 

EP.\Cl.ETTE.  The  shoulder  knot  worn 
by  a  soldier  or  fotitinan. 

EPAl'I.E.M  ENT.  A  work  raised  M 
cover  ndcwMe,  made  of  earth,  gabion*, 

&.C. 

EPHE.MER.'VL.  Beginning  and  ending 
in  a  day  ;  an  ephemeral  insect  lives  but 
"Air  a  day,  a."  the  day  ily. 

EPHE.M£R1S      Ai>  sttrouoniical  alm» 


14* 


El'l 


•ack  or  lab!e,  showing  tbf  stale  of  the 
dravrna  lor  every  rlay  at  noon. 

ElllOU.  A  giinnent  worn  by  the  priesu 
■if  tli«  Jews. 

liPIC  POEM.  A  narrative  poem  formed 
ap4.:i  a  story,  partly  real  and  partly  licti- 
li. ms,  ilitr  subject  of  wbicb,  is  aJ  way s some 
bero  or  distinguished  person. 

EPICENE  iin  Grajnoiar  .  -An  epitliet 
ft>r  the  gender  of  socb  worda  as  are  com- 
.nu!i  to  both  sexes,  as  in  tbe  Latin,  bic  et 
)i<i-c  parens. 

I.PICUKEAM  PHILOiS^lPHY  Tbe 
il<<<:riue  tauglit  by  Epicurus,  tbat  the  urn- 
verse  consUted  of  atoms  or  corpuscles  of 
various  fonns,  rnasuitude*,  and  weights, 
which,  having  beru  dispersed  at  random 
[hrousb  the  imnieiuie  ?pace,  fortuitously 
concurred  into  innnmerable  systems.  To 
t!i  IS  scheme  of  in^delity  be  added  the  notion 
that  happiness  consisted  in  sensual  indul- 
gence, particularly  in  the  pleasures  of  tbe 
tjUle 

EPICUREANISM,  or  EPICURISM, 
rhe  doctrine  of  Gpicnrus:  the  practice  of 
an  epicurean  or  epicure,  or  of  one  who  is 
addicted  to  bis  sensual  gratifications. 

EPICVCLE.  A  little  circle  tbat  is  to 
the  centre  of  a  greater  circJe. 

EPIDEMIC  niSEASES.  Such  as  pre- 
vail at  particular  seasons,  and  spread  among 
tbe  inhabitants  of  a  country. 

EPIIiERMlS(in  Anatomy).  The  cuticle 
or  scarf  skin,  that  which  rises  in  a  blister 

EPIGR.A5I.  A  short,  witty,  pointed 
poem. 

EPIGR-APHT:.  An  inscription  on  a 
baildin;,  stone,  &,c. 

Kl'l  LJiPSY,  or  the  P»i.li!«o  Sicki«es«. 
A  ct-nrolgion  of  the  whole  body,  wilb  a 
privation  of  sense. 

EPILCXJUE  fin  Dramatic  Poetry).  A 
speech  addressed  to  tbe  audience  when 
tbe  play  is  ended. 

EPILOGUE  (in  Rhetoric).  The  conclu- 
sion of  a  speech,  a  recapitulation  of  tl>e 
whole. 

EPIPHANY,  vulearly  called  Twelfth 
Div.  A  festival  celebrated  on  tbe  twelfth 
tlay  aAer  Cbristnia.^  by  some  Christiaus, 
w  commemoration  of  ilie  manifestation 
made  to  tbe  Gentiles  of  uiir  :^avio<lr's  iia- 
tivitv. 

KPIfJCOPACY.  A  form  of  church  go- 
vernment   hy   bishops. 

EPISTILBITE.  A  crystallized  mii»- 
eral,  consistiu};  of  soda,  siUca,  alamiita. 
livai,  and  water;  sp.  gr.  2-i. 

EPIZOANS.  In  zoology,  a  class  of  par- 
asitic animals  which  iufest  fi.shee,  &c. 

EPISODE,  iu  poetry,  a  sf-parate  indr 
dant,  which  tbe  poet  Introduces. 


EQU 

;  iiiio  bis  narrative  as  coni>ected  with  th« 
principal  actum. 

EPITAPH.  .\n  inscription  on  a  tomb- 
stone. 

KPITHAL.\MIUM.  a  song  sung  at 
weddings. 

KPITllET.  A  word  expressive  of  a 
quality. 

EPITOME.  An  abridgment  or  abcrt 
draught  of  a  book. 

El  OCH,  or  EPOCH  A.  A  term  or  fixed 
point  €tf  time,  whence  years  are  num- 
bered, such  as  the  Creation,  40(M  s.  c.  •, 
the  Taking  of  'I'roy,  11S4  b.  c.  ;  tbe  Build- 
ing of  Konie,  Ti3  b.  c.  ;  the  Birth  of  our 
Saviour,  tbe  commencement  of  tl»e  Chris- 
tian era,  and  tbe  Hegira,  or  tbe  flight  of 
Mahomet  Ironi  .Mecca,  *.  d.  CSS 

EPODE  (in  Lyrle  Poetry)  The  third 
or  last  part  of  the  ude. 

EPOl'tEIA  (in  Poetry).  The  IbMe  or 
subject  of  an  epic  poem. 

EPSOM  SALTS.  Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
formerly  procured  by  boiling  down  the 
mineral  water  from  tbe  spring  at  Epsom, 
but  now  prepared  from  sea  water.  They 
are  used  as  an  aperient. 

EULWBLE.  Ad  epithet  fiar  mtifom 
motion,  &.c. 

EUU.ALITY.  A  term  of  relation  b». 
tween  things  thesame  in  magnitude, quat>- 
tily.  or  quality. 

EUUATION  (in  Algebra).  An  expres- 
sion in  which  two  quantities  di^rently 
represented  are  put  equal  to  each  other 
by   means  of   tbe    sign  of    eqoatity,  as 

EaUATION,  or  the  EQUATION  OF 
TIME  (in  Astronomy).  Tbe  difierence  be- 
tween mean  and  apparent  time,  or  tbe 
reduction  of  tbe  apparent  unequal  lime  or 
motion  of  the  sun,  &.e.  to  equable  time  or 
motion. 

EUU  ATIO.V,  or  EQUATION  OF  PAY- 
.MENT^  (in  Arilhiuetic).  A  rule  for  find- 
ing a  time  when  if  a  sum  be  paid  which 
is  equal  to  tbe  sum  of  several  others  due 
at  different  tiiiMK,  ito  kMs  wilt  be  sustained 
by  either  party. 

EXlUATOll.  A  great  circle  on  the  let- 
restrial  sphere,  ei^uidislaut  from  tbe  pole. 

EaUATORI  A L,or  Portable Obsebt*- 
To»T.  An  instrument  by  which  miisi  oi 
the  problems  tn  astronomy  may  be  |>er 
formed. 

EQUERRY.  In  Entlaad.anoArerwho 
has  the  care  of  tbe  king's  horses. 

EQUES  .\L'RATI'8.  A  knight,  socallei 
because  none  but  knights  were  allowed  ta 
gi'd  their  arruoiir. 

EQU  ES  IB  1  AN.  One  oB  horseback 


ERI 

EaUESTRlAN  OROER.  The  lecoad 
tank  in  Knnie,  next  to  Ibr  iien.ttori. 

KUl'l^ililA.N  ^TATUt.  J  be  rcpre- 
■enUtiuD  of  a  tK;n«>ii  inounlrd  un  a  bunie. 

lXli;iAXUtL.AK.    Having   njaal    an- 

iOlUIOISrA.N'I     At  :in  equal  di.ol.tnce. 

K'ili LATERAL,    lirtviua  '-'tuti  *idea. 

Eul.  IL.IBKIL  II  All  t-tjii.t.  t>iiianc«3  or 
eoualily  ol  tveigbi  ami  ,K>itt-.aj>  »  ben  two 
eiid.i  of  a  Irver  iiang  s<>  <  vrii,  as  U>  poise 
neitbc-r  way 

EdUIMbLI'IPUE^  (in  Arithmetic  or 
t^oiiieiry  i  .Nuiiiiirr^  anil  guanlilies  multi- 
plied by  one  and  ihc  same  number  and 
quuntily,  as  \:>  hikI  6,  which  are  equi- 
luullipien  of  -t  and  *J.  calletl  Uteir  suh- 
multipleM. 

EUL'l.NOl.TIAI..  or  KUUINOCTIAL 
LIN  K.  A  sreal  circle  ol'  the  celestial  ^lobe, 
an.'werini!  lu  ili«  eqiialur  on  the  terrestrial 
;lohe.  Whenever  Ilie  sun  conies  tu  this 
circle  the  dayn  and  nights  are  equal  all 
over  the  globe. 

EU.U1.\«jXES.  The  times  when  the  sun 
enters  the  fiml  poinbi  of  Arieji  and  Libra, 
thai  is.  about  ihe  twenty  tirst  of  .March  and 
the  twenly-tirst  of  September,  when  the 
days  and  nights  are  et|uiU  all  over  Ihe 
world. 

EUU I PAU  B  (ainvng  Travellers).  What- 
ever IS  necetixury  for  a  voyage  or  juuniey, 
as  horses,  aiteiidant?',  attire,  6^c. 

Eat'lP.VJEun  .Milu.iryAtfiirs).  What- 
ever is  necessary  for  an  ;uuiy»ii  its  march, 
as  tents,  bas&a^e,  kitchen  furniture,  Slc. 

EULMPOLLKNCE.  R.pialuy  of  force 
and  power;  as  eqiiipolleul  propositituis, 
such  as  have  the  same  meaning,  though 
differently  expressed. 

EaCITV  (in  Lawl.  A  correction  of  the 
common  law  wherein  it  is  delicienl. 

Eat'lTY,  CoLRT  OF.  A  title  given  by 
way  of  distinction  to  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cery, in  which  the  rigour  of  other  courts  is 
moderated,  and  c<mtn>versies  are  supposed 
lo  be  determined,  according  tu  the  exact 
rules  of  equity  and  conscience. 

EaUIVOCAL.  .\n  epithet  for  words 
which  have  a  double  meaning,  and  may 
be  applied  equally  well  in  both. 

EUUI  V0C.\T10.\.  The  use  of  equivocal 
terms,  which  may  be  understood  by  the 
hearer  in  a  different  sense  from  that  in 
which  they  are  taken  by  the  spe\ker. 

EarULK'S.  .An  old  const -nation, 
kavir  J  from  four  to  six  stars.  I 

ERA.  Se«  .Br*.  I 

ERIO.\>"L'S.     A   constellation     In   the  j 
aoathern  ht-»ni.<r>hrre.  coniaining,  accord- 
ing todiffereiil  authors,  from  nin«<tmu  tu  ' 
tighty-foiir  siHni. 


esc 


147 


EH. MINE.  A  little  animal  about  the  size 
of  a  squirrel,  the  fur  of  which,  bearing  the 
same  name,  is  very  valuable.  I'his animal 
IS  white  all  over,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
which  is  black.  The  common  weasel  of 
Uie  United  :States,  which  in  winter  is  white 
is  an  eniiine.  In  some  parts  of  the  coua 
try'll  is  sometimea  called  StoaU 


ESMINE  (in  Heraldry).  A  far  used  in 
coat  armour,  and  supposed  to  represent  the 
linings  and  doublings  of  mantles  and  robes 
It  is  represented  by  a  white  field  pow 
dered  or  seme  with  black  spots. 


ERRATUM.  An  error  of  the  preai;  il 
the  plural.  Errata,  errors  of  the  preas. 

ERRATIC.  Wandering,  not  fixed. 

ERL'PTIO.N  (in  Medicine;.  A  bre.nking 
forth  in  a  morbid  manner,  as  spots  on  the 
skin. 

ERUPTION  (in  Mineralosy).  The 
breaking  forth  of  fire,  ashes,  stones,  &.C 
from  a  volcano. 

ERYSIPELAS,  Tulearly  called  Sajst 
.^■tTHosT's  Kike.  A  dhHtrder  in  the  skin, 
which  consists  in  a  swelling,  with  redness 
beat,  and  pain. 

ESCALADE.  An  attack  of  a  fortified 
place  by  scalins  'he  walls  with  ladders, 
without  breaking  ground  or  carrying  oi< 
a  regular  siege. 

ESCAUjP  SHKLUS.  The  sbeO*  3l 
esealops,  a  sort  of  fisb,  which  ar^  re^iarly 
indented. 

ESCAPE  (in  Law).  A  Tiolent  or  pntj 
erasitm  out  of  some  lawful  nrsmiitt. 

E«"APEMENT.  See  f««-»r««.K»T. 

E.^'JARBL'.NCL.G    Km  CAsacifCLa. 


148 


EST 


E8CHEAT.  In  Kneland,  lands  or  profit* 
ihat  fall  to  a  lord  williiii  Iim  manor,  either 
by  forfeiture  or  the  death  of  the  tenant. 

ESCUKATOR.  In  Kngland,  an  «tlic«r 
formerly  appointed  to  make  inqueaia  of 
title*   by  escheau. 

ESCORT.  A  company  of  armed  men, 
attending  by  way  of  dmtiiiction  or  pro- 
tection. 

ilSCUAGE.  A  kind  of  kniphi'»  service. 

ESCULENT  A  plant  that  may  be 
eaten. 

KdCLfTCHEO.N,  orSMiELU.  Tlierepre- 
«entation  of  the  ancient  ohielcls  uted  in 
war,  on  which  aiiiiorial  beariiit;*  are 
jainted. 

I-:SPAL!ER.  A  low  branching  fruit 
tree,  having  the  branches  trained  to  a 
frame 

ESPIONAGE.  A  system  i»f  employing 
spies  either  In  military  or  political  aiTairs. 

tiSPLANADK  ;in  Kortiliciition).  The 
•loping  of  the  parapet  of  the  covered  way 
towards  the  campaign. 

ESQUIRE.  In  England,  anciently,  the 
person  that,  attended  a  knight  in  time  uf 
war,  and  carried  his  shield;  now,  a  title  of 
honour  given  to  the  suns  of  knights,  or 
those  who  serve  the  king  in  any  worship- 
ful calling,  as  otTicers  of  the  king's  courts, 
counsellors  at  law,&,c.  In  the  United 
States  this  title  is  given  to  ^wyers,  and  by 
courtesy  to  tnany  other  persons. 

ESSAY.  A  short  discourse  or  treatise 
on  some  subject. 

ESSAYIST.  A  writer  of  essays,  of  which 
there  have  been  many  in  England,  as 
Addison,  Steele,  Swift,  Pope,  Joliiisoii, 
Hawkesworlh,  Goldsmith,  Mackenzie, 
JLC.  who^e  works  have  been  collected  un- 
der the  n.-uiie  of  the  British  iCssayists 

ESSENt;E  (in  Chemistry)  The  purest 
and  subtlest  parts  uf  a  body,  drawn  by 
nteaiis  of  lire,  icC 

ESSENTIAL  OILS.  Acrid,  volatile 
oils,  having  a  strong  aromatic  smell,  which 
are  drawn  from  plants  by  distillatidu,  in 
distinction  from  native  oils  procured  by 
coctiun. 

ESSOIN  {in  Law).  An  excuse  by  rea- 
son of  sickness  or  any  other  just  cause,  fur 
one  that  is  summoned  toappear  and  answer 
an  action,  Slc. 

ESTABLISHMENT  (in  Military  Af- 
fiiirs).  The  quota  of  officers  and  men  in 
an  army. 

ESTABLISHMENT  (in  Trade).  The 
stock,  capii  il,  &.C.  which  are  essential  for 
carrying  on  a  business. 

ESTAFETTE.  A  military  courier,  sent 
firsaa  ouo  part  of  an  army  to  another. 


EU1> 

ESTATE  (In  Law).  Tire  tlUeor  inteKrt 
a  man  has  lu  lands  or  tenements 

ESTATES  OF  IHE  REAL.M.  In  Eu 
rope,  the  distinct  parts  of  any  state  or 
government,  as  the  King,  Lords,  and  Com- 
mons in  England. 

ES'l'I.MATE.  A  calculation  of  the  ex- 
penses of  any  undertaking,  made  according 
to  the  regular  charges  of  trade,  as  the 
estimate  of  builders,  engineers,  printers, 
publishers,  &.C 

ESI'tJPPEL.  An  impediment  or  bar  to 
an  action. 

ESTRAY.  A  tame  beast  found  without 
any  owner  known 

ESTREAT  (in  Law).  The  copy  of  an 
original  writing,  particularly  of  the  penal- 
ties ur  tines,  to  be  levied  by  the  bailifTiir 
other  utficer,  of  every  man  for  his  ofTenc*. 

FZSTUARY.  The  mouth  of  a  lake  or 
river,  or  any  place  where  the  tide  comes. 

ETC.  or&,c.  i.  e.  Ex  Cjctera.  Literally, 
And  otiier  things  not  mentioned. 

ETCHING,  A  method  of  engraving,  in 
which  the  lines  and  strokes  are  eaten  in 
with  aquafortis 

"**t;THER.  A  very  volatile  fluid,  produced 
by  the  distillation  of  alcohol  with  an 
acid. 

ETHICS.  The  science  of  moral  duties, 
showing  the  rules  and  measures  of  huii:an 
conduct  which  tend  to  happiness 

ETIQUETTE.  Rules  and  cereiiKinles  of 
good  manners,  observed  either  at  court  or 
in  genteel  life. 

ETYMOLOGY.  A  branch  of  grammar, 
which  teaches  tl"*  original  and  derivation 
of  worils. 

ETYMOLOGIST  One  who  traces 
words  from  their  original  sources 

EVACUATION  (in  Medicine).  Thedis- 
charge  of  siijiertluous  huinours  or  excre- 
ments out  of  the  body. 

EVACUATION  (in  Military  Affairs). 
The  leaving  a  town,  fortress,  or  any  place 
which  ha-s  been  occupied  as  a  military 
post  or  |KK>ltion 

EVANGELIST.  Literally,  the  bringer 
of  g(H>d  tidings;  p:irticularly,  the  writers 
ofoiir  Saviour's  history,  as  Matthew, Mark, 
Luke,  and  John. 

EVAPORATION  (in  Chemistry).  A 
process  in  which  the  superfluous  moisture 
of  any  liquid  substance  is  dispersed  by 
means  of  Are. 

EUCHARIST.  The  sacrament  of  ihe 
Lord's  Sui>per,  so  called,  because  Uie  deatk 
of  our  Redeemer  Is  thereby  commemorated 
with  tliankt'u)  remembrance. 

EUitiOMETER.  An  instrument  foi 
ascArtauuiiig  tha  purity  of  air,  or  the  quait- 


EXC 

titjr  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  inatmocpberi- 
eal  air. 

EVERGREEN  (Jr  ('.ardenini!)  A  spe- 
eiei  of  pfreiinials  whicli  preserve  llieir 
verdure  utl  llic  year  round,  :>uch  ai>  hollies, 
laurustiiius,  bays,  pines,  lirs,  &c. 

EVEKLAS?i'lNG  PEA.  A  peri-nnial  of 
the  vetch  kind,  which  grows  iinluriilly  in 
some  places,  and  may  be  cultivated  with 
advantage  ;is  fuud  fur  cattle. 

EVIDE.VCE  (ill  Law).  The  testimony 
adduced  in  a  court,  which  may  either  be 
written,  as  by  deeds,  bonds,  and  other 
documents,  or  verbal,  by  wilnessea  ex- 
amined  viva  voce. 

EULOGV  Fiui-se  or  comniend-ition  of 
a  person. 

EVOLUTION  (in  Arithmetic).  The  ex- 
traction of  the  roots  of  any  power. 

EVOLUTION  (in  .Military  Tactics). 
The  complicated  movement  of  a  body  of 
men  when  tliey  change  tlieir  position. 

EVOLUIIO.N  (in  Geiinietry).  'I'he  un 
'biding  of  a  turve. 

EVOLUTIO.V  (in  Botany).  The  expan- 
■ion  or  opening  nf  the  bud 

EUPHO.W  (in  Graiiiinar).  GihmI  sound 
in  pronouncing  a  word.  It  is  properly  a 
figure,  whereby  a  letter  that  is  Iik>  harsh 
is  converted  into  a  smoother,  coiitniry  to 
the  ordinary'  rules,  for  ihe  purpose  of  pro- 
moting siiioothiiesi)  and  elegance  in  pro- 
nunciation. 

EUKITIl.MY  (in  Painting,  Architec- 
ture, and  Sciilpliire).  A  certain  majesty 
and  elegance  of  ap|iearance  In  tlie  compo- 
sition of  diverse  parts  of  a  body,  painting, 
or  piece  of  sciilpiiire.  Vitrnvius.  who 
ranks  eiirithiiiy  among  the  essentials  In 
architecture,  makes  it  to  consist  in  the 
beauty  of  the  construction  or  assemblage 
of  the  several  parts  of  the  work 

EWE.  The  female  of  the  sheep 

E\  (in  t'oiii|>ositioiij.  .N'uw  signifies 
late,  as  the  e.\-iiiliiister,  the  late  ininisler. 

EXACTIO.V  (in  Law).  Injury  done  by 
an  otficer,  or  one  who,  under  colour  of  his 
office,  takes  more  tlian  wliat  tlie  law 
allows. 

E.\AOGF,RATIf)N.  The  making  things 
mp;iear,  more  than  they  really  are. 

EXALTATION  (in  Cbomlstry).  The 
iBising  a  thing  to  .■«  higher  degree  of  virtue, 
or  increasing  the  principiU  property  in  a 
body. 

EXAMINATION  (in  Ijiw).  The  ex 
aminiiig  of  witnesses  by  questions. 

EX.AMINI:R.S  (in  Law).  Two  officers 
in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  in  England,  ap- 
pointed to  examine  witnesses. 

EXCLLLENCV  In  Knijlaiid,  the  title 
firen  to  ambassadorx,  oimtoandens,  and 


EXE 


H9 


others  not  entitled  to  that  of  liighncM  la 
.America  the  title  is  given  U>  the  Pfe»i- 
dent,  to  ambassadors,  and  governors  of 
stales 

EXCENTRICITY.  See  Ecc«»tbicitt 
EXCEPTION  (in  Law).  A  stop  or  sta) 
to  any  actliiii,  which  consists  either  of  a 
ilciiiaJ  of  the  matter  alleged  in  bar  to  th« 
action,  or,  in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  it  it 
what  is  alleged  against  the  sufficiency  ol 
an  answer. 

EXCII.VNGIJ  (in  Commerce),  'ilia 
trucking  or  bartering  one  thing  for  ano 
ther;  also  the  place  where  merchants  meet 
for  the  purpose  of  transacting  biisinesis; 
and  likeu  ise  the  giving  a  sum  of  money 
in  one  place  for  a  bill,  ordering  the  pay 
iiientof  it  ill  another  place. 

EXCH.VNGi;  (in  Arilhmetic).  There 
ducing  of  moneys  of  dilfereiit  denoiniii»- 
tions  from  one  to  another,  or  the  nietiioti 
of  Ending  what  quantity  of  the  money  of 
one  place  is  equal  to  a  given  sum  of  ano- 
ther, according  to  a  certain  course  of 
exchange 

EXCHA.N'GE  (in  Law).  A  mutual  grant 
of  equal  interests,  the  one  in  consideration 
uf  the  other. 

EXCHANGE  BROKERS.  Men  who 
give  llie  merchants  information  how  the 
exchange  goes. 

EXCHEUUER  (in  Law).  In  England 
the  office  or  place,  where  the  king's  cash 
is  kept  and  paid. 

EXCHEaUER  COURT.  In  England, 
a  court  ill  which  all  causes  relating  t<i  the 
revenue  are  tried;  also  the  Prerogative 
Court  of  the  .Archbishop  of  Vork. 

EXCHEai'ERED.  t^uminoned  before 
the  Exchequer,  in  England,  to  answer  aiiy 
charge  of  defrauding  the  revenue,  4.c. 

E.XCISE  DiniES.  Inland  taxes  on 
commodities  of  general  consumption. 

EXCU.M.MUNICA  riON.  An  eccl^si 
astical  censure,  whereby  a  person  is  ex- 
cluded from  coniniunion  with  the  church, 
and  in  England  deprived  of  some  civif 
riehts. 

EXCORIATION.  The  rubbing  or  peel- 
ing away  the  rnlicle  or  external  skin. 

EXCORTICATION  'Ihe  stripping  a 
tree  of  its  bark. 

EXCRESCENCE  (in  Surgery),  .^ny 
preternaiiiril  foririalion  of  tiesh  on  any 
pail  of  the  body,  as  waru,  wens,  &.C. 

EXECUTIO.N  (in  Law).  A  judicial  writ 
granted  on  the  judgment  of  the  coait 
whence  It  isnues. 

EXECUTKiN  (in  Military  Affaiia).  Tha 
pTiTiiilering  and  wasting  a  country  in  time 
of  war. 
EXKCUTIVE  (in  Law).  That  branch 


IM 


EXP 


of  thfi  government,   which  execute*  the 
functions  of  governing  Uie  slate. 

i^XKCUTUR  ^in  Law).  One  iippomted 
by  a  leetalor  to  see  llial  hid  will  is  exe- 
«ulrd. 

KXECU'IRIX.  A  female  executor. 
E.VKMPLIFIUAJloA.  A  duplicate  of 
lellrrK  patent. 

KXKRt  ISK  (in  .Military  Tactics).  The 
practice  of  all  military  iiiovenieiils. 

K.MIALATKjN.  a  fume  or  vapour 
rising  from  the  earth. 

K.XHiBlTID.V.  A  public  display  of 
whatever  is  inierestiiig,  either  us  a  matter 
of  art,  or  a  nalural  curiosiiv. 

EXERGUE.  In  numi.smatics.  tho  place 
en  a  medal  or  coin  around  and  without 
the  type  or  figure,  which  hiis  generally 
tho  (l;ite  or  other  particular  ins,;ription. 
EXIfU.MATKt.V:  The  act  of  digging  up 
a  body  that  has  been  interred. 

E.XIGE.\T  (in  Law).  A  writ  or  part  of 
the  process  of  outlawry. 

EXILE  (in  Law).  A  person  sent  into 
■oiiie  place  distant  from  his  native  country, 
under  a  penally  not  to  return  within  a 
certain  period. 

E.XI'i'  (in  Theatricals).  Going  off  the 
stace. 

E.\  OFFICIO.  By  virtne  of  one*s  office, 
•8,  In  England,  ex  ulficio  informations, 
prosecutiuiis  commenced  by  ihe  klng*s  at- 
torney eeneral  by  virtue  of  but  olHce,  with- 
out applying  to  Ihe  conn  lor  permuisluu. 
E.XOIICItj'J".  line,  who  by  prayers  and 
incantations,  prufessea  to  cast  out  evil 
•pints. 

E.XORDIUM.  The  cotnmeDCfroent  of  a 
«I»eech,  servin;  to  prepare  the  audience. 

EXOTIC  PLA.NTS.  Hants  of  foreign 
growth,  which  id  Ihis  climate  require  a 
hothouse  and  every  kind  of  nurture. 

EXPA.\S1U.\.  An  iiurease  of  the  bulk 
of  any  body  by  a  power  aciiiis  within, 
particularly  by  the  actnni  of  heat 

EX  PARTE  (in  Law).  On  one  .side, 
as  exparle  statements,  a  partial  slalemenl, 
or  that  which  is   made  on  one  side  only. 

EXPECTATIO.N.  !•  the  d.KMrine  of 
chances,  is  a  ppiied  toany  couincenteveirt, 
Dpon  the  hapiiening  of  which,  some  bene- 
fit is  expected. 

EXPIX'TORA.NTS  Meirichies  which 
promote  expectoration,  or  a  discharge  of 
nucuK  from  the  breiut. 

EXPERIME.NT.  A  trial  of  the  re.«ults 
*f  certain  applications  and  motions  of  iiatu- 
cal  bodies,  in  order  t'>  discover  something 
<tf  their  laws,  nature,  &c. 

KXPERI.MK.VIAL  PHILOSOPHY, 
riiat  philosophy,  wliuh  deduce-^  the  l;tws 
|f  nature,  from  sen.sible  e.\periiiiL-ntA  and 
'bsvrvatutns. 


EXT 

EXPSRIMKNTU.M  CRUCIS  A  Ua4< 
ing  ur  decisive  experiment. 

EXPIRATION.  A  breathing  out  ail 
from  the  lungs. 

KXPLOrilO.V.  A  sudden  and  violent 
expansion  of  an  aerial  or  elastic  tluld,  ac- 
coiiipaiiied  with  a  noise. 

EXPO.NEXT  Un  Algebra).  Theniimbei 
ori|iiaiitlly  expressing  the  degree  or  eleva- 
tion of  a  power,  as,  in  l'^,  2  is  the  exponent 
of  the  square  number. 

EXPORTS  (in  Commerce).  Goods  ex 
ported  or  sent  out  of  one's  own  country  to 
a  foreign  land. 

EXPOSITOR.  One  who  explains  the 
writings  of  others,  particularly  one  who 
professes  to  expound  tiie  K'criptures. 

EX  POST  FAC'I'O.  Literally,  from 
something  done  afterwards,  as  an  ex  post 
facto  law,  a  law  which  operates  upon  a 
subject  not  liable  to  it  at  the  lime  the  law 
was  made. 

EXPRESS.  A  me.ssenper  sent  with  di- 
rect and  specific  in.-<trucliuiu. 

EXPRi:s8EU  Oll^.  OiU  obtaiiie4 
from  bodies  by  pressing. 

EXPRKSSiOiN  (in  Chemistry  or  Phar- 
macy). The  pressing  of  the  oils  or  juice* 
of  vegetables. 

EXPKE.sy|ON  (in  Painting).  The  di». 
tinct  exhibition  of  character  or  of  seuli- 
meut,  in  the  characters  repre)*ented. 

EXTE.MPORE,  or  EXTEMPOK  AN  bl- 
Ol'SLY  Without  preparation  or  premed- 
itation. 

EXTENSIO.V.  One  of  th*  essential  pro- 
perties of  a  body,  to  occupy  some  s^iace 

EXTE.N'T  (in  Law).  .-^  writ  of  execu- 
tion for  valuing  lands  and  leneme.nis. 

EXT  E.N'  r  (in  .Music).  The  compass  of  a 
voice  or  instrument. 

EXTE.NT  i.\  AiD.  In  England,  a  seiz- 
ure made  by  the  crown,  when  a  public 
accountant  becomes  a  dtfaiilier. 

EXTL\GU!SI1.ME.\T  (in  Law).  The 
annihilation  of  an  estate,  t<.Q,.  by  means  of 
its  being  merged  ur  cuuiolidatud  with 
another. 

KXTIKPATIO.N'diiSurf 'sry).  Thecom- 
plete  removal  or  desirin  lioti  of  any  P'lrt, 
either  1>>  excision  or  by  iiiea  is  of  caustics 
EX'I'ORTIO.N  I  he  niila  vful  act  of  an 
nfhcer  who,  by  colour  of  hi!  othce,  take* 
money  ur  any  other  tiling  u  hen  none  at 
all  is  due. 

EXTRACT  (in  Cneinlstry  .  The  ourer 
parts  of  any  substance  extrai  .'ed  from  it* 
gros.^er  parts  by  means  of  dt  'ocliun,  and 
formerly  also  by  distillaiioii  uiiiil  thrf 
were  of  the  c<iiisisleii<e  of  p:a  .  .'r  I'oiiey 
EXTRACT  ;iii  l.iierature).  '<(  oie  select 
matter  or  sentences  taken  (rot  >  x  b'Mtk. 


FAG 

EXTRACT  (ill  Law).  A  draught  or  copy 
of  a  writing. 

RXTKAC  riON (in Surgery).  Thedraw- 
Ina  any  forpian  matter  out  of  the  body. 

EXTRACTION  (in  Aritlimelic).  The 
findiiii;  out  the  irue  rout  ot'any  iiiwnher  or 
quantity. 

KXTRACTION  (in  fienealney).  The 
'inc,  stem,  or  hranrh  of  a  family  from 
which  a  person  is  descended 

EXritACTOIt  (in  Surgery).  An  instru- 
ment for  drawing  the  stone  from  the 
iKjdy. 

l::XTRAORniN'ARY.  Out  of  the  com- 
mnn  course;  as  an  Kxtraonliiiary  Conner, 
one  sent  on  an  urgent  occa-sion;  Kxtraor- 
dliiary  (ia/elte,oiie  |iul)lislied  to  announce 
some  particular  event. 

EX  TRAVASATIO.V.  The  state  of  the 
fluids  when  they  are  out  of  their  proper 
vessels,  as  wlieii  hy  tile  liri-akiii<;  of  a  lilood 
/ftssel  in  tile  dura  mater,  the  hlood  isetfus- 
jd  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain. 

EXTRK.ME     (JNCTIO.V.      A     solemn 
innintin"  of  any  person   in  the   Romish 
vbiirch,  who  is  at  the  point  of  de.-ith. 
EXUD.\TIO.\.  The  emitting  of  moisture 


FAC 


151 


thmnch  the  pores,  as  the  e.xudBtlon  of  gum* 
thruiigh  the  bark  of  trees 

E.\IJVI/K.  The  slouuh  or  cist  off  cover 
ings  of  animals,  particularly  those  of  th» 
snake  kind. 

i:yE  (III  Anatoniy).  Theornan  of  sight, 
whereby  visible  objecis  are  represented  t* 
the  iiiind.  'I'he  external  parts  of  the  ey* 
are  the  eyebrows,  eyelashes,  eyelids,  thii 
lachrymal  ducts,  &c.;  the  internal  parts  i>l 
the  eye,  wliich  compose  the  ball  or  glolie  o# 
the  eye,  consist  of  meiiibniiius,  cliaml>ers 
and  humours. 

EYE.  A  term  applied  to  different  ob 
jects  from  some  suppo.sed  resemblance  ti 
the  iialiirul  eye. 

EYE  (in  .Architecture).  Tlie  aperture  al 
the  top  uf  a  dome,  and  to  the  centre  of  a 
volute. 

EYE  (in  Biitany).  That  part  of  a  potato« 
and  other  things  where  the  bud  put> 
forth. 

EYE  (in  Printing).  The  graving  in  re- 
lievo, on  the  top  or  face  of  the  letter. 

EYEX7L.ASS.  A  glass  put  close  to  the 
eye,  for  the  purpose  uf  bringing  objecta 
nearer. 


P,  the  sixth  letter  In  the  alphabet,  stood 
as  a  numeral  for  40,  and  with  a  diLsh  over 
it,  for  40,0i)ll;  it  now  stands  for  one  of  the 
Dominical  or  Sunday  letters,  and  also,  in 
Music,  for  the  fourth  note  in  the  diatonic 
scale. 

FA  (in  Music)  The  fourth  note  of  the 
modern  scale,  which  is  either  flat  or  sharp; 
the  Hat  is  marked  thus  \),  and  the  sliarp 
thus  rjif. 

FA  BEE.  A  t.ale  or  fictKious  narration 
intended  to  instruct  or  convey  a  moral,  as 
the  Fables  of  /Esop;  also  the  principal 
part  of  an  epic  or  dramatic  piece. 

fabric;  (in  Comaierce).  The  sain*  as 
manufacture;  lace  of  the  fabric  of  Brus- 
sels, &c. 

FACADE.  Thi  front  or  the  principal 
side  of  a  building. 

FACE  (in  Anatorm').  The  lower  and 
anterior  part  of  the  skull;  in  general,  the 
fure  part  of  any  thing,  as  the  face  of  a 
•tone,  anvil,  &c. 

FACE  (in  Fortification).  The  face  of  a 
bastion,  the  most  advanced  p-irt  towards 
the  field. 

FACE  (in  Ounnery).  Th»  iikPtal  at  the 
extremity  i.f  the  muzzle  of  a  gun. 

FACE  fin  Military  Tartirs).  The  side  I 
»f  a  battalion  formed  into  a  "c|iiaie. 

FA  .'ET.  The  Hinal*  kuIk  uf  a  diamond     I 


FAC  SIMILE.  The  copy  of  a  pereon't 
writing,  .as  of  a  letter  in  imitation  of  .hi 
own  handwriting. 

FACTITIOUS.  Made  by  art,  as  facti- 
tious cinnabar;  in  distinction  frein  that 
procured  naturally 

FACTOR  (in  Commerce).  An  agent 
commissioned  by  merchants  to  buy  or 
si^ll  goods  on  their  account. 

FACTORS  (in  Arithmetic^.  The  two 
nunil>ers  that  are  multiplied  together. 

FAt"rORY.  A  place  in  a  distant  coun- 
try, where  fiictors  reside  for  purposes  of 
trade;  also  tlie  trades  themselves  collec- 
tively. 

FACCE^,  (in  Astronomy).  Bright  spots 
on  the  surface  of  the  sun. 

FACIJL'I'IES,  Court  of.  In  England, 
a  court  under  the  archbishop  of  Canterbu- 
ry for  granting  faculties  or  privileges. 

FACCI/I'IES  ,in  the  Cniversities).  The 
divisions  under  which  the  arts  and  sciences 
are  classed,  and  degrees  gniiited.  These 
are  for  the  most  (lart  fi>iir.  :is  I.  Arts,  iii- 
cliidiiig  Humanity  and  1'liilos.iphy:  2.  'J'he- 
ology;  3.  Physic;  and  ^.  Civil  l,aw. 

FACCLTY  (in  Eawj.  A  dispensation 
or  privilege. 

FACi  I/rV  (in  Physics).  Thai  ponrer 
by  which  a  livio!:  rre;iiirre  moves  a.id  acts. 
This  may  l>e  eitliei  an  an  anal,  or  corporeal 


1S2 


FAL 


faculty  L«longing  to  the  body,  or  a  rational 
(kculty  belonging  to  the  mind. 

P^CGS.  The  drega  or  gross  substaucAs 
which  Kettle  after  fermentation. 

F.*:CUL^.  Small  dregs  or  lees 

FAGG.  A  sea  term,  for  the  end  of  the 
atrands  which  do  not  go  through  the  top« 
when  a  cable  or  rope  is  closed. 

FAINTS  (in  Chemistry).  The  weakspi- 
ritaou8  liquor  that  runs  nS  from  (he  still 
after  the  proof  spirit  is  taken  away. 

F.'VIR.  A  larger  kind  of  market,  held 
once,  twice,  or  oflerier  in  the  year,  ac- 
cording to  the  charter  granted  to  any  par- 
ticular place. 

FAIR  MAID  OF  FRANCE.  A  plant 
of  the  ranunculus  tribe,  bearing  an  ex- 
ceedingly white  flower 

FAIRY.  A  kind  of  genii  or  imaginary 
ipirits  of  a  diminutive  size,  and  fabled  to 
haunt  house?  and  revel  in  meadows  du- 
ring night,  &.C. 

FAIRY  CIRCLE  or  RING.  A  pheno- 
menon frequently  seen  in  the  fields,  con- 
sisting of  a  round  bare  path  with  iirass  in 
the  middle,  formerly  aicrilied  to  the  dances 
of  the  fairies.  It  is  supposed  liy  some  to 
l>e  a  fungus  which  eats  aw,iy  the  grass  in 
<hig  circular  form,  or  by  others  the  eflecl 
of  lightning. 

FAIRY  TALF.S.  Ea.sierii  tales  of  the 
wonderful  proceediiii;s  wrought  by  fairies. 

FAKIR.  A  sort  of  dervises  or  Maho- 
metan raoaks.  Religious  devotees  of  Hin- 
dustan 

FALCHION.  A  kind  of  sword  turned 
ap  somewhat  like  a  hook. 

FALCON.  A  bird  of  the  hawk  tribe, 
about  the  size  of  a  raven,  and  capable  of 
neing  trained  for  sport,  in  which  it  wa-s 
formerly  much  employed.  It  is  usually 
"•presented  in  cqats  of  arms  with  bells  on 
•ta  legs,  and  also  decorated  with  a  hood, 
virola,  rings,  &.e.  TiM  fUcon  (entil  is 
h«re  repres«ni«4 


FALCONER.  On*  who looki  after,  and 
trains  haw  k». 


FAR 

F.^LL  (In  Physics).  The  descent  or  ■» 
tural  motion  of  bodies  towards  the  earth 

FALL  (in  Military  Affairs).  The  sur- 
render of  a  town-,  among  Seamen,  the 
100.16  end  of  a  tackle. 

F.VLL  (in  Husbandry).  The  descent  of 
ground  which  serves  to  carry  off  the  water. 

F.M.LACY.  A  logical  artifice,  or  an 
argument  framed  so  as  to  deceive ^  a  so- 
phism 

FALLING  SICKNESS.  See  Epilbpit. 

FALLOW.  Land  laid  up  and  left  with- 
out a  crop  for  a  year,  in  order  to  give  the 
soil  time  to  n-cover  itself)  the  act  of  so 
doing  is  called  tallowing. 

FALLOW-DEER.  The  common  deer 
seen  in  the  parks  of  England.  The  Vir- 
ginia deer  of  .America. 

FALLOW-FINCH  A  bird,  otherwise 
named  \Vbeat  Ear.  f 

F.ALSE.  An  epithet  used  in  Law,  as 
False  Imprisonment,  the  trespass  of  im- 
prisoning a  man  without  lawful  cau.«e',  in 
Mineralogy,  as  False  Diamond,  a  diamond 
counterfeited  with  glass. 

FALSE  FLOWER  (in  Botany).  A 
flower  which  does  not  seem  to  produce 
any  fruit. 

FALSE  ROOF  (in  Carpentry).  That 
part  of  a  house  which  is  between  the  roof 
and  the  covering. 

FALSIFYING  (in  Law).  Proving  a 
thing  to  be  false,  as  falsifying  records 

FA.MILY  (in  Law).  All  living  in  one 
house  under  one  head;  also  the  kindred 
or  lineage  of  a  person. 

FA.MILY  (in  Natural  History).  Any 
order  of  animals,  or  other  natural  produc- 
tion of  the  same  cla^is. 

F.AN  A  sort  of  basket  in  which  the 
corn  IS  winnowed,  to  separate  the  chafT 
from  it. 

F.ANDANGO.  A  dance  much  used  in 
Spam 

FAR.   An  abbreviation  for  farthing. 

F.\RCE.  A  sort  of  mock  romedy,  in 
which  there  is  much  grimace  and  buf- 
foonery. 

FARCY.  A  sort  of  leprosy  in  horses. 

FARE.  Money  paid  lor  the  passage  of 
a  person  in  any  vehicle,  either  by  land  o; 
by  water. 

FARINA.  Th»  pulverulent  and  giini- 
nons  part  of  wheat  and  other  needs,  ob- 
tained by  grinding. 

F.ARM.  In  Efielaiid,  part  of  an  estate  in 
land  employed  in  husbandry,  and  let  lo  a 
tenant  on  condition  of  payinu  rent  to  the 
owner  thereof.  In  the  I'nitert  .^t.ites,  the 
term  is  applied  to  any  e.xtjite  in  lano 
whether  rented  or  cultivated  by  the  pra 
prietor. 


FAT 

PARMKU.  Properly,  one  who  oeciipies 
and  cultivates  a  riirin  or  liiri^d  ground;  a 
cultivator  of  eround  generally.  In  Eng- 
land the  farmers  are  not  |iri)|irietor8  of  tne 
lands  wtiirh  <iHii:illy  helong  to  rich  pe*- 
■OIis,  who  let  them  li>  teiiunt.t. 

FA  KM  INC.  The  cullivatiii|«  of  land  for 
the  piirpiities  of  prottt. 

I'ARR  AOtJ.  A  iriixtiire  of  several  Rorts 
of  wed  sown  in  the  same  plot  of  eround. 

FARKIKR.  One  who  shoe-  horses,  and 
also  cures  their  diseases.  In  London,  the 
farriers  are  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  city 
companies.  .\s  farriers  worked  most  in 
iron,  ihey  were  originally  called  ferrers  or 
ferriers,  from  ferruin,  iron 

FARRIERY.  The  art  of  shoeing  and 
nianaclni!  a  horse  altogether,  iiirludin!?''''>o 
the  cure  of  his  diseases.  Uii  the  applicattoit 
of  science  to  this  art,  it  rose  in  importanre 
and  estimation;  a  college  wa.«  formed  some 
years  ago  in  Knglaiid  for  priic.titioiiers  in 
Riiimal  meilicine  and  surgery,  which,  in 
imitation  of  the  French,  was  called  the 
Veterinary  College,  and  the  art  itself  the 
Veterinary  Art 

FARTHI.XG.Thefourth  part ofa  penny. 

F.  A.  S.  i.  e.  Fralernitas  .\ntii|uarioriiiii 
Sociiis,  or  Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  t*<i- 
ciety  in  England. 

F.'VSCES.  Bundles  of  rods  bound  round 
the  helves  of  hatchets,  which  were  carried 
liefore  the  Roman  coiitiiils  as  ln.signia  of 
their  office. 

FASCBTS.  Irons  used  in  a  %\aiui  manu- 
factory. 

FASCINES  (in  Fortification).  Small 
branches  of  trees  bound  uo  in  bundles  for 
miiiig  ditches,  &,c 


F  \ST.  An  abstinence  from  food  on  a 
reltglous  account. 

I  \STI.  The  Roman  ca^ndar,  in  which 
were  set  down  the  fen.st»,  games,  cere- 
Bionies,  &c. 

F  \T.  A  concrete  oily  matter  contained 
fn  the  cellular  membrane  of  animals. 

FATK.S.  The  liestiiiies:  according  to 
the  poets,  the  three  taiai  sisters,  Clotho, 
I.ache3is,  and  Atropos,  who  determined 
the  duration  of  life. 

FATHER  LASHER.  A  vorarions  fish 
inh-thiting  the  shores  of  Greenland  and 
Newfoundland. 

FATMRR  !.ONG.LF,f:a.  A  harmless 
tnsect,  with  a  small  I  ody  and  exceedingly 
one  legs. 

f  ATflD.M.  A  long  measure  of  six  feet. 


FEL 


ISf 


F.AtTN'S.  Rural  deities  having  horns  on 
t  leir  heads,  with  pointed  ears  .<iid  tails 

F.VWN.  A  young  deer;  a  buck  or  do« 
of  the  first  year. 

F.  E.  An  abbreviation  for  Flemish  Ells. 

FEASTS.  Anniversary  times  of  feasting 
and  thanksgiving,  such  iis  (.'hristmas  and 
Ea.-ier,  &.c.  Some  feasts  are  moveable, 
that  is,  not  confined  to  any  particular  day, 
as  Plaster  and  all  that  are  governed  by  itj 
others,  as  <  hristmas,  Hcc.  are  immoveable, 
that  IS,  fixed  to  a  day 

FEA'I'HEU.  'I'hat  which  forms  the  co- 
i  veriiig  of  birds      The  ciin.stmieiit  parts  of 
fenthers  are,  for  the  iikwI  part,  albumen 
wiin  a  little  gelatin 

FEATHER  (in  the  Manege).  A  row  of 
hair  turned  back  and  raised  un  the  neck 
I  of  a  horse. 

I  FEATHER-EDGED  BOARDS.  Boards 
I  having  lUie  edge  thinner  than  the  other 
I  FEATHERS.  Thefinesl  kind  offeathers, 
I  as  Ostrich  Feathers,  which  are  used  for 
I  ornament.  The  I'rince's  Feathers  are  those 
which  adorn  the  cognizance  of  the  Princ« 
of  Wales. 

F'EU.  An  abbreviation  for  February. 

FEBIUFCGE.  A  s<irt  of  medicines 
whicli  abate  the  violence  of  fever 

FEDERAL.  Unite.d  by  a  compact,  aa 
Federal  States. 

FEDERAL  CONSTITUTION.  The 
constitution  of  the  United  States  in  which 
the  several  states  are  united,  or  federated 
under  one  generil  government. 

FEE.  .An  estate  of  inheritance,  or  the 
interest  which  a  man  has  in  land  or  some 
other  immoveable:  this  is  culled  a  fee 
simple  when  it  is  unconditional,  and  a 
fee  Mil,  when  limited  to  certain  heirs  ac- 
cording to  the  will  of  the  first  donor 

PEED.  What  is  given  to  a  liorse  at  one 
time,  either  of  hay  or  corn. 

FEEDER.  A  sort  of  drain  which  carries 
the  water  into  other  drains. 

FEELEKS.  Organs  fixed  to  the  mouth 
of  insects,  which  are  vulgarly  called  horns: 
the  feelers  are,  however,  smaller  than  fhe 
anlennx,  or  horns,  in  some  insects. 

FEELING.  One  ofthefiveseiises,  which 
acts  by  means  of  the  nerves,  that  are  di» 
tribiited  in  all  parts  of  the  body. 

FEES.  Perijuisites  allowed  to  offiecra 
in  the  administration  of  justice. 

FEIG.VEl)  ACTIO.N.  An  action  which 
is  brought  simply  to  try  the  roertta  of  a 
que.stion. 

FLI.NT  (in  Military  Tactics).  A  mock 
attack,  made  to  conceal  the  true  one. 

FELIvOKS.  Tb»  pieces  of  wood  wbwk 
form  the  circiimferenca  or  circular  put  ef 
he  wheeU 


lU 


FBO 


FELSPAU.  K  mineral  occurring  in 
crystals  and  crystalliue  masses,  wliicb, 
next  to  quartz,  is  the  most  abundant  in 
nature.  It  is  somewliat  vitreous  in 
lustre,  and  breaks  rather  easily  in  two 
directions  with  smooth  Kurlaces.  Its 
celor  is  usually  white  or  flesh-red,  some- 
times bluish  or  greenish.  It  consists  of 
silica,  alumina,  and  potash,  and  is  a 
constituent  part  ot  granite,  gneiss,  mica 
Blate.pnrphyry  ,and  most  volcanic  rock.". 

FELX..\HS.  The  peasants  or  laboring 
classes  in  Egypt. 

FELiOXy.  In  common  law,  any  crime 
which  incurs  tlia  I'orieiture  of  lands  or 
goods,  and  to  which  capital  or  other 
punishment  is  superadded,  according 
to  the  degree  of  guilt. 

FELT-(aiAIN".  Thf  grain  of  rut  timber 
that  ruiii  transversely  to  the  annular  rings 
or  |>i:i(e8. 

FEl.TlNG.  The  process  of  working  felt 
into  hats. 

FELTI.N'G  (in  Carpentry).  The  splitting 
M'tiinlier  by  the  felt-srain. 

FELirC('.\.  A  li-ilin.pen  vessel  with  six 
wirti,  much  used  in  the  Mediterranean.  Us 
bclin  may  t>e  used  either  at  the  head  or 
he  stern.  > 

PEMAl-E  FLOWER.  A  flower  having 
istils  or  stismas  without  stanieii.4. 

FE.MALE  SCREW.  A  screw,  the  spiral 
taread  of  which  is  cut  in  the  cavity  of  the 
ylinder. 

FEME  COVERT  (in  Law).  A  married 
woman. 

fEME  SOLE.  A  sinsle  woman. 

FE.MfM.NE  GENnKR  (in  Grammar). 
Nuunn  which,  by  their  endin«:,  deWSe  the 
female  sex. 

FEN.  A  place  overflowed  with  water, 
■nd  abounding  in  bnzs. 

FENCE  (in  Husbandry).  A  hedge,  wall, 
or  ditch,  &c.  made  tu  part  otf  a  held  or 
garden. 

FENCING.  The  art  of  using  the  sword, 
either  in  attack  or  defence.  In  the  exer- 
cise of  this  art,  foils  or  thin  swords  are 
used,  which,  beinj!  blunted  at  the  points 
and  bending  readily,  are  perfectly  harm- 
less. 

FENDER.  An  iron  plate  to  keep  the 
lire  and  ashes  from  ,he  room. 

FE.N'UERS.  A  am  term  for  pieces  of 
old  cable,  tee.  hurg  over  the  sides  of  a  ship 
to  keep  o:f  other  ihips. 

FENNEC.  .\ii  a  limal  found  in  Africa 
RarmhliuE  a  dog. 

FEOFFEE  (in  Law).  He  to  whom  a 
feoffment  is  mad* . 

FEOFFMENT  (in  f^w).  The  gift  or 
grant  of  any  bereditamsnt  to  another  in 
fre  simple. 

FEOFFOR.  He  who  makes  a  laoflrnent. 


FET 

'      FER/B.  The  third  order  of  snlniala  la 

I  the   Linncan  system,   uicludins  such  aa 

have  from  six  to  ten  conic  (ore  tt-eth  and 

{  one  tusk,  as  the  se:tl,  the  do^,  the  wolf, 

the  hvfena,  the  jacka!,  the  lynx,  the  tiger, 

the  panther,  Slc. 

]      FER.MENT.  Any  subsi.inre  which  has 

■  the    property  of  causing   feruirniMimn    in 

another  body,  as  the  acid  in  jeaven. 

FERMENTATION.  The  intestine  <..m 
motion  in  the  small  insensible  particles  of 
a  mixed  body,  usually  caused  by  the  o(>e 
ration  of  acid  matter.  When  animal  liquids 
alone,  or  mixed  with  vegetable,  tM'cumt 
sour,  this  is  called  ji^cetous  fernientatinn, 
and  the  product  is,  generally  speaking, 
acetic  acid  or  vinegar.  When  saccharine 
m;itter,  or  the  sweet  juices  of  fruits, 
undergo  this  intestine  chanse,  it  is  called 
vinous  fermentation,  and  ibe  result  is  au 
intoxicating  liquor,  as  wine  or  beer,  &c. 

FERN.  A  weed,  very  common  in  dry 
and  barren  places,  which  is  very  inJurioiK 
to  the  land  in  which  it  has  once  taken 
root. 

FERR  FT.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  tribe, 
with  red  eyes  and  a  long  snout ;  it  is  much 
used  in  Europe,  in  catching  rabbits  and  rata 


FERRUGINOUS.  An  epithet  for  any 
thing  partaking  of  iron,  or  conial^bg  any 
particles  of  that  metal. 

FERRY.  A  vessel  employed  for  con- 
veying persaaii  and  goods  over  a  narniw 
piece  of  water. 

FERRYMAN.  One  who  keeps  a  ferry 

FERI'LA.  An  in.strument  of  correction 
in  schools,  with  which  boys  are  benteu  on 
the  hand. 

FERULA  (in  Botany).  A  plant,  o'ner- 
wise  called  Fennel  Giant,  which  is  an 
herbaceous  perennial 

FESCUE  GRAS.s.  A  aort  of  grass  cul 
tivated  as  food  for  cattle. 

FF..*«TO()N.  An  ornament  of  carved 
wood,  in  manner  of  wreaths  or  garland* 
hangini:  down. 

FETI.^>CK    A  tuft  of  hair  that  growa 


FIE 

Dfblud   the  pastern  join  in  tbe  feet  of 
Many  liorses. 

FKSSK  (ill  Heraldry).  One  of  the  hon- 
oiimlilc  nnliiiarittg,  which  occupies  the 
thitil  part  auil  the  middle  of  tlie  held. 


FIG 


!U 


FETTERS  (in  Law).  A  sort  ot  irons 
put  on  the  legs  of  malefactors. 

FKL'I).  In  England,  the  rifiht  which  the 
vassal  or  tenant  had  in  lands  and  other 
immoveable  things  of  his  lord's,  to  use 
the  same  and  take  the  profits  thereof,  ren- 
dering unto  his  lord  *uch  duties  and  services 
as  belonged  to  military  tenure,  the  property 
of  the  soil,  tc.  always  remaining  to  the 
ord.  The  laws  respecting  these  feuds, 
which  are  comprehended  under  the  name 
of  the  Feudal  System,  regulated  all  the 
principles  of  landed  property  in  tliat  king- 
dom until  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  ;  and 
vestiges  of  this  system  are  still  to  be  seen 
in  the  modern  tenures,  particularly  in 
copyholds. 

FKVKR.  A  disease  characterized  by  an 
increase  of  beat,  an  accelerated  pulse,  a 
foul  toneue,  and  an  impaired  stale  of  se- 
veraJ  functions. 

FIAT,  i.e.  Let  it  be  dome.  In  Eng. 
A  short  order  or  warrant  of  some  judge, 
for  making  out  and  allowing  certain  pro- 
te«se«. 

FIBRE  (in  Anatomy).  Asimplefilament, 
serving  to  form  other  parts,  as  tbe  muscles, 
nerves,  &.c. 

FIBRF.  (in  Botany).  Threads  or  hair-like 
■trings  in  plants,  roots,  &.c. ;  the  firsi  cmi- 
stituent  parts  of  bodies. 

FIBKIL.  A  small  tihre. 

FIBRI.NA  (in  Cheini-try).  Th.it  suh- 
■t.ince  which  constitutes  the  tilimus  part 
cf  muscles.  It  is  of  a  while  culoiir,  with- 
out taste  or  smelj,  and  not  soluble  in  alco- 
hol or  water. 

FIBROLITE.  A  mineral  consisting  of 
alum:na,  silica,  and  irou. 

FIBULA  un  .XiiHloniy).  The  leaser  and 
bUte    bone  uf  the  leg. 

FICTION  (in  Liw).  A  mipposiiion  that 
•  th!ngistrue,soth<it  it  may  have  the  effect 
of  truth  as  far  as  ik  roosistenl  with  equity. 

FIELD.  Anthle  land,  or  any  plot  uf 
ground  parted  otf  fur  cuttivalion. 


FIELD  (In  Heraldry).  The  whoU  sur 
Rice  of  the  shield  or  escutcheon. 

F I  I'XU  I  III  .M  il  ilary  Tactics).  The  ground 
cluRieu  for  any  battle. 

FIELD  (in  Painting).  The  ground  or 
blank  space  on  which  any  thing  may  be 
drawn. 

FIELD-BED  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
folding  bed  lu^ed  by  officers  in  their  tents 

FIELDFARE.  A  migratory  bird  of  the 
thrush  tribe,  that  visits  England  about 
Michaelmas  and  leaves  it  in  .March. 

FIELD-OFFICERS.  Those  who  com- 
mand a  whole  regiment. 

FIELDIMEt'E.  A  sort  of  cannons,  con- 
sisting oreigbleeii-pouiiilers  ami  less. 

FIELD-WORlvri  (in  Fortiricati(m). 
Works  thrown  up  by  an  army  in  be- 
sieging a  fortress. 

FIERI  FAt;L\S.  A  writ  commanding 
a  sheriff  to  levy  the  debt  or  damages  on 
the  goods  of  one,  against  whom  judgment 
hits  been  had  in  an  action  of  debt, 

FIFE.  A  shrill  wind  instrument  of  the 
martial  kind,  consisting  of  a  short  narrow 
tube,  Willi  holes  dis|iosed  along  the  side 
for  the  regulation  of  its  tones. 

FIFER.  Uiie  who  plays  on  the  fife  in 
the  army. 

FIG.  A  tree,  with  an  upright  stem 
branching  titleen  or  twenty  feet  high,  with 
large  palinated  or  band-shaped  leaves.  It 
tljiirislie.s  in  warm  climates,  and  bears  s 
fruit  as  represented  underneath,  which, 
wlie4  dried,  Is  remarkable  for  iti  luaciouJ 
swwuiesa. 


FIG  (In  Farriery).  A  kind  of  wart  on 
tbe  Hesh  of  a  horse,  that  is  oflen  filled 
with  foul  humours. 

FIGHTS.  Waste  clothes  hung  round  a 
ship  in  battle,  to  prevent  the  men  from 
being  seen. 

FKiURE  (in  Painting).  The  lines  and 
colours  which  form  the  representation  of 
an  object. 

FIGURE  (in  Geometry).  A  space  ter- 
minated on  all  parts  by  lilies  curved  of 
straight. 

FK;URE  (in  Arithmetic).  One  of  lk»e 
nine  digits,  as  1,  3,  3,  &.c. 

FIGURE  (in  Grammar  and  Rhetoric) 
A  word  or  form  of  expression  which  d»- 


:bs 


FIN 


Tlates     from    the    common    and    natural 
mrHiiitie. 

FILAi;KR.  In  Rneland.  an  offic>^r  of 
thr  Oiirl  ofOimiiKin  Pl^as  who  tiles  the 
writs,  whi^rfuii  lir  iii;tkfs  •ml  process. 

FILAl.KKK,  or  KILIUK  V.M:.  An  or- 
ii:iiiittiil;il  work  ill  \\(iii-b  riowrr*  or  other 
litfiires  are  wroiijjlit  wlUi  aolJ  or  silver 
tliresid^. 

KILAMK.VT  (in  Botany  .  The  thread- 
like part  of  the  stamen,  vhir.h  supports 
tlie  anther. 

KII.BEUT.  A  sort  of  nut  tree  cultivated 
in  ■THidcns,  the  fruit  of  vvliic.li  is  larger  and 
finer  than  the  coiiiiiioii  uild  nut. 

FII.Kdn  Trade  and  Law).  A  wire  or 
thread  on  which  louse  papers  are  filed  up 
t'-ffiher. 

KII.K  (among  Mechaiii<-s).  A  tcxd  of 
steel,  with  which  iron  or  any  other  metal  is 
p<ilished.  F^ilesa..  cut  in  little  liirrotvsin 
a  certain  direction,  and  of  a  rerlaiii  deptli, 
acxirdiiig  to  the  ^ain  or  touch  rei|iiire(l. 
Files  are  either  cut  l>y  the  hand  with  a 
clilsel  and  mullet,  or  by  means  of  a  ma- 
chine ;  but  the  latter  mode  i>  not  so  iiood. 
FILE  (III  Military  Tactics).  A  straight 
line  or  row  formed  by  soldiers. 

FILI»;ES.  An  <irder  of  plants  of  the 
class  rr>'|itoeamia  in  the  Liniiieaii  system, 
iiicliid  Hi:  tlie  fern,  horse-tail,  adder's 
tongue,  maiden-hair,  spleenwort,  polypo- 
dy, &c. 

Fl  LLGT  (in  Heraldry).  A  kind  of  bor- 
dure. 

FIM.ET  (in     Architecture).      A   little 
member  that  connects  the  other  nieiuhers. 
FIIJ.ET  (in  I'ainting).     A  little  rinslet 
of  Irnf  gold. 

FILM  (in  J^urgery).  A  tbin  skin  that 
covers  the  eye. 

FILM  (in  Rotany).  The  thin  woody  skin 
that  separates  the  seed  in  the  pod. 

FILTER  (in  Ohomi.stry).  A  strainer 
throush  wHich  any  tluid  is  pas.sed  so  as  to 
•iepirat*-  ilie  grosser  particles  from  it. 

FILTERING  PAPER.  Paper  without 
size,  that  may  be  tised  in  tilterins. 

FILTERI.NG-STONE.  A  sort  of  stone 
or  basin  which  is  sometimes  used  for  piiri- 
fyine  water.  It  is  artificial  as  well  as 
natural,  and  ho.*  been  variously  conslriirted 
tu  answer  the  purpu!<e. 

FIN.  Themenibrine  in  fishes  by  which 
they  perforin  tholr  muvvmenls  in  the  wa- 
ter. 

FINAL.  The 'aatorconcliidine.  Final 
letters  are  those  ivhirh  are  used  only  at 
the  end  of  words,  as  in  the  Hebrew  and 
•Uier  oriental  lansnaiies. 

FINAL  (in  Music).  Tlie  last  sound  of  a 
rerae  iu  a  chant.  . 


FIR 

FIN.\ I<F,.  The  last  piece  in  •  concert,  k,c 

FIN.ANlES  (in  Political  Economy). 
The  treasures  or  revenue  of  the  country. 

FIN  A.VCI  ER.  .An  oihcer  who  maiiagea 
the  tinances  uf  the  country. 

FI.NE(in  L.iw).  A  penalty  or  aniendii 
made  in  money  for  an  otfence  ;  also  nioiiny 
paid  tor  the  renewal  of  a  fease,  anr*  m  C4m 
veyance  of  lands  or  tenements  in  order  to 
cut  otf  all  controversies. 

FINE-DR.-WVI.Nt;.  Sewiiij!  iipthorenta 
in  woollen  cloths  so  finely  that  they  can- 
not he  seen. 

FINERS  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER 
Those  who  separate  llie  metals  from 
coarser  ores. 

FINERY.  The  furnace  in  which  met- 
als are  refined,  that  is,  hammered  and 
fashioned  into  what  is  called  a  bloom  or 
square  liar. 

Fl.N-FISM.     A  smaller  sort  of  whale. 

FIK,  or  FIR  TREE.  A  tree  valuable 
for  the  timber,  pitch  tar,  &c.  which  it 
yields  in  ab-jiidance.  The  sorts  most 
esteemed  in  Eiielaiid,  are  the  Scotch  fir, 
Norway  fir,  .Spruce  fir,  and  Canada  fir. 
In  the  United  f^tairs,  the  white  and  yellow 
pine,  are  the  most  valued. 

FIRE  (in  Chemistry).  Was  formerly, 
reckoned  one  of  the  'our  elements  ;  but  it 
is  now  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  it  b« 
a  distinct  substance,  or  wnetner  it  arises 
solely  t'roni  the  intestine  and  violent  mo- 
tion of  the  pans  of  bodies. 

FIRI-:-E.\GINF:.  An  engine  for  the 
extin>:HiKliiii<;of  fire,  which  consists  of  two 
forciii!!  pumps  so  combiiu-d  that  their  joint 
anion  produces  a  con.>itaiit  and  powerful 
stream  of  water,  which,  by  means  of  a  pipe, 
may  be  directod  at  pleasure  to  any  point. 


FIREBALL3.  Luminous  bodies  usnally 
appearing  at  a  great  height. 

FIREBRA.N'n.  A  piece  of  burning 
wood  taken  out  of  the  fire 

PI  RE-DA. MPS.     See  Damm. 

FIREF'LY.  A  species  of  tlies  cumtnoB 
in  Guiana,  having  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
a  globular  luminous  body,  that  shines  like 
a  star.  They  live  in  rotten  trees  in  tlM 
day,  and  always  apfiear  at  night. 


FIX 

FinR-MAN  One  who  U  employed  in 
•xtinguishine  Area. 

FIRF.-^HIP.  A  ship  filled  witb  com- 
bustibles, til  set  lire  to  tlie  vessels  of  the 
enfiiiy. 

FIRK-WOKKS.  Compiuiitiona  of  sul- 
phur, saltpetre,  and  rharciial.  wlj'ch  exhib- 
it a  handsome  apiiraram-e  when  tred  off. 

FIRKIN.  All  Kn-:lisli  measure  of  eapa- 
eity,  coulainiug  iniif  •.'alluns  of  bet-r. 

FIRMAN.  A  |iiis:*porl  cmnted  in  Tur- 
key and  India  for  the  liberty  of  trade. 

FIRST-FRUI'I'S  (in  Kiialand.)  The 
profits  of  every  spiritual  living  for  on* 
year,  given  to  the  king. 

FIRSTLING.  The  young  of  cattle 
which  are  first  broueht  forth. 

Fl.>*ll,  or  FISIIF.S  ,in  Natural  Histo- 
ry). Water  annual  in  wnfral  ;  one  das* 
of  the  animal  k'.ugdoni  !n  the  Linnran 
■ysteui. 

FISH,  or  RoT/ku  Fiih  (in  I-aw).  The 
whale  and  fCurgeon,  so  denominated  in 
England,  because  the  kiug  is  entitled  to 
them  whenever  they  are  thrown  on  shore, 
or  caiiuht  near  the  coasts. 

FISH  (among  .Manners).  A  machine 
employed  to  hoist  ami  draw  up  the  docks 
of  ship:)'  anchors  towards  the  tup  of  the 
bow. 

FISHERY.  The  place  where  fish  are 
caught  for  the  purposes  of  trade. 

FISH-GIG.  An  instrument  for  striking 
fish  al  sea. 

FISHING-FLY  A  bait  used  for  catch- 
ing fish. 

FISIIINO-HOOK  An  instrument  of 
steel  wire,  fitted  for  catching  and  retitining 
fish. 

FISHING-LINE.  A  line  of  twisted 
hair  tixed  to  a  rod  called  the  fishing-rod, 
tnil  having  at  one  end  the  fishtng-liiH>k. 

FISHM0.V(;F.R.  a  dealer  in  fish. 
There  were  fnrinerly  two  companies  of 
ushmongers  in  I,<iiid(m,  nnniely,  the  stock- 
fishmongers  and  sall-fishimmgers,  which 
were  united  in  I5.'56. 

FISTULA.     A  long  and  sinuous  ulcer. 

FITCH  ET.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  or 
ferret  kind. 

FIXATION.  The  making  any  volatile 
spirituous  tody  endure  the  fire. 

FIXED  .AIR.  A  name  formerly  given 
by  chemists,  to  the  air  which  was  extri- 
cated from  lime,  magnesia,  and  alkalies, 
now  commonly  called,  carbonic  acid  gas. 

FIXED  BODIES.  Such  as  neither  fire 
nor  any  corrcsive  menstruum,  l-.ave  tie 
power  of  rel  ucing  to  their  component 
tiements,  as  ammonia. 

FIXEIJST.ARS.     Such  as  do  not  change 
Jieir  (Misitiuna  in  respect  to  one  another. 
14 


F!..\ 


157 


FLAG  (in  .\avnl  or  Miltarr  Affaira) 
The  colours  or  ensign  of  a  ship,  or  of  \ 
regiment  of  land  forces.  The  first  flag  in 
Great  Britain  is  the  standard,  only  to  be 
hoisted  when  the  king  or  queen  is  on  board 


FLAG  (In  Botany).  A  aott  of  rash  wHh 
a  large  leaf.  It  i.s  of  different  kinds,  as  the 
common  flag,  or  water  iris,  that  grows  in 
rivers  and  hears  a  yellow  flower;  the  com 
flag,  or  gladiole,  a  bullions  plant ;  and  the 
sweet  flag,  a  perennial  ;  which  two  last  are 
cultivated  in  garden*. 

FLAGEOLKT.     A  little  flute 

FLAG-OFFICER.  Anofticercommand- 
ing  a  squadron. 

FL.AGON.    A  large  drinking  ve«wel. 

FL.AG-SHIP.  a  ship  commanded  hy  a 
flag-officer. 

FLAG-STAFF.  The  staff  set  on  the 
head  of  the  topgallant  mast,  on  which  tlie 
fl.ig  ii>  placed. 

FLAGSTONE.  A  sort  of  stone  used  foi 
smooth  pavement. 

FLAIL.  An  instrument  used  for  thresh 
ing  com. 

FLA  .ME.  The  most  subtle  part  of  fire 
which  is  properly  the  fume  or  vapour  of 
fire,  he.-ited  red-hot  so  as  to  shine. 

FLA.MI.NGO.  A  sort  of  bird  in  Africa 
and  .America. 

FL.A.NK.  The  side  of  an  army,  orabat- 
talion  encamped  on  the  right  and  left. 

FL.A.VK  (in  Fortification).  Any  part  of 
a  work  that  defends  another  work  along 
the  outside  of  its  paraiiet. 

FLANNEL.  .\  slight,  Iook,  woollen 
stuff,  woven  on  a  loom  with  two  treadles 
after  the  manner  of  baize.  It  serves  to 
keep  the  body  warm,  because,  from  its 
light  anil  spongy  texture,  it  does  not  ad- 
mit of  a  passage  for  the  heat. 

FLASK.  A  measure  for  holding  gun- 
powder. 

FLAT  (in  M-iaic).  A  character  marked 
thus  [-),  which  lowers  a  note  one  semitone. 

FL.\.\.  .A  plant,  from  the  fibres  of  which 
lir.en  thread  is   n'ade.    Cuniinon  flax.  •• 


158 


FLO 


Mpntseiittid  iindernealh,  is  an  annual  ,  but 
Um)  (tiller  kinds  are  perennials. 


FLAX  EARTH,  or  Mooittiiw  Flax. 

6e«  .\9K£9TOS. 

FI<EA.  A  little  insect  of  a  deep  purple 
colour,  remarkable  for  its  agility  in  leap- 
ing, for  which  it  has  three  pair  of  legs. 
It  -(licks  the  blood  of  larger  animals. 

FLICAM.  An  instrument  fur  lancing  tlie 
gnnis  or  bleeding  cattle. 

KI.KICCE.  A  flock  of  wool,  or  what 
Comes  from  it  sheep  at  (me  shearing. 

FUCBT.  A  number  of  ships  together  in 
company  or  under  one  commander. 

FI.KET.  A  prison  in  London,  where 
debtors  are  confined. 

FhKSH  (in  Anatomy).  The  soft  and 
fibrous  part  of  an  animal  body;  also'  the 
red  part  of  a  muscle. 

Fl-ESH  (in  Botany).  The  pnlpy  sub- 
alaiice  of  any  fruit  or  root. 

KI.KUR  DE  LIS,  or  Flower  de 
Lf(  E  (in  Heraldry).  A  bearing  in  the 
BrniK  of  France,  and  in  other  coats  of  arms. 

FLINT.  A  semitransparent  and  hard 
st(uiK,  which  possesses  the  property  of 
einilting  li°t  when  struck. 

FLI.N'T  v^mong  Gunsmiths).  A  piece  of 
flint,  cut  so  as  to  go  between  the  jaws  of 
the  co(rk  of  a  gun. 

FLOAT.  A  raft  or  number  of  pieces 
of  timber,  fastened  together  with  rafters 
alhwart,  to  be  driven  down  a  river  with 
the  I  de. 

FLOATING  BATTERY.  Vessels  used 
as  baiieries  to  cover  troops  in  landing  on 
an  enemy's  coast. 

FLOCK.  A  number  of  sheep  in  com- 
pany, also  a  lock  of  wool. 

FLOKT/.  Beds  or  strata  of  earth,  con- 
tainiiii;  the  rrmains  ol  animal  nt  vegetable 
lUbslances,  &.C. 


FLO 

PLOOKAN.  The  name  of  a  slimy  kind 
of  earth.  lu  mining,  the  deviation  or 
shiftiug  of  a  lode  or  vein  by  a  clelt,  &<;. 
FLOilA.  A  catalogue  or  account  of 
flowers  or  plauts;  the  plants  of  a  par- 
ticular country.  In  mythology,  tho 
goddess  of  flowers,  in  honor  ol  whom 
the  festival  Floralia  was  celebrated. 

FLOKIN.  A  British  silver  coin,  the 
tenth  of  a  pound  sterling,  and  worth 
about  4S  cents,  first  minted  in  1849,  and 
now  in  general  circulation.  It  was  or- 
iginally maie  at  Florence,  and  now  cir- 
culates in  mauy  European  countries, 
ranging  in  value  from  38  to  5G  cents  to 
two  shillings  and  four  pence. 

FLOWER.  In  botany,  that  part  of  a 
plant  which  contains  the  organs  of 
iructation.  A  flower,  when  complete, 
is  furnished  wiih  a  calyx,  corolla,  sta- 
mens, ind  pi.stils;  tho  stamens  carry- 
ing the  anthers,  or  male  organs  of  re- 
production, and  the  pistils  the  stigmas, 
or  female  organs,  by  which  the  poUen, 
orimpregnating  dust,  is  conveyed  into 
the  ovary,  or  seed-vessel.  Flower-stalk 
is  the  peduncle  of  a  plant,  or  the  stea 
which  supports  the  fructifloation. 
Flower-head  is  that  mode  of  inflores- 
cence in  which  all  the  flowers  are  ses- 
sile, as  in  the  daisy.  In  pyrotechnics,  a 
particular  kind  of  firework, which,  when 
ignited,  throws  out  a  fountain  of  vivid 
florescent-looking  sparks. 

FLUA'i  Es.  A  kind  of  salts  formed  by 
the  combination  of  fluoric  acid  with  dl3"e- 
rent  bases,  as  the  fluate  of  aiitinoiiia. 

FLL'E.  I'lie  small  \viiidiii);  chiiiiiiey  in 
a  furnace  for  conveying  smoke,  air,  and 
hehfinto  a  larger  chimney;  also  the  down 
or  soft  hair  of  rabbits  and  feathers. 

FLUELLEN.  An  annual  that  grows  in 
gardens. 

FLUID  (in  Physiology).  A  fluid  body, 
or  one  whose  parts  yield  to  the  smallest 
force  impressed,  and  are  easily  moved 
among  each  other.  Fluids  are  either  elaa- 
tic,  as  the  air,  or  non-elastic,  aa  water 
mercury,  &.C. 

FLUID  (in  Anatomy).  The  fluids  of  the 
animal  body  are  the  humours  and  juices, 
aa  the  blood,  chyle,  saliva,  &c. 

FLUIDITY.  The  state  of  bodies  whe» 
their  parts  are  very  readily  moveable  in 
all  directions  with  respect  to  each  other. 
It  stands  directly  opposed  to  solidity  or 
firmness,  and  is  distinguished  from  liquid- 
ity and  humidity,  inasmuch  as  the  latter 
imply  also  wetting  and  adhering.  Melted 
metals,  air,  ether,  smoke,  and  flame  are 
fluid  but  not  licpiid  bodies,  their  parts  being 
dry  and  leaving  no  sense  of  moisture 
i^ilids  are  converted  into  fluids  by  meant 
of  heat. 

FLUOR  PPAR.  A  species  of  salt  which 
ah<iunds  in  nature,  and  consists  of  a  cal- 
careous earth  in  combination  with  fluoric 


fteid.  U  ia  called  fluor  because  it  melts 
reailily;  n  is  called  spar  because  il  lias  a 
■parry  foiui  and  fracture;  aad  il  is  also 
called  vitreouri  spar  because  it  bas  tlie  ap- 
pearance iif  glass. 

FLI'ORIC  ACID.  A  gaseous  substance 
procured  from  fluor  spar,  wtiich  is  of  a 
corroitiiig  nature,  and  will  dissolve  glass, 
for  ivhicli  reason  it  has  'leen  used  for 
etching  on  glass.  This  acid  gas  readily 
combines  witit  water;  and  when  dropped 
in,  a  hissing  noise  is  produced  with  much 
heat. 

FLUTE.  A  wind  instrument,  and  the 
■iinplest  of  its  kind,  with  stops  for  the 
fingers. 

FLUTES.  The  hollow  channels  found 
along  the  surface  of  a  column. 

FLUX  (in  Physiology).  That  motion  of 
the  water  by  which  it  rises. 

FLUX  (in  Chemistry).  Any  substance 
or  mixture  added  to  assist  the  fusion  of 
minerals  and  metals.  In  assaying,  alkalies 
are  used  ;is  fluxes,  which  render  the  earthy 
miituj-es  fusible  by  connecting  them  with 
glass. 

FLUXIONS.  That  branch  of  algebra 
which  treats  of  the  velocities  with  which 
the  fluents  or  (lowing  quantities  increase 
orderrease.  The  variable  or  flowing  quan- 
tities are  represented  by  the  letters  «,  w, 
z,  ij,  1 !  the  invariable  quantities,  by  the 
.etters  a,  b,  e,  d,  &,c.  'I'he  fluxion  is  re- 
presented by  a  dot  thus  y,  t. 

FLY  (in  Natural  History).  A  small 
winged  insect,  tliat  is  always  flying  about 
in  houses. 

FLY  (among  Mechanics).  That  part  of 
■  jack  which  puts  the  rest  of  the  machine 
in  motion. 

FLY  (among  Mariners).  That  part  of  a 
compass  on  which  the  thirty-two  points 
are  described. 

FLY  (among  (,'arpenters).  Flies  or  flyers 
are  the  series  of  steps  which  go  straight 
forward  without  winding. 

FLY-BOAT.  A  large  vessel  with  a  broad 
bow,  used  in  the  coasting  trade. 

FLY-BLOW.  The  depoit  of  the  eggs, 
aiaggots,  or  nymphte  of  flies  In  meat. 

FLY-CATCHI'.a.  A  sort  of  bird  inha- 
titing  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  so  called 
Mcause  it  lives  upon  flies.  ThAking  bird 
H  a  well  known  vr.riety  in  this  country. 

FLYING  BRIDGE.  See  Bridoe. 

FLVING-FISII.  A  fish  inhabiting  the 
European  and  American  seas,  which,  by 
the  help  of  its  long  pectoral  fins,  is  ena- 
>led  to  raise  itself  out  of  the  water  and  to 
fly  a  short  distance  when  pursued  by  other 
Ish. 

FLYING     SaUlRREL.     A    beautiful 


FOL 


I5S 


A merivan  Squirrel,  which  by  tlie  nse  of 
jiieiubianes  attached  tu  its  legs  sails  fruio 
the  tups  of  trees  tu  a  great  distance. 

FLYLVt;  DUAGO.N.  A  four-looted  rep- 
tile of  the  lii^ard  tribe,  inhabiting  Africa 
and  India,  which  has  a  lateral  uienibtan* 
i-erving  as  a  wing. 


FLY-ORCHIS.  A  pIant,so  called  from  the 
resemblance  it  bears  in  its  tigure  to  a  tly. 

FLY-'IRAP,  or  VENUi's  Flv-Tbap.  A 
sensitive  plant,  the  leaves  of  which  consist 
of  two  lobes,  that  close  when  they  are 
irritated  within,  and  consequently  «ntrap 
any  insect  that  lights  upon  them. 

FOAL.  The  young  of  a  horse,  or  ass. 

FOCUS  (in  Optics).  The  point  of  con- 
vergence or  concourse,  where  all  the  rays 
meet  after  passing  through  a  convex  leus. 

FCXJUS  (in  Geometry  and  Conic  See-  > 
tions).  A  certain  point  in  tlie  parabola 
and  ellipses,  Sec.  wiiere  llie  rays  reflected 
from  all  parts  of  these  curves  concur. 

FOIJUKR.  Dry  food  for  cattle. 

FODDER  (in  England).  The  prerogative 
of  the  king  formerly,  to  be  provid;,-d  with 
fodder  for  his  horses  in  any  warlike  ex 
pedition. 

VOG,  or  Mist.  A  meteor  consisting  of 
condensed  vapours  ftoatiug  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

F01L{in  Fencing).  An  instruraen*  witfi- 
oiit  a  point,  to  fence  with  by  way  of  exer 
cise. 

FOIL  (among  Glass-grinders).  A  sheet 
of  tin  laid  on  the  back  of  a  looking-gla^i^, 
to  make  it  reflect. 

FOIL  (among  Jewellers).  A  thin  leaf 
of  metal  placed  under  a  precii/us  stone,  to 
increase  its  brilliancy. 

FOLD.  An  encloyed  place  in  which 
sheep  are  confined. 

FOLIAGE.  A  cluster  or  assemblagir  of 
the  leaves  of  trees. 

FOLl  AGE  (in  Architecture).  Omamente 
representing  leaves,  used  in  cornices,  &.c. 

FOLIATING.  Spreading  the  plates  of 
gla'ss  over  with  the  foil,  in  ordei;  to  make 
them  reflect. 

FOLIO.  The  full  size  of  paper  ss  It 
comes  from  the  manufacturer;  also  t>«ok* 
printed  oik  paper  of  that  size. 


166 


FOR 


FOI.IO  l\n  Merchaiils'  AccountsV  The 
pnge,  iiir.liuliiig  ilie  nglii  Hiid  left  haixl 
page,  in  a  nierrliaiil's  ledgrr,  which  are 
nuiiiber«'<t  by  thr  samr  tigure,  so  that  they 
limy  correspond. 

FOMKNTATIO.N'.  The  bathinn  ar)y  part 
of  the  boily  with  a  (lecorlion  >if  herbs,  icC. 
A  ainiiliU'  application  with  bag:<  ol'  herbs 
and  other  ingredients,  ia  called  a  dry  fo- 
mentation. 

POO'i'.  A  measure  of  length  consisting 
nf  twelve  Inches. 

P(.»()T  (in  Poetry).  A  certain  number 
nf  syllables  which  serve  for  inea«uring  the 
verse. 

FOOT  (in  Military  Tactical.  Soldiers  who 
•erve  on  foot. 

FORAGE.  Provender  for  horses  in  an 
army. 

FOllCE  (in  Pliysiology).  Whatever  is 
oi  may  be  made,  the  primary  caii?ie  of 
UBMlion  in  bodies. 

FORCE  (in  Law).  Unlawful  violence 

FORCE  (in  .Military  Affairs).  Any  body 
of  men  that  may  be  employed  in  actiim. 

FORCEPS.  A  surgeon's  tongs,  pin- 
cers, &c. 

FORCER,  or  FORCING-PIJ.MP.  A 
pump  with  a  forcer  or  piston  without  a 
valve. 

FORCING  (among  Gardeners).  A  me- 
tlio<l  I'f  obtaining  fruits  and  flowera  before 
their  wa^on,  by  the  application  of  heat. 

FORCING  (in  Commerce).  The  fininu 
down  wines  so  as  t<»  render  them  lit  for 
imiiiediale  use. 

FORE.  A  sea  term  for  near  the  stem; 
as «  fore  and  aft,'  that  is,  from  stem  tosfern. 

FORECASTLE.  A  short  deck  in  the 
fore  part  of  the  ship. 

FORECLOSED  lin  Law),  Excluded  or 
iMirred  the  equity  of  redemption  on  mort- 
gnjes,  &,c. 

FOREIGN  ATTACHMENT  (in  Law), 
an  attachment  of  forei';ner8'  goods. 

FORENSIC.  Belonging  to  the  bar  or 
c<Hirts  of  taw. 

FORESHOUTENING  (in  Painting). 
The  making  a  head  or  face  in  a  drawing 
apjHjar  shorter  before. 

FOREST.  In  England,  a  large  wood 
privileged  to  hold  the  king's  game  of  all 
kinds. 

FORF.STALLrNG.  Tlie  buying  or  bar- 
gaining for  corn  or  other  merchandise,  be- 
fore it  comes  into  the  market. 

FORESTER.  In  England,  the  keeper 
of  a  fore.-t. 

FORFEITURE  (in  Law).  The  low  of 
f>iM>o«,  lands, or  I  niplnyments.&c.  for  r  "g 
Mtrting  to  do  one 's  duty ,  or  for  some  CT.ine 
wmmi    ed 


FOR 

FORGE  A  furnace,  in  which  smitht 
he:it  their  nietuls  red-hot,  or  in  which  tb« 
ore  taken  out  of  the  mine  is  melted  down 

F()liGi:;RY  (in  Law).  The  fraudulen- 
making  or  altering  any  record,  deed,  or 
wntiiig,  iitc.  to  the  prejudice  of  anotlier 
man 's  rijjht,  particularly  the  cuunterfeitiug 
the  signature  of  another  with  intent  to  de- 
fraud. 

FORMAITON.  In  geology,  auy  assem- 
blage of  rocks,  alluvial  deposits,  or  sedi- 
nieutary  strata  reierred  to  a  coinmoa 
origiu  or  period.  The  term  properly 
siguifles  a  series  of  rocks,  iLsuaUy  pass- 
ing gradually  into  each  other,  and  the 
whole  being  considered  as  belonging  to 
a  certain  period  of  geological  time.  A 
geological  formation  may  consist  of 
rjcks  entirely  dissimilar,  as  the  coal, 
shale,  ironstone,  and  sandstone  of  the 
coal  formation ;  or  the  chalk,  flints,  and 
sands  of  the  chalk  formation. 

FORM  (among  Printers)  The  chue  or 
frame  filled  with  type  or  letter  the  size 
and  form  of  a  page,  made  ready  for  the 
pre.ss.  This  form  will  be  quarto  if  the 
sheet  consist  of  8  pages,  octavo  if  it  c<in- 
sist  of  It)  pages,  and  duodecimo  if  it  con- 
sist of  24  pages 

FORMA  PAUPERIS,  1.  e.  U  th« 
Form  of  a  Paupek.  In  England,  a  form 
in  which  any  one  may  sue  who  swears 
that  he  i.s  not  worth  Ave  pounds,  and  brings 
a  certificate  from  some  lawyer  that  he  has 
jii.st  cause  of  suit.  In  that  ca.se  he  has 
counsel  as.signed,  and  is  relea.sed  from 
cost«  of  suit,  &c. 

FOR.MIC  .\Cir>.  The  acid  of  ants,  which 
is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  red  ant. 

FOR.MULA  (in  .Mathematics).  A  general 
theorem  or  literal  e.xpre8sion,  for  resolving 
any  part  of  a  problem. 

FORMULA  (in Theology).  A  profession 
of  faith. 

FORMULARY  A  book  of  forms  an* 
precedents  for  law  matters. 

FORT.  A  small  castle  or  strong  hold, 
a  place  of  small  e.Ttent,  fortified  either  by 
art  or  nature,  being  encompassed  with  a 
moat,  rampart,  and  parapet,  as  represented 
underneath,  to  secure  some  high  ground, 
or  the  passage  of  a  river. 


PORTIFTC  ATION.  The  setence  of  mlW. 
tary  arrliitecture,  which  teaches  the  heal 
muiie  of  putting  a  citv  'Kwn,  or  a»y  othel 


FOR 

^mee,  into  a  state  of  defence  by  mLkiog 
works  around  it.  A  fortification  is  either 
regiikir  or  irregular:  a  regular  furlificatiuii 
is  built  in  a  regular  polygon,  as  in  ttie 
liibjoined  figure;  an  irregular  fortification 
is  where  the  side«  and  angles  are  not 
uniform.  A  temporary  fortification  is  that 
winch  is  raixed  for  any  particular  emer- 
gency, as  fieldwnrka,  &.c.  I'bia  is  di.stin- 
guisiied  from  a  d  irable  tortification,  which 
«*rves  as  a  permanent  defence  of  a  place. 
A  defensive  fortification  is  that  by  which 
a  town  IS  defended  in  case  <if  a  siege,  in 
distinction  from  an  offensive  fortification, 
which  is  raised  by  besiegers  for  the  attack 
of  a  place,  'i'be  works  of  a  place  are  those 
about  the  place,  in  distinction  from  the 
outworks,  which  are  constructed  before 
the  body  of  (he  place.  Tlieprincip.il  works 
belonging  to  a  fortification  are,  the  ditch 
or  trench  made  round  eitcli  work;  tlie 
rampart,  or  elevation  of  earth,  raided  along 
the  faces  of  any  work,  to  cover  the  inner 
p:irti  the  parapet,  or  tliat  part  of  a  rampart 
which  serves  to  cover  the  tr<>op.-<  planted 
there;  the  bastion,  that  part  of  the  inner 
encbisureofa  fortification  making  an  angle 
towards  th;'  field;  the  counterscarp,  the 
elope  of  the  ditch  facing  the  body  of  the 
place;  the  covert  way,  the  space  extending 
round  I  he  counterscarp;  the  glacis,  the  part 
beyond  the  covert  way,  to  which  it  serves 
a*  a  parapet;  the  curtain,  the  fnmt  of  a 
wall  between  two  bitstions;  the  tl.iiik,  any 
part  of  a  work  which  defends  another; 
the  gorge,  that  part  ne.Kt  to  the  body  of 
tiie  place  where  there  is  no  rampart;  the 
epaule,  thesh.iulder  of  the  bastion;  besides 
the  barriers,  palisades,  portcullis,  piaca  of 
arms,  itc 


FOU 


Ml 


rfmrrORT,  or  a  fortiori,   a  term 
•ed  IE  reasoning,  foi  anv  con^lasloa  or 
14* 


inference  that  is  much  stronger  Uiaa  aa 
otiier. 

FuRCM.  A  puUic  place  In  Rome,  where 

causes  were  tried  and  business  transacted. 

FOi?SS  (in  FortiDcutioni.  A  hi  How  ditch, 

commonly  full  of  water,  lying  between  liia 

scarp  and  the  counterscarp. 

FOSSA.V.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  kind, 
found  111  the  .Asiatic  islands,  about  the 
size  of  the  liErret. 

F0St>ILt5.  All  manner  of  things  dug 
out  of  the  earth,  whether  they  Ikj  nativ»> 
fossils  growing  in  and  of  the  earth,  as 
metals,  stones,  salts,  earths,  and  other  min- 
erals; or  whether  they  be  foreign  sutxitait- 
cea,  as  the  exuviteof  sea  and  landaiiimals, 
namely,  shells,  bones,  teeth,  &.C.;  or  whe- 
ther they  be  vegetaiiles,  as  leaves,  wood, 
&.C.  which  have  lain  long  buried  in  the 
earth. 

FOUL.  A  sea  term  for  the  runn.ng  of 
one  ship  against  another. 

FUU.NUA  TIO.N  ^in  .Architecture).  That 
part  of  a  building  which  is  under  ground. 
FOUNDATION  (in  Law).  A  donation 
in  money  or  lands  for  the  niHintenance 
and  support  of  some  community,  as  an 
hospital,  a  school,  &c. 

FOUNUES  (in  Law).  One  who  founds 
-jind  endows  a  church,  school,  college,  &«. 
FOUNDER  (in  Trade).  One  who  casts 
metals  in  various  forms,  as  gun-founders, 
bell-founders,  &.c.  I'he  company  of  foun- 
ders was  incorporated  in  l^oiidon,  in  1614 
FOUNDRV.  The  art  of  casting  metals 
In  various  forms;  also  the  place  where 
this  business  is  done.  Bmall  works  are 
cast  in  sand,  which,  being  duly  prepared, 
is  put  into  a  wooden  frame;  then  wcHMJen 
or  metal  models  of  what  is  intended  to  l>e 
cast  are  put  into  the  sand  so  as  to  leave 
their  inipre.x8ion,  ;ind  along  the  iciddte  of 
the  mould  is  laid  a  small  brxss  cylinder  lo 
form  a  chief  canal  for  the  metal  to  run 
throueh,  from  which  canal  run  others  ex- 
tending to  each  model  or  (Kiltern  pl.iced 
in  the  iranie.  When  the  moulds  are  fully 
prepared,  the  fu.<ed  metal  is  poured  out  of 
thecrucible  inli  the  chief  c-inal,  and  tht-iice 
conveyed  to  each  patiern.  Alter  the  whot*i 
b»s  been  set  to  cool,  Ibe  cast  work  is  taken 
out  of  the  sand.  The  mould  for  very  large 
articles  is  made  of  wet  tempered  loam, 
built  up  by  degrees  in  a  pit,  into  which 
the  melted  metal  is  made  to  run  along  a 
channel  on  the  ground  to  the  mould.  The 
composition  used  in  casting  bells  is  termed 
bell  metal. 

FOUNT,  or  FONT  A  set  or  certala 
quantity  of  letters  cast  at  one  time  by  a 
letter-founder  for    luu    iise  of  a  printM 


IS!! 


FOU 


FOUGABE,  or  FOUGASS.  In  the  mili- 
tary art,  a  little  mine,  dug  to  defend  or 
destroy  a  fortiflcatiou  by  its  explosion. 

l^OULAKD.  A  kind  of  silk  mateiiallor 
ladies'  dresses;  a  silk  kerchief. 

FOURCHK'rXE.  In  ornithology,  the 
bono  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
clavicles;  commonly  called  the  merry- 
thought. 

FOUKNEAU.  In  military  engineering, 
the  chamber  of  a  mine  iu  wliicu  tlie 
p  jwder  is  lodged. 

FOURTH.  In  music,  an  interval  enu- 
merated among  the  discords.  The  minor 
or  lesser  fourth  consists  of  five  semi- 
tones; but  the  fourth  .«harp,  or  greater, 
consists  of  six  semitones.  In  anatomy, 
fourth  pair  ot  nerves  is  a  term  applied 
to  the  nervi  pathetici. 

FOUNTAIN.  A  natural  spring  of  water 
rising  out  of  the  groumi  ,  also  a  stream  of 
water  ejected  through  a  pipe  by  means  of 
a  macliiiie  contrived  for  this  purpose.  Arti- 
ficial fountains  are  various  in  their  forms, 
but  they  all  act  on  the  principle  of  a  pres- 
sure, eitlier  from  a  head  of  water,  or  arising 
from  the  .spring  and  elasticity  of  the  air. 
Wlien  fountains  are  formed  by  the  pressure 
of  a  head  of  water,  or  any  other  fluid  of 
the  same  kind,  with  the  fountain  or  jet, 
then  will  this  spout  up  nearly  to  the  sjime 
height  as  that  head,  allowing  a  little  for 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  with  that  of  the 
adjutage,  &,c.  In  the  fluid  rushing  through; 
but  when  the  fountain  is  produced  by  any 
other  force  than  the  pressure  of  a  column 
of  the  same  fluid  as  itself,  it  will  rise  nearly 
to  the  altitude  of  the  fluid,  whose  pressure 
i.-)  equal  to  the  given  force  that  produces 
the  fountain.  The  subjoined  figure  repre- 
sents the  circulating  fountain,  o-  the  foun- 
tain of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  so  called  be- 
okusa  it  was  invested  by  h  m,  in  wbich 


FRA 

It  .'nu  a  ])erpetual  motion,  and  that  to* 
san.e  water  which  fell  from  the  jet  ro9« 
ag^iin  ;  but,  ni  realuy,  thai  water  does  not 
come  up  again,  for,  runnnig  down  through 
a  pi|>e  inui  the  bottom  box,  it  drives  out 
the  air  ihriwigh  an  asceml-ng  pipe  into  th« 
box  at  the  ti>p  containing  water  which, 
being  pressed  upon,  is  forced  through  tbe 
spout  as  loiij!  as  there  is  any  iu  it 

FOWL.  The  largest  sort  of  birds,whethef 
domestic  or  wild,  as  geese,  phe;isants,  par- 
tridges, &.C.  ;  also  a  full  grown  chicken,  or 
yoiin-g  hen. 

FOWLING.  The  art  of  taking  or  killing 
birds,  either  by  iiieiwis  of  snares  or  nets,  or 
by  various  devices, as  imitating  theirvoices 
or  using  decoy  birds  and  the  like. 

FOWLINGPIECE.  A  light  gun  for 
shooting  birds. 

FOX.  A  crafty,  lively  animal,  nearly 
allied  to  the  dog,  which  seeks  its  food  by 
nisht  among  the  poultry ,  rabbits,  and  hares. 
1'he  fox  is  Ixirne  in  coats  of  arms,  and  aa 
a  charge,  is  supposed  to  denote  a  subtle  wit 
by  wbich  a  man  baa  served  hia  countijr. 


tfee  air,  being  compressed  by  n  fonc«a><-(f 
%ll  ol  water   tonus  a  jet  that  appears  as  it 


FOXGLOVE.  Pee  Dioitalij. 

FOX-TAIL-GRASS.  An  berbaceoua 
plant. 

F.  R.  S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  ia 
London. 

FRACTURE(in  Mineralogy).  The  break- 
ing of  minerals,  or  the  manner  In  which 
they  break,  which  is  one  of  their  specific 
characters. 

FKACTI'RR  (in  Surgery).  The  break- 
ing of  any  bone  by  an  external  act  ot 
violence. 

FR.tNU.M  LINCJU.-E  (iu  Anatomy) 
The  ligament  under  llie  tongue. 

FRA.ME  (with  Painters).  A  kind  of 
square,  c<im|Kk<ed  of  fmir  long  pletes  or 
slips  of  \viii>d  joined  togpiher.  the  inlCT- 
iiiediate  spare  of  wliirli  is  divided  by  little 
strings  or  threads  into  a  great  number  at 
little  squares,  like  the  meshes  of  a  net, 
used  in  reducing  figures  from  great  to 
■mall  or  from  small  to  i-reat. 

FRANCHISE.  The  privilege  or  righl 
of  voting  iu  au  electloa. 


FRE 

rnANK  FREE.  A  lenn  rimch  Jised  in 
the  old  English  law,  an  Krank  pifilee  free- 
men, Willi  used  to  he  pleil:;fs  <ir  suretiea, 
for  the  gcMid  hehavidur  of  ihixi-  ivliu  were 
of  their  c«n>mnnity;  in  miuli-rn  \;\w,  nn 
ezeniptlon  finni  payinu  |h<kI:iui-  for  letters, 
which  isenjo'  -«d  by  nieniiit-r^'of  (larliainent 
in  England,  and  memlierstif  Congress  tea 
certain  exteot. 

FRANK.  A  French  coin,  worth  twenty 
lol»,  or  about  elghlef  n  cents  miil  AA. 

FRANKINCENSE.  An  odoriferous, 
^ry,  resinous  substance,  procured  from  the 
juniper  u^e  in  Turkty  and  the  East  In- 
'•ie*. 

FREEBOOTER.  A  soldifr  that  serves 
for  plunder,  without  pay. 

FREEHOLD.  That  land  or  tenement 
which  a  man  holds  in  fee  sin.^ltj,  fee  tail, 
or  for  terni  of  (ife. 

FREEHOLDERS.  Possessoru  ^  a  free- 
hold estate. 

FREEMA.\(in  Ancient  Law,,  In  Eng. 
one  free  from  servitude,  as  distij.^iiiihed 
from  a  villain  or  bondsman  ;  also  .nv  \fho 
enjoys  the  freedom  ol  a  city  or  hovi  \^U. 
A  freeman  in  the  United  Slates,  ii  iiiv? 
who  has  a  right  to  vote 

FREE  SCHOOL.  An  endowed  schtol, 
where  cliildren  are  taught  free  of  expens*. 

FREESTONE.  A  sort  of  stone  u.sed  M 
building,  that  ni»y  be  cut  freely  in  any 
manner. 

FREIGHT  (in  Commerce).  The  sum  of 
noney  agreed  to  he  paid  for  the  burden 
of  a  ship ;  also  the  burden  itself,  or  the 
cargo  of  a  ship. 

FRENCH  HORN.  A  musical  instru- 
ment, bent  into  a  circle,  and  going  two  or 
three  times  round.  It  grows  grailually 
larger  and  wider  towards  the  end,  and  in 
■ome  horns  is  nine  or  ten  inches  over. 


FRI 


iM 


freezing  mixtures,  or  compositions  of  such 
ingredients  as  when  mixed  with  other 
bodies,  cause  them  to  congeal  ;  such  aa 
snow  and  coiiiiiiim  salt,  or  muriate  of  am- 
iiionla,  nitre  and  water.  Sec. 

FRESCO.  A  method  of  painting  in 
relievo  on  walls,  so  as  to  endure  the 
weather  ;  it  is  performed  with  water  cflourt 
nn  fresh  plaster,  so  that  the  colours  incor- 
porate with  the  mortar. 

FRESHES.  A  sea  term  for  an  Impew- 
ous  ebb  tide  increased  by  heavy  rains. 

F'RET  (in  .Architecture).  An  ornain<>nl 
consisting  of  small  rilleis  interlaced,  thai 
were  used  by  the  ancients  on  tial  main 
bers. 


FtEEZING  (it.  Physiology).  The  fixing 


FRET  (in  Music).  A  Itind  of  stop  on 
some  instruments,  particularly  bass  viols 
and  lutes. 

FRICTION  (in  Mechanics).  The  rui>- 
bing  of  the  parts  of  engines  and  machines 
igainst  each  other,  by  which  means  a  gr«at 
|tirt  of  their  effect  is  destroyed. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES.  In  England, 
AsvvKjiations  chiefly  among  the  lower  clas- 
ses, for  afforiling  relief  to  each  other  in 
tin.>e  of  sickness,  or  to  the  widows  and 
chU'li?o  at  their  death. 

Fl  1  .'ATE.  A  light  built  ship  of  wa#^, 
from  t»  »nty  to  fifty  guo^,  fitted  for  fast 
sailing. 


FRIGTI)    ZONEa.    The  two  wrnes  « 

divisions  of  the  eaiih,  comprehended  be- 


«  fluid  iKHly  into  a  firm  and  solid  mass  by  !  tween  the  poles  aud  the  polar  circles 
the  anion  of  cold.  The  process  of  freezing  Thry  are  the  north  frijiid  zone,  .ii  the  imrth 
vnny  be  artificially  produced  by  means  of  pole,  and  the  south  fritid  tone,  at  the  *>ul I 
be  air   pump,  ;uiil  sometimes  by  certain    pole. 


I«4 


FRU 


FRIT,  or  FRITT  (in  the  (JIass  Msinii- 
Aicture).  The  inatteror  inpreilienuof  which 
pl:iss  13  to  be  made,  alter  they  have  been 
calcined  or  baked  in  a  furnace,  ti  is  of 
different  kinds,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  glass.  Crystal  frit,  for  the  best  kind, 
is  made  with  salt  of  pulveriiie  and  sand. 
The  ordinary  or  comrnmi  gUuss  i.x  made  of 
tlie  bare  ashes  of  piilverine,  or  barilla, 
without  extracting  the  salt  from  them  j  this 
in  the  second  kind  of  frit.  The  third  kind 
o(  frit,  for  green  glass,  is  made  of  coninion 
ashes,  without  any  preparation. 

FRITH  (in  Geography).  An  arm  of  the 
sea,  as  the  Fritli  of  Forth,  or  of  Kdinburgh, 
the  Frith  of  Clyde,  &c, 

PRIZING  CLOTH.  A  process  in  the 
woollen  manufacture,  of  forming  tlie  nap 
of  cloth  or  stuD'  into  a  number  of  little 
bard  burrs  or  prominences,  so  as  to  cover 
almost  the  whole  ground.  Thi:s  process  is 
now  performed  by  machinery. 

FROG.  An  amphibious  animal,  having 
m  imooth  body,  and  longer  legs  than  the 
load. 


PROG  (In  Farriery).  The  hard  project- 
ing substance  in  the  hollow  of  a  horse's 
foot. 

FROG-FISH, or  FisHiMo  Froo.  A  kind 
of  fish  resembling  a  frog  in  the  tadixile 
mate,  that  puts  forth  its  slender  horns  and 
entices  the  little  fish  to  itself,  in  order  to 
8ei7.e  them. 

FRO.VT.  The  principal  face  or  side  of 
a  buildine. 

FRONTIER.  The  boundary  of  a  king- 
dom, which  separates  it  from  another  king- 
dom on  the  land  side. 

FRO.VTISFIECE.  The  ornament  or 
picture  which  faces  the  title  page  in  a 
book. 

FRONTLET.  A  band  worn  on  the 
forehead. 

FRUCTIFICATION  (in  Botany).  The 
temporary  part  of  veceL-ihles,  appropriated 
toUeir  prop;u;ation,  consisting  of  the  Dow- 
er luid  tlie  fniit. 

FRUIT  (in  Rotany).  That  which  suc- 
eoeds  the  ilower;  it  may  either  b«  seed 


V  UL 

only,  or  it  may  be  an  esculent  pulpy  an 
stance,  as  the  apple  or  the  pear ;  or  it  may 
be  hard,  like  the  nut,  pea,  &.c. 

FRCITERER.  One  wlm  deals  in  fruit 
The  company  of  fruiterers  in  London,  waa 
incorporated  in  11504. 

FRUSll,  The  tender  part  of  a  horse'i 
heel,  next  the  hoof. 

FRUSTUM  (in  Mathematics).  A  part 
of  some  solid  body  separated  from  the  rest. 

FRUSTUM  OF  A  CONE.  The  pan.if 
a  cone  that  remains  when  the  top  is  cut 
otr  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the  base;  It  \% 
otherwise  called  a  truncated  cone. 

FRUSTUM  of  aGLOHK  or  SPHERE. 
Any  part  of  it  cut  off  by  a  plane. 

F.  S.  A.  Anabbreviatiou  for  Fellow  of 
the  Society  of  Arts. 

FUCl.  A  genusof  plants  in  the  Linns- 
an  system,  comprehending  most  of  those 
which  are  commonly  called  seaweeds, 
from  which,  when  liiirnt,  an  impure  alkali 
Is  procured  called  kelp. 


FUCUS.  The  name  given  by  th»  an 
cients  to  a  sea  plant,  from  which  a  dye 
was  procured,  for  dyeing  woollen  and  lin- 
en cloths  of  that  colour. 

FUGITIVE  PIECES  Little  pieces  o( 
composition  of  temporary  interest. 

FUGITIVE'S  GOODS  (in  I^vv).  The 
goods  of  one  who  flies  upon  felony. 

FUGUE  (in  Music).  A  species  of  com- 
position, in  which  the  different  parts  follow 
each  other,  each  repeating  in  order  what 
the  first  had  performed. 

FULCRUM  (in  Mechanics).  The  prop 
or  support  by  which  a  lever  is  sustained. 

FULLER.  One  who  cleans  and  scours 
cloth. 

FULLER'S  EARTH.  A  species  of  clay 
remarkable  for  tlia  property  of  absortdnk 


FUN 

•H,  wherefore  tt  ia  used  by  fullers  to  take 
pease  out  of  cloth. 

FL'LLI  NG.  The  art  of  eleanxins,  scour- 
Inn,  and  presslni;  cloths,  to  make  them 
Btronjjer,  closer,  and  firmer,  which  is  done 
hy  means  of  a  water  nnill,  called  a  fulling 
er  scoiiritin  mill.  These  mills  are  nearly 
the  same  as  corn  mills,  exc«|it  in  the  mill- 
stones and  the  hopper.  In  Prance,  drn 
is  {Eroiind  and  cloth  is  fulled  hy  the  motion 
of  the  same  wheel :  cloths  and  woollen 
•tuffs  are  soinetinies  fulled  hy  means  of 
aoap.  III  the  fullowiiij:  manner  :  the  cloth  is 
laid  in  the  iroiizh  of  the  fiillins  mill,  and 
then  the  soap  dissolved  in  (lails  of  river 
or  spring  water  is  to  be  poured  ii[ion  it 
by  little  and  little.  The  cloth,  afler  lying 
two  hours  in  tliesiwip,  is  taken  out.  stretcJl- 
ed,  and  then  returned  to  the  trou<!h.  Up- 
on being  taken  out  a  second  time,  the 
grease  and  tilth  is  then  wrung  out.  This 
process  is  uflerwards  repealed,  and  when 
the  cloth  has  thus  been  brought  to  the 
quality  and  thickness  rei|iiired,  it  is  scour- 
ed in  hot  water  until  it  is  ipiiie  clean. 

FUL.\Il.\ATIO.\.  The  ijoise  which 
■ome  minerals  or  metals  make  when  heat- 
ed in  a  crucible  :  as  ruliniiialing  )»•»  der, 
which  is  made  of  nitre,  |H>t:isli,  and  the 
flowers  of  sulphur,  triturated  in  n  warm 
mortar.  If  this  (Kiwder  l>e  fiK-^ed  in  a  ladle, 
and  then  set  vi  fire,  it  will  explode  with  a 
noise  like  thunder.  If  a  solution  of  gold 
be  precipitated  by  amnion. a,  the  product 
will  be  fiilniinatins  Cold,  a  grain  of  wliiili, 
if  held  over  a  (tame,  will  exphute  w.M  a 
■liarp  loud  iii>i;«. 

FU.MKJATIO.N.  A  process  by  means  of 
Which  the  nitrous  and  other  iiiineral  acids, 
ill  a  state  of  vapour,  are  dis(iersed  tliri>ii|rh 
any  phice. 

FUKCTION  The  performance  of  any 
duty. 

FUNCTION  ^in  Physiology).  The  ex- 
ercise of  any  faculty  or  power,  as  the  vital 
functions,  or  those  which  are  necessary  to 
life. 

FUNCTIO.\'(in  Algebrai  An  algebra- 
ical expression  ol  a  ceruiiu  letter  or  quan- 
tity. 

FUND  (in  Commerce).  The  capital  w 
•tuck  of  a  piililic  C(nii|Kiny. 

FUNllA.ME.VTAL  .NOTE  (in  Music). 
The  lowest  note  of  the  chord,  to  which  all 
the  re»l  are  in  some  measure  adapted,  and 
by  which  they  are  reculated  ;  it  is  other- 
wise called  the  key  to  the  scmg. 

FUNDS,  IMIBLIC  FUNDS,  or 
STOCKS.  1  he  national  debt  formed  into 
different  capitals,  U|H>n  winch  interest  is 
payable. 

FUNGI.    The  (iiurUi  order  of  tlie  class 


FUS 


166 


Cryptogamia  In  the  Liniipan  system,  con 
sisting  of  funguses,  mushrooms,  tniffle*, 
tee.  A  fungus  of  this  order  is  represented 
underneath. 


FURI.O.NG.  A  measure  of  length,  con- 
sistiiig  of  forty  poles. 

FIRI.tirt;il.  I,eave  of  absence  given 
to  asoldier,  or  noncommissioned  othcer. 

FURNACE.  A  fire  place  for  melting, 
distilling,  and  other  chemical  processes,  h« 
built  as  to  cause  the  fire  to  burn  vehe- 
mently. 


FUR.  The  eont  or  covering  of  soma 
animals,  as  sables,  heavers,  martens, 
s<)uirrels,  &.C.  which  is  used  in  various  ar- 
ticles of  dress,  either  for  uniament  or 
warmth. 

Fl'RS.  Tinctures  in  coats  of  arms, 
which  are  supposed  to  represent  the  furs 
of  animals. 

FURRIER.  One  who  deals  in  furs,  and 
prepares  them  for  the  manufacturer. 

FUKRI.\a(in  far[>entry).  The  fixlag 
thin  scantlings  or  laths  on  the  edges  of 
timbers,  to  bring  them  to  the  even  surface 
they  were  intended  to  form 

FURRINGSfin  Car|)entry)  The  pie- 
ces of  timber  enirluye<l  iu  making  an  erea 
surface. 

FURROW.  A  <ri]all  trench  east  np  by 
the  |i)(>u;:li  between  Ibr  l:ll;^ls. 

Fl  SEE  I  111  Cb--k  w<r(.r  »,  «v»-«— meal 
c«iiiinviuir«  fur  e<iualiuns  the  vo^mt  of 


166 


GAG 


the  main  spring  nf  a  wairh.  Thr  fnspe  on 
whicli  tlie  rliiiin  or  cal»iit  la  wniniit,  is 
miide  sonipwbai  cnniciil,  xn  thai  Ui4  radiiiH 
at  every  [wiint  may  cnrresimnd  with  tlie 
strength  of  the  Hpriiig,  heiiii!  (irealer  ami 
greater  as  the  actum  of  the  npriiis  heconies 
aiore  and  more  weakened  by  iinliemliii&. 

FUSKE  (in  Gunnery).  'J'he  tulie  fixed 
in^o  J  bontb  or  prenade  shell,  which  is 
fillea  with  combustible  materials,  and  fur- 
ni!«)ied  with  a  quick  match  on  the  top  of 
it.  When  it  is  used  it  is  driven  into  the 
bomb,  being  cut  to  a  len<:lh  |pro(K)rlioued 
to  '•he  distance  that  the  bomb  is  to  be 
thrown,  that  it  may  be  spent  and  the  bomb 
break  when  it  faila 


GAl 

,FUSIL.    A  »mall  lifl  t  mujOiet 

PCSIL  (in  Heraldry).  An  artiflcial 
charge,  representinc  a  spindle.  It  ig  of 
the  same  shape  as  the  loz«nge,  but  it  la 
lonL'er. 

FUSION.  The  art  ofredurinc!  bodies  to 
a  fluid  state  by  the  arlifirial  application  nf 
heat ;  as  in  the  case  of  metals,  gla.ss,  and 
sniillar  bodies.  Those  substances  which 
adiini  of  being  fused  are  termed  fusible, 
but  those  which  resist  the  action  of  fire  or 
heat  are  termed  refractory. 

FUST.     The  shaft  of  a  column. 

FUSTfAN.     A  sort  of  nappy  cotton. 

FUSTIC.  A  dyeing  wood  bruuglil  Ttoia 
the  West  Indies 


Q,  the  seventh  lel^M  to  the  alphabet,  as  a 
numeral,  fori.^erly  si^d  for  4(10  ;  as  a  sign, 
it  stands  for  rhr  treble  zl')T,  or  the  highest 
of  the  three  cli.Ts  ;  as  an  abbreviation,  for 
grand,  as  G.  C.  C.  ^ntgh:  (iijnd  Cross  of 
the  Bath. 

GABKL.  Formeriy  en  excise  in  France 
on  salt  ;  in  old  Englieh  records,  a  rou,  cus- 
tom, or  duty  due  to  the  lord. 

GABIONS.  Basketsof willow S»:»^  \'th 
earth  to  make  a  parapet  or  cover. 


in   the  barometer,  or  for  meaauring  the 
force  of  the  winds,  tc. 

(iAL.  An  abbreviation  for  gallon  or 
Oalatians. 

(JALAXY,  or  Milky  Wat.  A  long 
white  luminous  tr.tct  which  seems  to  en- 
compass the  heavens  like  a  girdle,  formed 
by  innumerable  stars. 

(iAI.BA.NUM  A  resinous  substance 
like  frankincense. 

GAKH  (among  Mariners).  A  storm  ni 
violent  wind. 

GAl.l.      Another  name  for  the  bile 

GALL   BI.ADDKR.     An  oblong  mem- 
j  Lraneous  receptacle  for  the  bile. 
.      GAl.l.F.RV      A  passage  leading  to  sev- 
J  fciK)  apartments. 


GABLE  END.  Ths  triangular  end  of  a 
house,  from  the  cornice  or  eaves  tn  ihe 
top. 

GADFLY.  An  insect  which  has  a  face 
re.senibling  that  of  an  a|)e.  It  defh-sits  its 
eggs  on  tlie  backs  of  horses  and  ui.^er 
cattle. 


OAGE.  or  GAUGE.  An  instniment  for 
•seertainmg  measures  of  diflTerent  kinds,  as 
lor  measuring  the  stale  of  rarefaction  in 
\ar  a>r  pvinp,  or  deteriiiinin)!  toe  vnrinlions 


GALLP.RY  (amtm;  .Minen).  A  long 
na.'row  passage  iiiiiler  ground. 

GALLKRV(iii  Korlificvilion).  Acjivered 
walk  .icro.ss  a  ditch  in  a  besieged  town, 
made  of  stnmg  planks  and  covered  with 
earth.  It  was  formerly  used  for  carrying 
a  mine  to  the  foot  of  the  ramparts.  Ft 
ought  to  he  eigDt  feet  high  and  ten  or 
twelve  feel  wide.  The  beams  ought  tob« 
half  a  foot  thick. and  planks  nailed  on«aci> 


GAL 

GALl^EY  (ill  Priming).  A  fraiiie  into 
whicli  llie  compositor  eiiiptiea  liia  Diick  u» 
otleii  as  It  H  fillnd. 

GALL.HY  (in  iSbipbuiliiioc).  A  liuv 
built  vessel,  much  Ui»eii  id  Ui«  Mediterra- 
nean 


GAL 


167 


GALLEY-SLAVE.  One  coiuiemned 
oy  way  of  pMnishment  to  work  at  the  oar, 
to  which  he  is  chained,  on  board  of  a  tpil- 
ley. 

GALL-FLY.  An  insect  wliich  produces 
the  galls  or  excrescences  on  the  branches 
and  leaves  of  trees. 

GALLICISiM.  A  form  of  expression 
peculiar  to  the  French. 

GALL  NUTS,  or  (J ALLS.  Excrescen- 
ces on  trees,  which  are  itcrasioiied  by  the 
gall-tlies.  Tliose  which  coiiie  on  the  oak, 
vulgarly  called  oak  apples,  are  used  ii> 
inakin<;  ink,  dyeiNg,  and  dressing  leather. 
They  are  reprei^ented  underneath. 


GALLOWAY.  A  kind  of  Scotch  horse 
not  more  than  fourteen  hands  high. 

GALVA.NIC  BATTERY.  An  appara- 
tus which  is  employed  in  accumulating  the 
electricity  of  galvanism  by  the  mutual 
agencies  of  certain  metallic  and  carbona- 
ceous substances  and  peculiar  fluids.  See 
Galvanism.     Tliis  battery,  as  represented 


andemeath,  consists  of  pieces  of  ztnc,  sil- 
•er,  and  wet  cloth,  dis{Hiscd  m  threes  al- 


temntely,  tn  the  number  of  twenty  or  thir- 
ty triplicates,  as  may  be  tliolialil  projit^r. 

GALVA.N'1.-<.\I.  A  hranibut'tliir  science 
of  eleclricuy,  lirst  diM:iivi:ri-d  accidentally 
by  (ialvaui,  a  prulessor  ol'  iiologna,  from 
whom  It  derives  Us  naiiiK.  'I'hls  science 
treats  uf  the  etrecl:<  of  applying  metals  to 
the  nerves  ami  musi-lus  of  dead  animals, 
whicli  has  been  IuiiimI  tu  produce  strong 
cuntraciioiis  and  cmivulsions.  'i'lie  first 
observation  on  tins  extraordinary  eti'ect  pf 
electricity  was  made  in  the  lalmratory  of 
M.  (>alvaiii,  when  one  of  his  assistants 
happened  to  bring  tlit-  point  of  his  scalpel 
to  the  crural  nerves  <if  a  skiiine  I  frog  lying 
near  the  conductor,  upon  which  the  mus- 
cles of  the  limb  were  agitated  with  strong 
convulsions.  iMadunie  Galvaiii,  wlio  was 
present  at  the  lime,  w;is  struck  with  the 
circumstance,  and  communicated  it  in- 
stantly to  M.  Galvani,  who  rejiealed  tbe 
exjieriinent,  and  found  that  the  convulsion 
only  took  place  when  a  spark  was  drawn 
from  the  conductor  at  the  time  the  scalpel 
was  III  Contact  with  the  nerve.  Alter  this, 
Galvani  continued  Ins  experiments  in  vari- 
ous ways,  and  ascertained  that  the  mere 
agency  of  metallic  substances,  provided 
they  weredissimilar metals,  would  priMluce 
such  coiiviilsiims.  This  subject  engaged 
the  altentiim  of  experimentalists  both  be- 
fore and  after  the  death  of  M.  Galvani, 
which  happened  in  1798 ;  but  none  added 
any  thing  materially  to  his  discovery  ex- 
cept SI.  Volla,  who  reiicated  the  e\perl- 
ineiits  of  the  former,  and  found  that  when 
two  pieces  of  metal  of  diflereiit  kinds  were 
placed  ill  ditlerent  parts  of  an  animal,  and 
were  either  Ih-ouplu  into  contact  or  into 
connexion  by  means  of  a  metallic  arc,  con- 
vulsions ensued  everj-  tin  «,  and  thai  this 
effecl  w;is  strongest  wb'^n  the  metals  were 
y.inc  and  silver,  partlcul.'riy  when  several 
pairs  of  metals  were  eii'i>lo\ed,  having 
pieces  of  moist  cloth  betweru  them.  This 
led  him  to  the  idea  of  constructing  a  Ixitte- 
ry,  for  the  purpose  of  accumi/'ating  elec- 
tricity, which  lias  since  l>eeii  called  the 
galvanic  battery,  or  Voltaic  pile 

The  apparatus  first  made  b)  Villa,  in 
180(1,  consisted  of  a  certain  number  of  pairs 
of  zinc  and  silver  plates,  separateit  from 
each  other  by  pieces  of  wet  cloth,  in  tbfl 
order  of  zinc,  silver,  wel  cloth,  ziiic,  sil- 
ver, wet  elotli,  in  regular  succession.  The 
silver  plates  were  ri'i>-tly  pieces  of  coins, 
the  plates  of  zinc  ami  llie  pieces  of  wet 
cloth  boiiig  of  ">e  s:ooc  si/.r.  He  found 
This  much  more  powt-rfo'  "hen  ihr  piHcea 
fclotli  wt-ri-  iiiol>teiit-rt  wiMl  a  si.iilliou  o. 
omiiion  still  iMstfail  xl  pure  watrr.  and 
an  appa>'atus  ttius  pre|iarca  waa  found  la 


168 


CAN 


possess  the  power  of  giving  a  ver)'  smart 
Bliuck,  ■imilai'  tu  thai  uf  a  8iiiall  electric 
jar  ;  and  this  ed'ect  took  place  as  often  as 
a  conimiinicatioii  was  iniide  lietween  each 
end  of  tlie  pile,  and  as  loiii!  as  the  pieces 
of  cloth  remained  moist:  an  iiiiproveiiieiii 
was  made  on  this apiiaratiis  liy  Mr.  Cruick- 
shank,  of  Woolwich,  which  was  denomi- 
nated a  galvanic  trough,  ami  consists  of  a 
box  of  baked  wood,  in  which  plates  of 
coQiNsr,  or  of  silver  and  I'.iiu',  soldered  to- 
getlier  at  their  edges,  arr  iriiieiiled  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  leave  a  iiiimber  of  water- 
tight cells,  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
the  series  ;  this  serves  to  remedy  (he  defect 
of  the  Voltaic  pile,  wliiih.  on  account  of 
the  loss  of  moislnre,  loses  its  electrical 
action  in  a  few  days  ;  hut  by  Mr.  Cruick- 
shank's  contrivance  its  activity  may  be 
renewed  by  filling  the  Cells  with  the  proper 
saline  iuid. 

GAMf^OOR.  A  yellow  resinous  sub- 
stance used  by  painters.  It  is  the  produce 
of  a  tree  native  of  Ciuubogia  or  Cambaja, 
in  I  he  East  Indies. 

GAME.  All  sorts  of  birds  and  beasts 
that  are  objects  of  Ihe  chase.  The  laws 
which  in  England  particularly  protect  this 
sort  of  pro|ierty ,  are  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Game  Laws  By  these  laws  certain 
qiialitirations  of  projierty  are  reipiired,  to 
give  a  person  the  privilegeof  being  allowed 
to  kill  game  :  and  [lenalties  are  iin|Mised  on 
all  pers4>ns  who  kill  game,  either  without 
such  qualihcalion  or  at  inipro)ier  seiisoiis  ; 
likewise  the  sale  of  game  is  prohibited  un- 
der every  circumstance.  Attempts  have 
been  repeatedly  made  in  p;trliaineii(  to 
procure  a  repeal,  either  wholly  or  in  i>art, 
of  these  laws,  which  are  thimght  to  be 
oppressive  in  their  operation. 

GAME.  Any  sport  or  amusement  which 
affords  a  subject  of  contest,  and  a  display 
of  skill  or  superiority. 

GAMECOCK.  A  cock  bred  to  fight. 

GAMESTER.  One  who  is  viciously 
addicted  to  playing  at  games. 

GAMING.  The  wanton  and  extravagant 
playing  at  games  for  purposes  of  gain. 

GAMUT  (in  Music).  The  table  or  scale 
of  notes  laid  down  liy  Guido,  and  marked 
by  the  monosyllables  ui,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la  ; 
also  the  first  note  in  Ihe  scale. 

GANG  (among  MannerH).  A  select  num- 
ber of  a  ship's  crew,  appointed  on  any 
particular  service. 

GANG  A  number  of  (lersons  who  go  or 
ll*rd  together  for  wicked  piiriioxes. 

GAN(U.IO\t4.  Hniall,  hard,  knotty  tu- 
mours, formed  uu  the  nervous  and  lendi- 
■uus  parts 


GAR 

GANGRENE.  A  niortificatioa  to  iU 
first  beginning. 

GAiNUWAY  (among  Mariners).  The 
name  of  several  wavs  or  tiassaces  from  one 
part  of  a  ship  to  anoiner. 

G.\NNET.  A  large  water  bird,  common 
on  the  coasts  of  iscolland. 

GANTLOPE,  or  GA.NTLET  (in  MUi- 
tary  Affairs).  An  old  punishment  In  whirh 
the  criminal,  running  lietween  the  ranks, 
receives  a  lash  from  every  man. 

GANNET.  The  solan  goose,  a  northern 
sea-towl,  allied  to  the  pclii-au,  and  be- 
longing to  tha  same  genua  with  tue 
booby. 

GANOIDI.\NS.  An  ortler  of  fishes 
having  angular  scales,  covered  witli 
bright  enamel,  as  the  sturgeon. 

G.\NGUE.  The  mineral  substance 
■which  encloses  any  metallic  ore  in  the 
vein;  protogene  granite. 

GAU.\GAY.  A  rapacious  bird  of  Mexico. 

GARANCINE.  An  extract  of  madder 
by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

GARDEN.  A  plot  of  ground  enclosed 
and  cultivated  with  extraordinary  care, 
and  furnished  with  the  fine  kinds  of 
plants  and  rtowers,  for  pleasure  and  use. 

GARDEiN'ING.  The  process  ol  tilling 
a  garden  and  keeping  it  in  order. 

GARDENING,  History  of.  Gardening 
IS  one  of  those  domestic  arts  so  essentially 
connected  with  the  refined  enjoyments  of 
mankind,  that  with  a  garden  has  ever  been 
a.sKociated  every  idea  of  cultivation  and 
pure  pleasure.  From  Holy  Writ  we  learn 
that  our  first  parents,  before  their  fall, 
passed  their  lives  in  a  garden,  and  their 
posterity,  allhough,  according  tu  the  denun- 
ciatimi  of  their  Maker,  doomed  to  till  the 
ground  with  the  sweat  of  their  brow,  never- 
theless have  at  all  times  endeavoured  to 
sweeten  their  labour  by  bringing  home  to 
themselves  the  enjoyments  of  cultivation 
within  the  narrow  circle  of  their  own 
hahitatKm.  The  accounts  of  gardens  among 
the  ancients  are  confined  to  those  of  princes 
or  great  men,  as  the  garden  of  Solomon 
and  the  garden  of  Alcinous  the  Pha;acian 
king,  which  is  minutely  described  by 
Homer  in  his  Odyssey.  The  hanging  gar- 
dens of  Babylon,  particularly  spoken  of 
by  Diodorus  and  StraUo,  may  be  reckoned 
among  the  wonders  of  art.  Each  side  ex- 
tended four  hundred  feet,  so  that  the  area 
of  the  ba.se  was  nearly  an  acre.  They  rose 
with  terraces,  constructed  one  above  ano- 
ther, and  8U|i|M>rted  with  pillars  to  the 
hetcht  of  four  hundred  feet.  These  ter- 
races were  formed  of  stone,  covered  with 
reeds,  and  ceiiirnled  with  bitumen,  over 
which  was  laid  a  double  row  of  briclta, 


GAR 

•nd  then  a  luynr  of  eanh  of  iiiffirlent 
•".eiitli  fur  |il:iiit:»  lo  spiw  in  11.  Tli«  I'er- 
•.iaii  kiiij!!t  also  ili.-i|ilaye<l  tlipir  iii:i;;nili- 
cence  in  tlieir  Kardt-na,  winch  they  took 
cart-  should  coiiiaiii  all  that  U':u<  imRfiil  as 
vtll  ;is  beautiful.  Tlirir  irt-t- s  wrrf  ninged 
in  Mtraijihl  liiics  and  rt-uiilar  hsinriw.  and 
the  Miarglns  of  the  walks  were  iiMcd  with 
•..fts  of  roses,  viofets,  and  other  iHlKrileroiis 
J.iwers.  Firs  and  planes  were  their  fa- 
vourite trees. 

The  (Jreeks  apjiear  to  have  derived  their 
ideas  of  jpirdeiiing  from  the  Persians,  if 
we  inayjndj'e  troni  the  alliisuiiis  of  writers 
to  this  subject.  Xeno|ilioii  particularly 
ndiiiires  the  garden  of  Cyrus  at  Pardis. 
The  narcissus,  the  violet,  the  rose,  the  ivy, 
the  pines,  ami  other  plants  chosen  by  the 
Persians,  either  for  their  beauty  or  their 
fragrance,  were  the  theme  of  praise  among 
the  (Grecian  poets  anil  philnsnphers.  They 
also  ronsiilled  shade,  fresh  liree/.es,  and  the 
beauties  of  verdant  .scenery,  iis  we  learn 
from  the  vale  of  Teiiijie  described  by 
/l-^lian,  and  the  shady  proves  of  .Alliens 
described  by  rintarcli.  With  the  l>eiiulies 
j(  iiaiure  they  also  a.s.siicialed  those  of  art, 
particularly  ouch  as  derived  an  interest 
from  their  reli!:ioiis  or  social  attachiueiit>i. 
Hence  we  find  that  their  gikrdeiis  were 
deiMiratcd  with  temples  or  altars  dedicated 
to  ilieir  gods,  or  the  tombs  of  their  ances- 
tors i>r  of  great  men  whnse  iiieinory  they 
held  ilear.  Their  favourite  fruits  were  the 
vine,  the  fig,  the  tuinieiiranale,  and  tlie 
melon. 

The  first  jpirden  nieiitnmed  anions  the 
Komans  is  that  of  Tiir<piiiiins  Sii|K-rbiis, 
\»'.ich  alHiiinded  with  dowers.cliutly  ro-ses 
and  (Hippies.  As  the  Koinaii  people  exten- 
ded their  conquests,  and  their  intercourve 
with  other  nations  became  nnire  frequent, 
tliey  increased  in  luxurious  and  ex|ieiisive 
indulgences,  which  Ihey  displayed  in  the 
decorations  of  their  pardens.  I^iiciilliis,  the 
conqiieriK  of  .Mithridates,  who  introduced 
frmii  Asia  the  cherry,  the  pe.-ich.  and  the 
apricot,  first  pave  the  Komans  a  sjiecimen 
of  .Asiatic  "randeur,  in  his  garden  near 
Biiia;,  ih  Aaples,  whicli  was  remarkable 
fiir  pDidisiuus  works  of  art,  as  artificial 
nioiintains,  imnien.se  pieces  of  water,  and 
numerous  costly  eiiibellishiiients.  'I'his 
gave  that  lone  of  artificiality  to  the  Roman 
gardens  which  was  for  so  many  centuries 
aOer  retained  in  Eiirii|ie.  Slii|ie8,  terraces, 
a  wilderness,  shrubs  methodically  trimmed 
or  cut  into  certain  shafies,  a  marble  basin, 
artificial  fountains,  or  a  cascade  falling  into 
tlie  'lasin,  bay  trees  alternately  planted 
•v.tb  planes,  a  strai<:hi  walk,  from  which 
tsitiied  others,  parted  >>trby  hedges  of  box, 
15 


GAS 


169 


and  apple  trees,  wiih  olielisks  placed  be- 
tween every  two;  these  were  the  incrcdi- 
enls  of  a  ilnman  garden,  as  described  by 
Pliny  the  yoniiuer.  In  which  was  wanted 
nothing  hill  the  decoriition  of  a  parterre  to 
make  a  garden  in  the  reign  of  'I'mjan  to 
serve  for  a  description  of  one  in  the  seven- 
teenth Century  A  more  correct  taste  in 
the  art  ol  ifardening  has  obtained  within 
the  la.sl  century.  Nature  now  derives 
every  (HLSsible  a.<si8tani  e  from  art,  without 
lo.sing  any  Ihingof  her  simplicity 

U.ARLAiNli.  An  ornanieiit  of  flowen 
made  for  the  head  ur  other  piirpises. 

(iARL.ANl)  (aiiioii!!  .Manners).  A  collar 
of  ro|>e  wound  up  -Uioiii  tlie  head  of  a 
main  mast,  to  k-  ri>  the  shrouds  from 
galling. 

UAIILIC.  A  bulbous  root,  consisting  <if 
many  small  tubercles  included  in  :is  coitls 
It  has  a  strong  smell  and  ait  acrid  taste, 
but  is  much  used  for  food. 

(J.ARN  lO'J".  A  .sort  of  carbuncle,  so  called 
from  Its  red  colour,  resembling  tlie  seed  of 
a  iHimegr.inate. 

GAKMSH.MK.NT  (in  Uiw).  A  warning 
given  to  any  one  for  his  ap|iearaiice  in 
court. 

UARRET.  The  uppermost  floor  in  a 
lioiise. 

UARRISDN.  A  place  of  defence  occu- 
pied by  triMips  ;  also  the  troops  themselves. 

OARTliR.  A  haiidage  for  the  leg. 

OAR'I'KK  (in  Mrraldo).  The  principal 
badge  of  the  highest  order  of  knlghlhood 
in  England  called  the  most  Noble 
Orriei  of  the  (Jarter. 

UARTKR  KIM;  at  ARMS.  The  chief 
of  the  three  kings  at  arms. 

G.ARTEK,  Orokr  of  the.  In  England, 
an  order  of  knights  instituted  by  Edward 
III.  which  consists  of  twenty-six  knights 
companions.  The  habit  and  ensigns  of 
this  order  are  the  garter,  mantle,  cap,  and 
collar.  The  badge  of  the  order  is  the  im- 
age of  Saint  George,  called  the  George. 

(<AS.  A  chuniical  term  derived  from 
the  German  geist,  spirit,  denoting  an  elas- 
tic aerial  fiiiid,  of  which  there  are  difterent 
kinds,  some  lieing  acid,  as  carbimic  acid  ; 
some  alkalies,  as  ammonia,  &.c. 

(i.A.S  LIGHT.  Light  produced  by  gas 
burning  in  lamps,  &e.  This  gas,  which  is 
a  combination  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  is 
carried  away  by  pipes  and  burnt  at  the 
orifice  of  escape.  It  is  produced  either 
from  pit  coal  or  whale  oil.  1'he  process 
for  producing  coal  gas  is  as  follows.  Tha 
coal,  being  broken  to  a  convenient  sice,  is 
placed  in  oblong  cast  iron  retorts,  ranged 
in  furnaces  to  keep  them  at  a  red  heat, 
'  and  all  the  volatile  products  are  convejre4 


170 


GAT 


by  a  common  tube  into  a  condensinR 
vexHel,  which  is  kept  cool  by  lieln;;  iiii- 
nl«^r^i«(1  in  V  Iter.  In  the  coiidt^iiser  ire 
reiaiiifd  ihe  wat«*r,  tar,  and  other  con- 
dt^iisible  vaiMiiirs,  wliile  Ihe  giist^oiis  pro- 
ducts, iiiiiiicly,  the  carhiiretted  hydrogen, 
theKiiijihiireUed  hydro{ieii,aii(l  thecarhoiiic 
oiyde  anil  acid  are  passed  ttiroiijjii  strata 
or  slaked  lime,  hy  which  the  sulphuretted 
liydrojieii  and  carlMniic  gases  are  ahsorbed, 
and  the  carhuretled  hydro(,'en  and  hydro- 
gen gases  In  their  purified  slate  are  Inins- 
niitted  into  the  i!a.soiiieters,  troin  which  the 
several  pipes  are  supplied  tlial  convey  the 
gas  to  the  lamps.  The  best  kind  of  coal 
for  distillation  is  that  which  contains  most 
bitumen  and  least  sulphur. 

Aflerthe  discovery  orotitairiinc  gasfroni 
coal,  attempts  were  made  to  extract  it 
from  oilier  sulistanies.  The  method  of  pro- 
cu/iii>;  it  from  oil  is  said  to  have  originated 
in  an  attempt  made  in  1814  to  convert  coal 
tar  Into  eas.  Since  tlial  period,  numerous 
works  have  been  constnn  led  for  the  max- 
nfacture  of  oil  gas,  whii  h,  in  Ihe  opinion 
Iff  many,  is  preferable  to  the  coal  gas. 

G.ASOiMKTKR,  or  GA/(i.VIEI"EK.  A 
reservoir  f'-'  holding  a  c<insiderable  ipian- 
tity  of  gas.  It  Is  made  of  thin  liniied  iron 
plate,  and  mostly  provided  with  some 
contrivance  for  measuring  the  quantity  of 
gas  it  contains. 


GASTRIC  JUICE.  A  fluid  separated 
Oy  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  stomach, 
and  serving  as  the  principal  solvent  of  the 
food.  This  juice  in  a  healthy  subject  is 
inodorous,  of  a  saltish  taste,  and  limpid 
like  water. 

GA'l'E.  A  moveable  part  of  a  fence, 
made  of  wood  or  iron.  Gates  with  five 
•r  six  bars,  large  enough  to  admit  of  cartji 


parsing  through,  are  most  commonly  em- 
ployed in  fences  for  parting  offtielda. 


GEM 

GAVELKI.N'D.  A  tenure  or  cn.nom  li 
Kent  in  England,  whereby  the  lands  of 
the  father  were  divi  led  eipially  at  Ilia 
dealti  among  his  sons. 

GAUGIN'ti.  The  art  of  measuring  the 
capacities  of  all  kinds  of  vessels. 

(;ArN'l'LKT,  An  iron  glove  for  ih« 
hand,  which  was  formerly  u.-rd  in  single 
combat.  It  is  borne  in  coat  armour,  as  It 
the  annexed  figure. 


GAUZE.  A  very  thin  sort  of  silk 

GAZELLE.  A  beautiful  species  of  th« 
Antelope  frequently  alluded  to,  in  Persian 
poetry. 

G.^ZETTE.  A  newspaper;  particularly 
that  published  by  authority.  The  firs 
Gazette  in  England  was  published  in  1663 
at  Oxford,  where  the  court  then  was 

GAZETTEER.  A  writer  or  publishe 
of  a  Gazette;  also  the  title  of  a  geographi 
cal  dictionary. 

GELATINE,  or  Jellt.  An  animal  sub 
stance,  soluble  in  water,  and  capable  of 
assuming  an  ela.stic  or  tremulous  consist- 
ence when  cooled,  and  liquifying  again 
by  the  application  of  heat. 

GEM.  A  precious  stone;  or  a  sort  of 
siliceous  earth,  consisting  of  silica  uiid 
alumina,  with  a  small  portion  of  lime  and 
oxydr  of  iron.  The  gem  is  remarkable 
for  its  hardness  and  internal  lustre.  l,'n<ler 
this  name  is  comprehended  the  dianioml, 
ruby,  sajiphire,  hyacinth,  beryl,  garnet, 
chrysolite,  &.c.  To  these  have  been  added 
rock  crystals,  the  finer  fiiiitsof|>ebbles,  Ihe 
cat's  eye,  the  ociilns  niundi,  the  chalcedo- 
ny, the  moon  stones,  the  onyx,  the  corne- 
lian, the  sardonyx,  agate,  &c. 

The  imitation  of  antique  gems,  by  taking 
the  impressions  and  figures  upon  Ihem,  in 
gla.ss  of  the  colour  of  the  original  gem,  or 
on  sealing  wax  or  brimstone,  has  been 
pracMsedat  ditferent  times  by  persons  who, 
in  respect  to  the  first  method  of  taking 
them  on  gliuts,  have  kept  Ihe  art  to  them- 
selves, and  suffered  It  to  die  with  them 
Rut  the  process  adopted  by  Mr.  Ilomberg 
which  has  also  been  commiinicaled  by  hir., 
to  the  world,  is  highly  esteemed  for  tha 
perfection  to  which  he  has  brought  the  art 
From  the  engraved  gems  of  the  king'f 
cabinet,  he  took  such  exact  resemblance! 
of  tiu  originals  as  sumeliiuea  to  decciv* 


fiEN 

the  nicest  judges,  who  mistm)k  them  fnrtha 
tru''  antii|iie  stones.  His  iiiethod  consists 
in  takin<!  tlie  rmpression  of  tiie  t;em  in  a 
very  (ine  earth,  and  then  conveying  the 
ini|ire«8ioii  from  tlie  earth  t.>  a  piece  of 
half  inelleii  glu.ss. 

GEMINI,  the  Twins.  A  coiiiflellKtion. 
Uld  !>ign  in  the  Z'xlctr,  innrkeil  lliui  LI- 

UEN.  An  abbreviation  for  (ieneral  and 
Genesis. 

GENDARMES,  or  GENS  D'AR.ME.S. 
A  select  body  of  soldiers  in  the  French 
irmy,  who  are  now  much  employed  by 
the  (Hilice. 

GENDER  (in  Grammar).  A  distinction 
in  nouns  to  ir.ark  the  sexes;  Keiideis  are 
either  masculine,  for  the  male  sex;  femi- 
nine, for  the  female  sex;  or  neuter,  for 
those  which  are  of  neither  sex. 

GE.N'EALOGY.  A  series  or  succession 
of  ance.-'tors;  also  an  account  of  the  rela- 
tions and  alliances  of  any  person  or  family. 

GENERAL  (in  .Milaary  Affairs).  An 
jfficer  in  chief,  to  whom  tlie  roiniimnd  of 
troops  is  iu'.riisted;  also  a  particular  beat 
of  drum  in  the  morning,  tw  give  notice  to 
the  foot  to  march. 

GENERALISSIMO.  The  supreme  gene- 
ral or  commander  in  chief  of  an  army. 

GE.NERAL  ISSUE  (In  Law).  That  plea 
which  traverses  or  denies  at  once  the  whole 
declaration  or  indictment. 

GENERAL  OPKIOERS.  All  officers 
above  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
line. 

GENERATING  (Jn  Geometry).  A  tenn 
for  a  tine  or  fiirure,  which  by  ila  motion 
produces  any  other  figure. 

GENERIC  t:HARACTER  (in  Natural 
History).  The  character  which  dlstiii- 
gnishes  the  genera  or  general  kinds  of 
plants,  animals,.  Slc.  from  each  other. 
This  character  belongs  to  all  the  species 
of  the  same  genus  or  kind. 

GENERIC  NA.ME  (in  Natural  History). 
The  name  of  any  genus  or  kind  of  animal, 
plant,  or  mineral.  I'his  name  can  be  de- 
Bcrihert  only  by  describing  the  generic 
character. 

GEJVET.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  kind, 
resembling  the  civet  cat  in  its  musk  smell. 

GENEVA.  See  Giw. 

GE.NITIVE  CASE.  The  second  ca.se  in 
I^atin  and  Greek  nouns,  which  denote  pos- 
lession.  It  <«  marked  in  English  by  a  with 
»n  apnstro.me,  thus  ('s). 

G  E.N  II.  Good  or  evil  spirits,  much 
tboiighl  of  in  the  ea.stern  nalions.  The 
Tales  of  the  Genii  profess  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  their  proceedings  and  dealings 
nixh  Jiankind. 

GGN'TILES.  A  name  given  by  the  Jews 


GEO 


171 


ui  an  who  were  not  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel:  anxHig  Christians,  it' is  the  name  of 
all  heathens  who  did  not  embrace  Iha 
Christian  faith. 

GE.NTLE.MAN.  Anciently,  one  above 
the  state  of  a  yeoman. 

GE.NTRV  (in  Law).  Theorderand  rank 
ofi:eiitleinen,descended  from  ancient  faiiii- 
lies,  that  had  always  borne  coat  armour. 

GEN'l'UO.   A  native  of  lliiidostan. 

GENUS  'in  Natural  History).  A  sub 
division  of  a  class  or  order  of  natural  ob 
jecls,  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral,  an4 
having  under  ildirterenlspeciesor  variety 

GENUS  (among  Logicians;.  That  whirll 
is  conimon  to  a  number  of  individuals;  tho 
sunimum  genua,  or  highest  genus,  is  that 
which  apfiertains  to  the  greatest  number 
ofindividiials,  as  substance,  which  belongs 
to  all  material. 

GEiXJKNTRIC.  Reing  concentric  with 
the  earth,  wr  having  the  earth  for  its  centre; 
a  term  applied  to  a  planet  in  its  <irbil. 

GEOGRAI'lllCAL  MILE.  The  60th 
part  of  a  degree. 

GEtKJRAI'llY.  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  earth  as  an  habitable  world, 
compreheiHlini!  a  description  of  the  whole 
globe,  lugelher  with  an  account  of  all  its 
parts,  limits,  inhabitunts,  &.c.  Geography 
is  either  general  or  particular.  General 
geography  comprehends  the  knowledge  of 
the  earth  in  general,  and  the  affections 
romiiKiii  to  the  whole  globe,  as  its  figure, 
magnitude,  niotioiis,  circles,  winds,  tides, 
meteors,  divisions  into  land  and  water, 
&c.  Particular  geognipliy  has  respect  tu 
particular  countries,  showing  their  boun- 
daries, figure,  climate  ,sea.s<ms, inhabitants, 
arts,  customs, language,  history ,  &.c.  When 
it  respects  regions,  distrnts,  or  parts  of 
countries,  it  is  called  <  horography,  and 
when  particular  cities,  towns,  or  villages, 
&c.  it  is  called  topograpliy.  Particiilai 
geography  isal.->odistiiiguislie(l  into  ancient 
geography,  when  it  treiits  of  the  coutrtrits 
and  places  existing  among  the  ancients, 
modern  geography,  when  it  treats  of  mo 
dern  places;  the  geography  of  the  middle 
ages,  which  treatsof  places  that  flourished 
in  the  middle  ages  ;  and  la-^tly,  sacred 
geography,  which  treats  of  places  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible. 

The  earth,  considered  as  a  planet,  U 
supposed  to  be  marked  by  circles  corres- 
ponding to  those  wUicb  the  sun  apparently 
describes  in  the  heavens,  as  the  borixon, 
which  divid 'S  the  sphere  into  two  pnrtl 
or  hemispheres,  the  one  upper  and  visittie 
the  other  lower  and  invisible,  the  cqnalor 
which  Is  equidistant  fmm  both  the  pules, 
and  divides  the  globe  into  nurlheni  and 


172 


CEOGRArHY. 


•oiilliem  hcmiaph^rps:  thevriiniilh,  or  ver- 
tK.Hl  circlr!s,  wliii'.lj  iiilerKecl  «ui:li  titlieriit 
tliH  /.eiiilli  aiiil  iiiiJir;  Ihr  iiirri.liiiii,  which 
crosses  ihe  fijiiulor  al  riifht  atiglc^K,  and 
from  wliich  Uie  distniice  i<(  pact-s  ejist  and 
west  is  reckoned  ;  tht^  (lanillfU  of  latitude, 
small  circles  sn|iposed  ti>  lie  parallel  to 
liie  equatiir,  whidi  slmw  the  laiitiide  of 
places,  or  their  distance  iinrlli  and  south 
fnin  the  equator  •,  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
e:rs!e«,  two  i  irclen  at  the  diiitance  of  twen- 
ty three  degrees  and  a  half  from  the  north 
ktid  south  |iole8;  the  two  tropics,  namely, 
Ifio  tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  tropic  of 
I'apricorn,  the  first  north  and  the  second 
south,  twenty-three  degrees  and  a  half  dis- 
tant from  the  equator;  to  these  mi^ht  be 
added  the  hour  circles,  or  the  twenty-four 
circles  passing  throimh  the  equator,  and 
corres[K>Mdiiig  to  ihe  twenty-four  liours  uf 
the  day 

Krom  the  diversity  in  the  lenirth  of  the 
days  and  iilgliLs,  aeogmphers  divide  the 
globe  into  certain  districLs,  called  climates, 
inexsiired  either  hy  hours  or  half  hours  ; 
and  from  the  effects  of  light  and  heat  upon 
the  earth  in  different  ptrts,  it  is  distin- 
guished into  five  zones,  namely,  one  torrid 
or  liurniiig /one,  between  the  tropics;  two 
feniperale,  between  Ihe  polir  circles  and 
I  lie  tropics;  two  frigid  or  frozen  7.(mea, 
between  the  polar  circles  and  the  poles. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  as  to  their 
rel  itive  situation  in  regard  to  each  other, 
are  distinguished  into  the  antipodes,  who 
live  directly  opp<isite  to  each  other;  the 
antoeci.  who  live  under  the  same  meridian, 
but  opposite  parallels  of  latitude;  the  pe- 
rioecl,  who  live  under  the  same  parallels 
of  latitude,  but  opposite  meridians. 

'I'he  earth  is  uaturally  divided  into  land 
and  water,  and  according  to  some  omipu- 
iatiuns  about  three-fourths  of  it  is  occupied 
by  water,  and  the  remaining  fourth  by 
land.  Ihe  land  is  distinguished  intocon- 
ti'.ents,  or  large  portions  not  separated  by 
any  sea,  a.«  the  four  great  continents,  Ku- 
njftf.,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  which 
an:  the  fuurquartersof  the  world;  islands, 
■mailer  [Hirtions,  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  a.«  Great  EJritain,  Ireland,  &c.; 
peninsulas,  or  tracts  of  land  almost  sur> 
rounded  by  water,  as  the  Morea,  in  Greece; 
nllimuses,  or  necks  of  land  joining  two 
tontiiienl4,  as  the  isthinusof  Suez,  joining 
Africa  to  Asia;  promontories,  or  capes, 
ligli  portions  of  land  stretching  out  into 
Ule  sea,  as  flie  Cape  of  GiHid  llo|ie;  moiin- 
lains,  or  elevations  of  the  earth's  surface, 
•ocb  as  the  .Mjis  and  Pyrenees  iii  r.uro|)e, 
Jm  CaiiciiMtt*  and   L'raliaii.  Mountains  in 


.Asia,  and  the  Ai.des  in  .America.  'rh« 
water  is  disliiignished  iiitr>  oceans,  which 
are  vjist  collections  which  separate  the 
continents  from  each  other,  ;u«  the  I'acific 
and  Atlantic  Oceans;  se:is,  or  sinaller  col- 
lections of  water,  as  the  Indian  Sea,  HIack 
Sea,  &.C.;  gulf's,  parts  of  any  sea  surrounded 
nearly  with  land,  as  the  Gulf  of  Venice, 
if  they  have  a  wide  entnmce  they  are  hays, 
as  the  liay  of  Biscay;  straits,  narrow  pas- 
sages joining  two  ^eas,  as  the  btrait  of 
Gibraltar;  lakes,  lu  |e  collections  entirely 
surnmndcdby  laMU,aslhe  Lake  of  Geneva; 
rivers,  streams  of  w.iter  which  have  their 
source  in  some  spring,  and  empty  them- 
selves into  some  other  river  or  piece  of 
water.  'I'he  principal  rivers,  as  to  their 
m.'icnitiides,  ar"  the  .Aiiia/.i>n  ir^negal, 
iNile,!?t.  I^awieiire,  La  I'lata,  Mississippi, 
Volga,  Oronooko,  (langes,  Kiiplirates,  iJa- 
nube,  Don,  Indus,  Dnieper,  and  llwina, 
but  if  estimated  according  to  the  length  of 
course  which  they  run,  their  order  will  be 
nitlier  ditferent,  hut  the  Amazon  is  the 
largest  in  every  respect. 

The  earth  is  politically  divided  into 
coun  tries, w  Inch,  accord  lug  to  their  govern- 
ment, are  distinguished  into  empires,  if 
they  are  of  great  e.vtent,  as  the  Itnssian 
and  .Austrian  empires;  or  kingdoms,  as 
the  kingiloms  of  Great  Britain,  Spain, 
A:e.,  or  Republic's  as  tUo  Uuitei  States, 
Mexi(;o,  F^au(^e,  *:<■.,  or  States  aa 
Holland,      Netherlands,        &c.,      under 

this  head  geography  treats  of  the  subdi- 
visions of  each  country  into  provinces, 
cities,  towns,  Ace;  also  of  the  number  of 
inhabitants,  the  nature  and  produce  of  the 
soil,  the  animals  peculiar  to  each  place, 
the  state  of  the  arts,  niaiiiifactures,  com- 
merce, &c.  which  constitute  the  wealth  of 
each  country,  and  is  comprehended  under 
the  name  of  statistics.  'I  ualt  this  may  be 
added  an  acco>iiit  of  curiosities,  natural 
andartilicial,  as  V(ilcanoes,cavern3,  canals, 
springs,  fountains,  and  the  like.  liesides 
geogniphy  treats  not  only  of  the  earth'i 
surface,  but  also  of  the  affections  which  it 
is  exposed  to  from  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
which  produce  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the 
tide,  and  the  currents  belonging  tu  par- 
ticular seas,  as  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
Euxinesea^;  likewise  of  the  winds  which 
blow  in  iKirticiilar  manners  and  directions, 
such  as  the  moiisiions.or  trade  winds, which 
blow  for  some  months  in  the  yeiir  one 
way  and  the  rest  another;  and,  Lastly,  the 
meteorological  peculiarities  of  each  coun- 
try, such  as  regards  the  degree  of  beat  and 
cold,  the  quantity  nf  rain  which  falls  \r 
particular  places,  ir  within  a  given  peril  J 


(JEocRAPinr 


ITS 


the  duratlnn  of  frrwtg,  and  oth^r  pnrtjciilars 
r<>«|M*ctiiig  ilir  cliiiiiiip,  anil  iueirecb<upnn 
the  siirniiiiiiliiii;  olijecta. 

<leogrM|iliiriil  <li-.srri)itiiiii!i  are  moreover 
.llii!<traied  liy  eiierHved^lflitieiilion:^,  which 
when  they  re(ire.seiil  an  iiceiin,  sea.r.f  aay 
piere  <if  waler,  is  called  a  chart,  but  when 
they  represent  any  parts  of  the  earth  gene- 
rally are  termed  maps.  In  all  map.''  the 
nxrth  iH  a(  the  lop  and  the  gotilh  at  the 
botlcim,  the  east  on  the  right  and  the  west 
on  tlie  left.  Maps  are  always  laid  down 
acc<>rdin<!  to  a  certain  scale,  taken  from 
the  degrees  of  latitude  which  are  marked 
on  tlie  eiisi  and  west  side  of  the  map, 
those  of  longitude  being  marked  on  the 
Borth  and  south  side.  As  the  earth  is  a 
glolie,  a  map  of  the  whole  earth  must 
necessarily  consist  of  I  wo  parts,  both  sides 
of  the  globe  not  being  visible  ,it  once; 
accordingly  in  a  universal  map  the  right 
hand  circle  shows  the  old  world,  that  is, 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  the  left 
hand  circle  the  new  world,  or  America. 
Upon  the  e'nsra'  "''il'  ire  marked  the 
circles  correspondent  to  those  of  the  sphere, 
as  the  equator,  &.c.  Particular  maps,  be- 
ing parts  of  this  globe,  retain  the  meridians 
and  parallels  belonging  to  the  particular 
part,  which  are  made  smaller  or  larger 
according  to  the  si/.e  of  the  map,  and  the 
distance  of  the  places  mentioned  are  pro- 
portioned to  the  breadth  of  the  parallels  as 
nearly  as  they  can  be. 

In  maps  ihe  sea  is  denoted  by  an  open 
space,  the  thick  shadowing  denotes  the  sea- 
coast,  rivers  are  marked  by  shadowed  ser- 
pentine lines,  if  large  by  double  and  treble 
lines  made  stronr  and  black,  roads  by 
double  lines,divi$ionsofcouiiiries  by  dotted 
Hues,  and  sometimes  distinct  colours,  those 
for  kingdoms  and  provinces  being  larger 
than  the  rest;  forests  are  represented  by 
trees,  mountains  by  rising  shadows,  sands 
by  dotted  beds,  lakes  by  shadowed  coasts, 
rocks  by  (Hiinled  things  sticking  up  sharp 
in  the  sea,  the  course  of  the  winds  by 
arrows.  The  namesot  villagesare  written 
in  a  running  hand,  those  ol  towns  in  a 
Roman  character,  those  of  cities  in  small 
eapiuals,  and  those  of  provinces  in  large 
i:apitals.  Cities  ot  jreat  towns  are  made 
like  small  houses,  with  a  little  circle  in  the 
middle  of  them,  but  smaller  towns  or 
Tll!a{esare  marked  only  with  little  circles; 
briCjes  by  a  double  line  acruss  the  river. 
In  •OHIO  maps,  particularly  old  maps,  cities, 
as  the  sees  of  bishops,  were  marked  with 
a  cross  or  initre,  and  those  of  archbisho|is 
with  a  double  cross,  universities  with  a 
(tar  or  a  caduceus,  abbeys  wilh  a  crook  or 
pastoral  stulf  ''vtresses  with  an  angle,  as 
'#• 


of  a  bastion .  castles  with  a  little  flag,  jentl»- 
men'x  seats  with  a  sincle  house  only,  &.c 
The  upparalusciilled  tlie  terrestrial  globa, 
has  a  complete  niapof  tlieearlli  ilrawn  on 
its  surface,  with  the  seieral  im;igiiiar)r 
circles,  and  is  mori-over  lilted  to  illurttrute 
the  movements  of  tiie  earth  as  a  planet, 
the  latitudes,  longitudes,  and  distances  of 
places,  the  hours  of  day  and  night  in 
different  part,  with  a  nuuilwr  uf  utlier  in- 
teresting problems. 

GEOGRAPHY,  llnToRT  or.  The  study 
of  geography,  as  far  as  it  was  connected 
with  or  depended  upon  asiroiiomy,  in  all 
probability  began  and  kept  |>ace  with  it. 
Thales,  the  Grecian  astrcuionier,  construct- 
ed a  globe,  representing  the  land  and  sea 
upon  a  table,  which  art  he  derived  from 
the  Egyptians,  among  whom  ma|is  weie 
ill  use  even  as  early  as  the  days  of  Sesostris. 
Thisconi|ueror  is  said  to  have  represented 
in  this  manner  the  coni|uesis  he  made  and 
thecountrieshemarched  through.  'I'ballhe 
Israelites  practised  the  art  of  geography  at 
an  early  period  is  clear  I'nun  the  accouiil 
we  have  in  ;^ripliire  of  Joshua  having 
sent  men  to  walk  through  the  land  of 
Canaan,  which  they  described  in  seven 
parts,  in  a  book.  The  first  map  amotig 
the  Greeks  on  record  is  that  of  Anaxi- 
mander,  which  is  probably  referred  to  bv 
liipparchus,  under  the  designation  of  '.oe 
anrienl  map.  Geographical  descri'  liona 
were,  however,  prior  to  this,  for  th.  works 
of  Homer  abound  with  the  names  of  places 
and  an  account  of  several  particulars  re- 
specting them.  The  first  professed  writer 
on  the  subject  of  geography  wa.s  Scylai,  if 
the  author  of  the  Perlpliis  now  extant  h« 
the  same  as  the  philosopher  of  that  name 
mentioned  by  Herodotus.  Herodotus  the 
historian  has  interspersed  his  work  with  a 
minute  geographical  description  of  the 
places  which  occur  In  the  course  of  his 
narrative;  and  geographical  notices  are  also 
to  be  found  scattered  in  the  writings  of 
Thucydidesand  Xenophon.  The coni|uests 
of  Alexander  doubtless  increased  the  de- 
sire to  know  more  of  the  ba>iitable  world, 
which  that  prince  encouraged  by  sending 
Nearchiis  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the 
Red  Sea,  a  description  of  which  is  still 
extant.  About  the  same  time  flourished 
the  geographer  Dicearchus,  of  whose 
works  some  frtigments  remain. 

Eratosthenes  is  said  to  have  been  tb»  flrsi 
who  attempted  to  reduce  the  science  of  geo- 
graphy to  a  system,  by  the  application  of 
astronomical  principles.  He  introduced  a 
regular  parallel  of  latitude,  which  began 
at  the  ?traits  of  Gibraltar,  and  proceeded 
I  through  the  isle  of  Khodes  lu  tha  mouB 


174 


GEOGRAPHY. 


uiiif»<  fif  Tnrtia,  noting  all  the  places  it 
p:iyM-il  ihriiiigh.  He  (lr«-w  lliis  piirHllel  not 
by  ilir  sitiiiRiiess  uf  the  liititiide,  but  by 
oliHt^rviiig  wliere  Ihe  longest  day  was  fonr- 
tt^rii  hours  and  a  half,  whjcli  Mipparchus 
•llervvurds  found  to  be  tliirty-six.  Erutos- 
tliene'i  also  drew  maps  of  the  countries 
tben  known,  with  as  much  accuracy  as 
his  scanty  information  would  eaalHe  him, 
but  Iliey  contanifd  little  Hiore  than  an 
imperfect  representation  of  the  states  of 
(ireece  and  the  dominions  of  Alexander's 
successors,  lie  was  ignorant,  as  Strabo 
informs  us,  of  (Jaiil,  Spain,  Germany, 
Kritain,  Italy, and  the  coast uTt he  Adriatic, 
and  had  only  a  faint  idea  of  the  western 
parts  of  Knrope.  Hipparclius  improved 
ii|nin  the  labours  of  Eratosthenes,  and  de- 
teriiilned  bmli  the  latitudes  and  longitudes 
fniiii  celestial  observations. 

Unilerthe  Uonian  emperors  geography 
acquired  au  iuireasing  interest,  from  the 
perpetual  accessions  which  were  made  by 
oiriipipst  to  the  empire.  Accordingly,  we 
find  the  number  of  geographical  writers 
to  lie  ;,Teatly  increiised,  and  their  writings 
to  lie  mure  correct  and  particular.  Besides 
r'(im|KiMiu»  .Mela,  who,  in  his  Cosmogra- 
pliia,  has  given  a  neat  and  comprehensive 
arcoiiiit  of  the  known  world,  and  Diony- 
sJiis  Periiieles,  who  has  written  a  system 
01  i;eo!;r;iphy  in  verse,  Stnibo  has  left  a 
Work  on  this  subject  which,  in  |)oiiit  ot 
mctliodii'wl  arraiigenient  and  extent  of  in- 
fonuatKin,  exceeded  any  thing  that  had 
b»-(-n  hitherto  published.  This  was  fol- 
lowed, after  the  interval  of  more  than  a 
C4-iitiiry,  by  the  great  work  of  Ptolemy  on 
tlii-i  niibjert,  in  the  execution  of  xvhlch  he 
took  nsiroiioiny  to  his  aid  for  determining 
the  ditiiatlon  of  places.  Me  ftxed  the  lati- 
tuiles  and  longitudes  of  all  the  principal 
placet*  III  the  known  world,  and  expressed 
litem  in  degrees,  after  the  manner  of  Hip- 
parclius, making  his  calciilatimis  from  the 
[.••.jdvrtions  of  the  gnomon  to  its  shadow, 
as  olnterved  by  ditferent  astronomers  at  the 
time  of  the  eipiinoxes  and  solstices,  and 
dediireit  fniiii  these  the  length  of  the  loiig- 
esi  days.  He  also  measured  and  computed 
the  distances  of  the  principal  roads  men- 
tioned in  the  ditferent  surveys  and  itine- 
raries which  had  been  made  at  different 
times  by  order  of  the  emperors,  ami  com- 
pared Ihein  with  such  reports  as  he  could 
gather  from  travellers.  In  this  manner  did 
Plnleniy  execute  his  system  of  geography. 
Which,  as  a  work  of  science,  has  deserved- 
ly held  the  first  rank  among  the  works  of 
tlie  ancients,  and,  considered  as  the  labour 
of  one  man,  wa.«  nerer  surpassed,  and 
•caicely  « -er  pi]iialled 


With  the  exception  of  the  Geographic* 
Dictionary  of  Stephanus  Byzaiitinini,  Id 
the  hfth  and  sixth  ceiitiiries,  and  the  scat 
tered  geographical  notices  interspersed  in 
the  works  of  the  Byzantine  Instorians,  the 
subject  of  geography  was  neglected  until 
the  thirteenth  century,  when  John  Sucro 
de  Boeco  published  his  treatise  on  the 
sphere,  which  contained  an  account  of  the 
earth  as  far  as  it  was  connected  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  sphere.  Nothing  farther 
was  dune  towards  the  advancement  ol'this 
science  until  the  discovery  of  the  .N'ew 
World,  when  geographical  knowledge  re- 
ceived continual  accessions  by  new  dis- 
coveries, and  the  spirit  of  investigation  and 
research    which   they   awakened. 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years, 
many  discoveries  have  beeu  made  and 
knowledge  accumulated.  D'Urville.Ross, 
Kane,  Hayes,  and  others  have  made 
etreuuous  eftorts  to  penetrate  the  polar 
continent,  and  added  largely  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  arctic  regions.  The 
travels  and  explorations  of  Burton, 
Speke,  Livingston  and  Stanley,  in  Africa, 
have  left  little  to  be  known  regarding 
this  vast  Continent. 

GEOCOKIS.E.  A  family  of  Hymenop- 
terous  insects  with  very  loug  antenuaa 
inserted  between  the  eye.i. 

GEOCEONITE.  A  lead-grey  ore  of  an- 
timony and  lead. 

OEOGYCLIC.  EncircUug  the  earth 
periothcally. 

GEOLE.  In  mineraiogy,  a  rounded 
nodule  ot  stone  coutaiuing  a  small  cav- 
ity, Uned  tisually  with  crystals. 

GEODESY.  That  part  of  pra<tical  ge- 
ometry which  has  for  its  object  tlie 
determination  of  the  magnitude  and 
figure  either  of  ihe  whole  carta  or  of 
any  given  portion  ofits  sur.ace. 

GEOGNOSY.  That  part  of  natural 
history  which  treats  of  the  structure  of 
the  earth.    The  same  with  geology. 

GEOGONY.  The  doctrine  of  the  for- 
mation of  the  earth. 

GEOMAIJCY.  A  kind  of  pretended  div- 
ination by  means  of  figures  or  lines. 

GEOLOGY.  That  part  of  natural  phil- 
osophy which  treats  of  the  formation  i 
and  structure  of  the  earth  beneath  it« 
surface,  and  the  changes  it  has  under- 
gone. Geology  is  the  history  of  the 
primeval  conditions  of  our  planet,  as 
illustrated  in  the  monuments  of  change 
which  exhibit  themselves  on  and  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  is,  in 
fact,  the  great  history  of  Nature,  which 
classifies,  by  means  of  existing  monu- 
ments, tlio  various  rocks  and  strata  of 
the  earth's  crust,  according  to  their 
comparative  ages,  and  treats  of  the  dif- 
ferent racesoi  animals  and  i)lant8  which 
characterise  the  mundane  formations 
or  systems  deposited  by  water  during 
the  lapse  of  countless  ages.  The 
study  of  seology    having  been    vxoai 


nEOi.ouv. 


KS 


eflin-tiially  piirsuprt  by  inquiring  into  llie 
stritt'liirr  ut'  niiiuiituiiiii,  ii  lioa  been  un  tliat 
acomia  likrwiKR  dt»i|:rialed  by  Itle  iiaaie 
of  urytiilhiolufcy.  .Munnuiiiis  have  been 
found  U\  grolugtsts  to  consist,  at  a  consid- 
eroble  dtipih,  uf  8tnt;<  teuiilarly  disp<ised, 
whicti  have  tiecu  classed  under  llie  heads 
ol'  t!raiiile,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate, 
pniiiitive  liiiiesume,  primitive  trap,  ser|ien- 
tiiie  porphyry,  syenite  to(Kiz,  quartic  rock, 
primitive  Hiiity  slate,  primitive  g>psum. 
These  are  allocetlier  deiiumiiiated  primi- 
tive rucks,  which  have  iiu  organic  remains, 
and  ap|>ear  t4i  have  been  uiiilisturhed.  But 
in  ttie  >".rala  above  these  there  are  evident 
■igiis  of  violent  fractures  caused  by  the 
action  of  waters.  In  this  manner  valleys 
nave  been  excavateil,  and  a  separation 
thus  occasiimed  in  stnila  that  unce  evi- 
dently foriueil  one  contiiniuus  range.  Such 
water-worn  fragments  have,  I'runi  Ihe  cause 
of  their  existence,  been  denomiuated  dilu- 
vium, to  distinguish  tliem  from  other  de- 
bris produced  by  causes  still  in  operation, 
each  as  the  alluvium  or  the  accession  to 
lands  by  inundatiuns,torrent8,  and  the  like, 
as  also  the  vulcanic  rocks  formed  by  the 
eru|itioiisof  mounlains.  Besides  the  rocky 
fragments  and  insulated  hills  above  meii- 
lioncd,  the  strata  above  these  primitive 
rocks  contain  also  organic  remains.  In 
those  immediately  above,  called  transition 
rocks,  fossil  remains  of  comls  and  shells 
are  found  in  small  ((tiantities,  as  also  iti 
the  carboniferous  limestone  that  lies  next 
to  these  rocks.  The  coal  strata,  which 
folluw,  abound  with  vegetable  remains  uf 
ferns,  flags,  reedsof  unknown  species,  and 
large  trunks  of  succulent  plants,  which  are 
altogether  unknown  either  in  description 
or  ill  nature.  Above  the  coals  are  beds 
containing  corals  and  shells,  which,  like 
those  in  thesiratalielnvv,  are  characterized 
by  this  peculiarity,  that  in  some  places 
llley  are  to  be  found  in  families,  and  that 
iu  other  places  there  will  be  found  beds  of 
marine  shells  in  one  layer,  and  thuc^e  pe- 
culiar to  fresh  water  in  another  layer, 
resting  one  over  the  other  in  alternate 
succession.  In  the  highest  of  the  regular 
•trata,  railed  the  crag,  will  be  found  the 
ibells  at  present  existing  in  the  same  coast, 
Unl,  lastly,  over  aJI  these  strata  Is  a  cover- 
ing of  gravel,  which  is  remarkable  for 
eontaining  the  remains  of  numerous  quad- 
rupeds, as  the  iKJiies,  horns,  teeth,  shells, 
•cale8,&c.  These  animals  are  forthe  most 
jwrt  either  foreign  to  the  climates  where 
their  remains  an  found,  or  they  are  of  a 
larger  size  than  any  now  kimwii.  or  they 
•re  altogether  ditfrrwiil  fr  nil  any  species 
M  animal  hillierto  kuuwa  rr  meutiuiied. 


Among  those  anlmaltn  whose  remains  have 
l>eeii  found  in  countries  far  disuint  fron 
the  places  which  Ihey  inhabit  are  the  ele- 
phant and  the  rhinoceros,  nuiueroiis  lu- 
mains  of  which  have  been  fmiud  in  Eng- 
land, France,  Germany,  lial>,  and  otiier 
paria  of  Europe,  but  still  more  in  Siberia, 
where,  throughout  the  wholeextent  uf  that 
country,  there  is  scarcely  a  river  or  a  silore 
in  which  have  not  been  found  the  bones  of 
elephants  and  otlier  annuals.  Near  the 
river  VVillioni,  in  the  eastern  p;trl  of  t-ilie- 
na,  has  lieen  dug  up  i.  rhinoceros  still  |n« 
dessing  (he  skin,  I'at,  and  muscles  ;  and 
fossil  ivory  has  been  procured  in  immense 
quantities  in  the  countries  nearest  to  the 
arctic  circle.  So  niiinerousare  the  remains 
that  have  already  been  dug  up,  as  to  form 
immense  collections  in  the  cabinets  of  iIk. 
great,  particularly  in  that  of  the  Prince  of 
Hesse  Uarmsuidt  and  the  Elector  of  .Maii- 
heim.  Naturalists  have  also  been  enabled, 
in  part,  to  ascertain  tlie  species  of  these 
animals,  at  least  as  far  ;is  regards  the  rhi- 
noceros, which  is  of  the  double  horned 
kind  J  but  in  regard  to  the  elephantine  re- 
mains, although  very  numerous,  it  is  not 
so  certain  whether  they  are  of  any  known 
species  or  otherwise.  As  to  the  animals 
diflferiiig  in  size  from  those  of  their  own 
Species  at  present,  Ireland  furnishes  s|)eci- 
inens  of  deer  that  have  been  dug  up  of  an 
extraordinary  magnitude  ;  and  in  Scotland. 
a  kind  of  oxen  h:is  been  found  bigger  than 
the  largest  species  existing  at  present.  Of 
animals  altogether  unknown,  bulli  )>nrth 
and  South  America,  and  other  parts,  fur- 
nish several  examples,  as  the  mammoth, 
the  mastodon,  and  othernameless  aniinaU 
of  a  prodigious  size. 

This  remarkable  fact,  of  Uia  fossil  re- 
mains of  animals,  did  not  esca|>e  the  notice 
of  the  ancients,  for  Xeiiophanes,  above  four 
hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
is  said  to  have  discovered  the  remains  of 
■ome  marine  animals  imbedded  in  rtK'ks, 
from  which  he  absurdly  inferred  the 
eternity  of  the  world.  Herodotus  also 
ascertained  the  existence  of  fossil  shells, 
from  which,  with  much  greater  reason,  he 
was  led  to  conclude  that  the  sea  had  oiice 
occupied  those  parts.  Also  in  the  pyra- 
mids, the  stones  were  found  to  contain  ibe 
remains  uf  animals,  of  which  there  existed 
in  his  time  no  corresponding  s|iecies. 
Slralm,  who  saw  these  frag/nents  of  stone 
lying  about  the  pyramids,  bHik  them  to  lia 
petrified  lentils,  that  hail  l«^n  used  by  the 
workmen  ;  at  the  lanie  time  this  writer,  ai 
well  as  Hiny  and  others,  attest  the  exist- 
ence of  such  animal  reiiiaih<,  and  in  a  hiek 
state  of  perfec'iou.     1b  Um  Natural  Hiat«>- 


176 


GEOMETRY 


ry  of  Pliny  many  fcvM}  remains  are  spoken 
r>r,  as  tbe  liiiL'iinliii,  reijeiiibliiii!  an  ox's 
heart ;  the  ({l<M«sii|iftra,  liaviiii;  the  fnrni  of 
a  toniiue  ;  tlie  liorns  of  amiiicm,  rHaeiiil)liH!; 
a  rani's  horn  ;  the  lepidotes,  like  the  scales 
of  fi«hes,  &c. 

GEOMETRY.  That  branch  of  mathe- 
matics which  treats  of  the  properties  of 
evtension  and  figure.  Geometry  is  itistin- 
gulshe<i  into  the  theoretical  and  the  practl- 
m1.  Theoretical  or  speculative  geometry 
ireats  of  the  varioiis  properties  and  rela- 
tions in  magnitudes,  &c.  Practical  geom- 
etry comprehends  the  construction  of  fig- 
ures, the  drawing  of  lines  in  certain  posi- 
tions, as  panillel  or  perpendicular  to  eacli 
other,  &;c.  Speculative  geometry  is  again 
distinguished  into  elementary  geometry, 
tlial  treats  of  the  properties  and  proporticms 
of  riglit  lines  and  riglit  lined  figures,  as  also 
ofthe  circle  and  its  jieveral  parts  ;  and  the 
sublime  or  transcendental  geometry,  that 
IreaU  ofthe  higher  order  of  curves,  &.C. 

The  simple  principles  of  ge(Uiietry  are 
explained  in  defiiiitious  and  a.xioiiis.  'I'he 
r<illiiwing  are  the  mi>st  important  defi- 
nitions. A  ptiint  IS  that  which  has  neither 
length,  breadth,  nor  thickness  ;  a  line  has 
length  without  breadth  or  thickness  ;  a 
sii|»erlicies,  or  surface,  has  length  and 
breiidih  only,  the  boundaries  of  which  are 
lilies;  a  solid  has  length,  breadth,  and 
tliii  kness,  the  ho.indiiries  of  a  sol^id  are 
aiirfaces.  A  straight  line  lies  evenby  be- 
tween the  parts,  parallel  lines  keep  at  the 
same  distance  from  each  other  when  ex- 
loiidt'd  indefinitely.  A  perpendicular  line 
is  perpendii  ular  to  another  line.  An  angle 
is  firmed  by  the  meeting  of  two  lines  in  a 
point;  it  is  a  right  angle  when  formed  by 
one  line  falling  perjiendicularly  on  another 
line;  an  obtuse  angle,  when  it  is  greater 
than  a  right  angle  ;  and  an  acute  angle 
when  it  is  less.  A  figure  is  a  space  in- 
cluded within  one  or  more  boundaries, 
called  sides;  it  is  rectilinear  when  contain- 
ed by  right  lines,  and  curvilinear  when 
contained  by  curved  lines  ;  a  rectilinear 
figure  contained  by  three  right  lines  is  a 
triangle;  if  by  four,  quadrilateral;  if  by 
five,  a  pentagon  ;  if  hy  six,  a  hexagon,  &c. ; 
if  by  more  than  twelve,  a  polygon. 

Triangles  are  distinguished  according  to 
(he  length  of  their  sides,  into  equilateral, 
having  all  the  sides  equal ;  isoceles,  having 
two  sides  equal  ;  and  scalene,  having  all 
llie  sides  unequal ;  or  according  to  their 
angles,  into  right  angled,  if  they  have  one 
riglit  angle;  obtii.se  angled,  if  they  have  one 
»titu«e  angle ;  and  acute  angled,  if  they 
have  all  acute  angles.  Every  quadrilateral 
Mr  four-sided  figure  is  called  a  parallelogram 


when  it  has  its  sides  panillel,  ai  dnrcrtang!* 
when  all  its  angles  are  right  angles.  Four- 
sided  figures  are  moreover  distinguished 
according  to  their  sides  and  angles,  into  a 
square,  which  has  all  its  sides  equal  and  it* 
angles  nulitones  ;  an  oblong  square,  which 
has  its  opposite  sides  equal  and  its  angles 
right  ones  ;  a  rhombus,  having  all  the  sidea 
equal,  but  the  angles  not  right  ones:  and  a 
rhomboid,  having  the  op)>osite  sides  equal 
and  the  angles  not  right  ones.  When  a 
qiiailrilateral  has  none  of  its  sides  parallel 
it  is  a  trapezium,  and  when  only  twoof  iu 
sides  parallel  a  tnqiezoid.  The  diagonal 
is  the  right  line  which  divides  a  parallelo- 
gram into  two  equal  parts.  The  base  of  a 
figure  is  the  side  on  which  it  is  supposed 
to  stand.  The  vertex  is  the  extreme  point 
opposite  to  the  base;  the  altitude  is  the 
perpendicular  distance  from  the  vertex  to 
the  base.  The  area  of  a  figure  is  the  qiinj- 
tity  of  space  contained  within  its  bounda- 
ries. 

Of  curvilinear  figures  in  common  geo- 
metry is  the  circle,  which  is  a  plane  figure 
hounded  by  a  curve  line  called  the  circum- 
ference, which  is  equally  distant  from  a 
[Kiint  called  the  centre.  The  diameter  of 
a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  from  one 
side  of  the  circumference  to  the  other, 
through  the  centre,  so  aa  to  divide  it  into 
two  eipial  parts.  The  radius  of  a  circle  ii 
a  straisht  line  drawn  from  tbe  centre  to 
the  circumference:  the  segment  of  a  circle 
is  a  (Ktrt  cut  off  by  a  line  called  the  chord. 
The  circumference  of  every  circle  is  sup- 
posed to  be  divided  into  380  equal  parts, 
called  degrees,  ever>'  degree  into  60  parts 
called  in'nutes,  and  every  minute  into  6C 
parts  called  seconds. 

Solids  are  distinguished  into  a  prism, 
the  sides  of  which  are  parallelograms,  and 
the  two  ends  or  ba.ses  are  Bimilur ;  poly- 
gons, parallel  to  each  other  ;  the  rube,  con- 
sisting of  six  ecpial  sqiiaresidesor  faces;  the 
pyramid,  having  any  plane  figure  for  ila 
base  and  triangles  for  its  sides,  all  termi- 
nating in  one  common  point  or  vertex  , 
the  cylinder,  which  is  generated  by  tbe 
rotation  of  a  rectangle  about  one  of  its  sides 
supposed  to  be  at  rest ;  the  cone,  a  s(did 
having  a  circular  base,  and  its  other  ex- 
tremity terminated  in  a  single  point  or 
vertex.  Those  curves  which  are  formed 
by  the  intersection  of  a  plane  with  a  cone 
form  the  subject  ot  miiic  sections,  wbicll 
is  a  branch  of  sublime  geometry. 

Ratio  is  the  mutual  relation  of  two  mag 
nitudes  of  the  same  kind  to  one  another, 
in  respect  to  quantity,  as  2  to  ],  which  i* 
double  ;  the  former  of  Ihene  is  chilled  the 
antecedent  and  the  latter  the  coHi<«que.y'  • 


GEOMETRY. 


1T» 


^■fxirtlott  Is  llie  Himiiituile  of  nitunj,  ns 
S  w  tu  2  as  3  is  to  I,  that  U  a  triple  ratio 
In  butli  cii-ses. 

An  axiom  is  a  filain  truth  that  wants  no 
deniuiistratiuit,  as  th»i  tlie  wliole  16  greater 
than  a  part.  A  pustulate  is  tliat  which 
requires  tu  be  granted  as  true  Itefore  ano- 
ther thing  can  be  (teuioiMtrated.  A  propo- 
sitiiiii  is  that  which  proposes  something  to 
be  dune  or  deinonstnited  ;  it  is  a  prubleni 
when  it  proposes*  any  thing  to  be  done,  iis 
to  divide  a  given  line  into  twoei|nal  parts, 
or  to  raise  a  perfiendicular,  &.C.  ;  and  a 
theorem  when  it  prop<ises  something  to  be 
shown,  as  tlial  trianiiJes  of  the  same  base 
and  altitude  are  equal  to  each  other,  or 
that  all  the  angles  in  the  same  segment  of 
an  arch  are  equal,  &c. 

GKOMETaV,  HisToRToF.  Theorigin 
of  geometry  is  ascribed  by  Herodotus  lo 
the  F^gyiitians,  who,  in  consequence  of  the 
inundations  of  the  Nile,  which  carried 
away  all  their  landmarks,  were  under  the 
necessity  of  distinguishing  and  laying  out 
their  lands  by  the  consideration  of  their 
figure  and  quantity,  whence  the  word  geo- 
metry in  tiie  Greek  signifies  literally  laiid- 
uieasuring.  The  Greeks,  who  cultivated 
IhLi  science  more  than  any  other  |*eople, 
doubtless  learned  the  rudiments  from  the 
Egyptians  ;  for  Thales,  who  travelled  into 
Egypt  and  acquired  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  astronomy  to  calculate,  must  also  have 
first  become  acquainted  with  the  principles 
of  geometry  to  assist  him  in  his  astro- 
nomical inquiries.  Pythagoras,  the  pupil 
and  friend  of  Thales,  distinguished  himself 
by  bis  discoveries  mi  arithmetic,  as  well 
as  geometry.  He  invented  the  multiplica- 
tion table,  called  after  him  the  Abacus 
Pytliagoricus,  and  in  geometry  he  disco- 
vered the  thirty-second  and  forty-seventh 
propositions  in  tlie  lirst  book  of  Euclid's 
Elements.  Sckui  after  this  flourished  Anax- 
imander,  Anaxiiuenes,  Anaxagoras,  Cle- 
•stratus,  A^iiopides,  and  Zenodotus,  all 
celebrated  geometricians,  of  whose  works 
nothing  remains  except  of  itie  liist.  They 
were  succeeded  ■by  Hipparcbus,  who  ren- 
dered himself  cetebrated  by  the  quadrature 
of  the  lines  called  after  him,  as  also  by  his 
attempt  at  the  quadrature  of  the  cube, 
which  was  a  matter  of  great  interest  among 
the  ancient  uatheniaticians,  and  is  said  tu 
have  taken  its  rise  in  an  answer  of  the  oracle 
•t  Delphi,  which,  when  consulted  on  the 
occasion  of  some  public  ralaiiiity,  answered 
•  Double  the  altar,'  which  was  an  exact 
cuh*.  Notwithslauding  the  failure  of  Hip- 
parthns,  others  rfnewed  tlieattenipt,which 
jillliiiui.'li  It  prov«-d  uifiiK  lessful  as  to  iJial 
|»articular   ottject,  n«vertlK:lesa   is  said  tu 


have  led  to  the  discoveries  of  other  geo^ 
metrical  prupeilies,  as  the  Limchoid  of 
Nicomeiles,  ttie  cissoid  of  Diodes,  and  the 
quadnitrix  of  DiiUL-itratus.  1'his  latter  ge- 
ometrician was  Itie  follower  and  friend  o( 
Plato,  whose  devotion  to  tlie  science  of 
geometry  was  such  that  he  caused  it  to  be 
inscri^d  over  the  door  of  his  schi>ol, 
>  Let  no  one  enter  here  who  is  ignonint  of 
geometry.'  To  Plato  we  are  indebted  for 
that  branch  of  geometry  known  by  the 
name  of  con  icst^ctions,  of  which  his  schobu 
Aristeus  is  said  to  have  com|Kisetl  live 
books  that  are  highly  8|mken  of  by  the 
ancients,  but  are  not  now  extant.  Eudoxus 
and  Menecheiiius  were  also  disciplts  of 
I'lato,  and  distintuished  themselves,  the 
former  in  geometry  as  well  as  astronomy, 
the  tatter  by  his  application  of  conic 
sections  to  many  problems.  Alter  an  in- 
terval of  ninety  years  from  their  time, 
that  is,  about  three  hundred  years  before 
Christ,  flourished  Kiiclid,wlio,  by  collecting 
and  inethodiy.ing  all  the  principles  of  geo- 
metry then  known  into  a  regular  system, 
called  his  Elements  of  Geometry,  secured 
to  himself  a  celebrity  which,  in  point  of 
extent,  has  never  been  siirpa.ssed,and  per- 
haps scarcely  ever  equalled.  Ins  worK 
having  ever  since  been  considered  as  the 
standard  of  all  geometrical  knowledge. 
Euclid  was  quickly  followed  by  Anht- 
^edes,  a  mathematicnl  genius,  who  added 
many  discoveries  to  the  sciences  of  geome- 
try, mechanics,  o(>tic8,  and  hydrod>iiaiuic8. 
In  geometry  he  discovered  the  ratio  be- 
tween the  sphere  and  the  circumscribing 
cylinder,  found  the  quadrature  of  the  para- 
bola, and  the  sulidity  of  its  cononl  -,  he 
invented  the  spiral  which  bears  his  name, 
and  discovered  its  rectification,  besides  a 
variety  of  other  important  geometrical 
propositi<ms,  many  of  which  are  extant, 
and  attest  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  tite 
author. 

Apollouius  of  Perga,  who,  from  his 
writings,  acquired  the  name  of  the  Great 
Geometrician,  flourished  about  thirty  yean 
at^er  Archimedes.  His  work  on  the  Conic 
Sections,  which  is  the  principal  piece  of 
his  extant,  was  Im  all  probability  the  best 
of  its  kind  in  that  day,  and  has  since  been 
Mie  groundwork  of  all  works  )>ulilished  oii 
that  subject.  Of  those  who  after  A|K)IIo- 
niiisdisti'iguished  themselves  in  their  tiiiMi 
in  the  cultivaJon  of  the  geometrical  science, 
there  are  but  few  who  added  any  thing 
worthy  of  particular  notice.  Eratosthenes 
attempted  to  measure  the  circumferenca 
of  the  earth  ;  Ctesibius  invented  walei 
pumps  ;  Hero  of  Alexandria,  clepsydrae  , 
'  Tlieodusius,  wliu  lived  in  the  first  ceiitur| 


GEO 

»r  the  Chrttiaii  fpra,  wrote  a  t^eat^s«  on 
till*  s|iliere,  winch  was  oii«s  of  ihe  first  on 
tpherical  trigonornetrj'. 

After  an  interval  of  three  or  four  cen- 
MiriKs  from  the  time  of  Theodosius,  we 
niP**!  with  the  names  of  Pappus  the  coiii- 
iiieiitaliir  uf  Apollonius,  Tlieon,  the  cotn- 
nieiitatur  of  Ptolemy,  and  of  Proclii«  ano- 
ther commentator  on  the  ancient  mathe- 
luaticians.  The  destruction  of  the  library 
;if  Alexandria  by  the  Saracens  was  very 
fatal  to  the  cultivation  of  geometry,  which 
huil  t)oiiri»hed  there  more  than  any  where 
else :  all  the  geoinetriciaus  from  every 
purl  had  assembled  tliere,  and  when  driven 
hway  they  were  deprived  both  of  their 
bnoks  and  instruments.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  the  study  of  geometry  was 
for  many  centuries  almost  entirely  for- 
gotten amidst  the  troubles  which  desolated 
all  r^iirope  on  the  irruption  of  the  northern 
ribes.  The  Arabs,  who  by  the  ravages 
ney  committed  at  Alexandria  had  done 
lie  most  injury  to  the  science  of  geometry, 
were,  after  the  lapse  of  two  centuries,  the 
cultivators  of  that  which  they  had  nearly 
nnlhilated.  They  studied  the  works  of  the 
Gr»5feks,  and  showed  their  proficiency  in 
lie  correctness  of  their  comments  on  these 
writings. 

\V'hilst  the  Arabs  were  thus  promoting 
he  cikiise  of  science  generally,  Europe 
emained  in  a  state  of  comparative  barba- 
rism, nor  was  the  study  of  geometry  re- 
vived among  the  Europeans  before  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  when  by 
the  translations  of  the  ancient  writings,  the 
taste  for  geometry  became  very  general 
among  the  thinkingpart  of  the  community. 
Ill  the  following  century  there  arose  niatlie- 
iiiaticiang  who  added  very  materially  to 
I  lie  stock  of  geometrical  knowledge.  Car- 
dan applied  algebra  to  the  resolutior  of 
geometrical  problems;  and  Descartes,  who 
followed  at  the  distance  of  nearly  a  cen- 
tury, pursued  this  application  of  algebra  to 
geometry  still  farther.  At  the  .«ame  period 
with  Descartes  flourished  Caveleriiis  who, 
In  his  work  on  'Indivisibles,'  struck  out 
a  new  path  to  himself,  in  which  he  was 
followed  by  many  writers  of  great  celebrity, 
as  VVallis,  Pasca.,  Fermat,  Roberval,  Leib- 
nitz, Xewton,  and  many  others,  who  set 
jirth  geometry  in  a  new  light,  and  formed 
s  new  system  of  the  science.  Among  the 
treatises  in  which  are  embodied  the  geo- 
metrical principles  of  the  moderns  nnd 
ir.cionts  may  be  reckoned  the  Elements 
.if  Euclid  by  Simson  and  Playfair,  the 
treatises  of  ( ''/.amni.  Cli  viiis,  Roiinycaslle, 
rnrce,  Davies,  Mitlcahy,  Ac. 

(iEORUE    St.     Tlie     patron    saint    of 


GIN 

England,  is  said  to  have  been  t  great 
warrior  of  Cappaducia,  and  a  martyr  i* 
the  Christian  cause. 

GEORGICS,  Books  treating  of  husban 
dry,  after  the  manner  of  Virgil's  poems  on 
rural  subjects,  which  are  so  called. 

GERA.MUM.  A  genus  of  plants,  tb« 
numerous  species  of  which  are  remarkable 
for  the  tH;aaty  either  of  their  leaves  or 
their  flowers,  or  both.  The  seeds  of  the 
flower  are  contained  iw  a  husk,  which 
resembles  a  stork's  beak,  whence  it  has 
acquired  the  English  name  of  crane's  bill. 

GERMAN  (in  Law).  Whole  or  entire 
as  respects  genealogy  oi  descent,  as  bro- 
thers german,  those  who  are  so  on  both 
father  and  mother's  side. 

GERMEN  (in  Botany).  The  germ, 
ovary,  or  seed  bud,  which  is  the  lower 
part  or  base  of  the  pistil. 

GERMINATION.  The  act  of  sprouting 
forth,  as  applied  to  the  seeds  of  vegeta- 
bles; also  the  time  when  they  vegetate. 

GIANTS  (;AU.SEVVAY.  Avast  collec- 
tion of  a  black  kind  of  marie,  called  ba 
saltes,  in  the  county  of  Antrim  in  Irela.id 
The  masses  of  rock  are  there  disimsed  in 
stich  regular  order,  and  to  such  an  extent, 
as  to  make  this  causeway  one  of  the  great- 
est curiosities  in  nature. 

GIBBOUS  (in  .\strfmoiny).  A  term  ap- 
plied to  the  enlightened  part  of  the  moon, 
during  her  cuiirse  from  full  to  new,  when 
the  dark  part  appears  falealed  or  horned, 
and  the  light  part  convex  or  giblious. 

GIFT  (in  l^aw).  A  conveyance  which 
passeth  either  lands  or  goods;  a  transfer 
of  any  thing  without  a  valuable  conside- 
ration. 

GIG.  A  very  light  kind  of  two-wheeled 
chaise. 

GILD.  See  Guild. 

GILDI.NG.  The  art  of  covering  the  sur- 
face of  bodies  with  gold. 

GILLIFLOWER,  or  JuLT  Flower.  A 
smaller  kind  of  cirnation  that  flowers  in 
July. 

GIMLET.  A  carpenter's  tool  for  boring 
boles. 

~~GIN,  or  Ge!»kta.  a  hot  fiery  spirit,  for- 
merly drawn  from  the  berries  of  the 
genevre  or  jiinijier  tree,  but  now  made 
by  the  distillers  of  the  oil  wf  tur|)entine 
and  malt  spirits.  The  Hollunds  Geiie\-a 
is  manufactured  chiefly  at  a  village  near 
Rotterdam,  and  is  drawn  from  wheat 
and  the  juniper  lierrirs  The  English  gi* 
is  a  destructive  drink  among  the  lower 
orders. 

GIN  (among  Sportsmen).  A  machiM 
which  serves  as  a  tiap  or  snare  for  catda 
iiig  beasts 


GLA 

Oiy  (ainoii;;  Mechanics)  A  michine 
for  driving  piles. 

(JI.NUEK.  All  Indian  root  of  a  I'lting 
f.ol  taste;  Iff  rtuvver  consists  uf  live  |>rcala, 
■li:i(ied  Sdiiielliliij;  like  thiise  of  the  irH. 

(iirsiBS.  A  wanderiiit;  irihfc,  \vlii>  are 
to  be  found  in  dllfereiit  (.iiiiiiiries  of  Eu- 
rope, and  are  supposed  to  lie  ot  E;!\  pliun 
oriKHi-  They  are  alto-^iether  a  >li-<lincl 
das*  nf  people,  both  in  their  haliits.  tvhich 
are  predatory  and  uncivili/.ed  ;  aiid  in  their 
complexion,  which  is  sallow  uiid  tirowni.^h. 
But  lliey  are  now  beginning  to  follow  the 
ocrupa'ioiiii  of  civilized  life,  and  in  winter 
to  reside  in  towns,  where  they  occasion- 
ally :jeiid  their  children  to  school 

CIKAFFE.    ^ee  CiMkiLoKARD. 

tlRDEKS  (in  Architecture).  Some  of 
the  larjiest  pieces  of  timber  in  a  tlmir. 

GIKT.  The  circumlereiice  of  a  tree. 

GLACIERS.  A  name  In  riwitzerland 
for  the  extensive  tracts  of  ic«  and  siiuw 
which  occur  in  the  Alps. 

GLACMS  (in  Fortiticationi.  .\  iun.*a  of 
earth  serving  as  a  parapet  to  the  covered 
way. 

(;L,.M)IAT0RS.  Person!"  who  foucht  in 
the  urriia  at  Rome  for  the  amusement  of 
tlie  ptniple.  Tliese  were  usually  slaves, 
who  fought  until  <uie  was  killed.  'I'his 
cruet  cii^tuin  was  abolished  by  Coiistantiiie 
the  Great. 

GL.-V.NDS.  A  sort  of  kernels  in  the  ani- 
mal body,  which  serve  to  secrete  the  Huids. 
They  are  composed  of  blood  vesitels,  nerves, 
and  absorbents. 

GL.\i\UERS.  A  virulent  disea.«e  in 
horses,  which  shows  itself  by  a  discharge 
of  mucus  from  the  nostrils. 

GLASIER.  See  Glazier. 

GLASS.  .An  artificial  substance  formed 
by  the  action  of  fire  on  sand,  or  siliceous 
earth  with  salts  and  metallic  oxides.  U  is 
remarkable  for  its  brittleiiess  and  transpa- 
rency, which  latterquality  renders  it  avail- 
able for  many  purposes  of  domestic  use- 
There  are  five  kinds  of  jilass,  namely,  flint 
glass,  or  glass  of  lead;  plate  glass,  or  glass 
of  pure  so<la;  crown  glass,  the  best  window 
glass;  broad  glass,  a  coarse  window  glass; 
and  bottle  glass,  a  coarse  green  glass. 

GIjASS  (among  Mrsriuers).  Soiiiptimes 
the  telescope,  and  someliiiies  the  hourglass 
•  or  sand  glass. 

GLASSBLOU'ER.  One  who  blo%vs 
glass  in  a  glasshouse. 

GLASSIIDUSE.  A  house  where  glass 
la  manufactured. 

GLAUBERS  SALTS.  The  sulphate  of 
■oda;  a  purgative. 

GLAZIER.  One  who  works  with  glass 
■r  makes  glass  windowa     Tlie  company 


GLU 


ITS 


of  glaziers  in  London,  were  incorporated 
ill  the  reign  of  Elizalieth. 

t;LA'/.l.\G.  The  crusting  over earther 
ware  with  a  vitreous  substance;  also  the 
putting  glass  into  windows,  or  making 
glass  lights  for  windows. 

GLEANI.N'G.  Picking  up  the  scattered 
ears  of  wheat  after  ihe  wheat  Is  cut  and 
carried.  It  was  once  thought  in  England, 
that,  by  the  commoii  law,  the  |HH>r  might 
claim  this  liberty  as  their  rigiit;  hut  it  has 
been  adjudged  by  a  solemn  judgment  uf  the 
Court  of  Comuion  Pleas,  that  no  such 
right  exists  by  the  cummiui  law  of  the  laud. 

GLERELA.Mt.  In  England, a  portion  of 
land  belonging  to  a  parsonage  or  vicarage. 

GLEE  (ill  Music).  A  coinfMisition  of 
three  or  more  parts;  originally  used  lor 
convivial  purposes. 

G  LI  RES.  The  fourth  order  ot  the  class 
inaiiimalia  in  the  Liiinxan  system,  Includ- 
ing such  animals  as  have  two  fore  teeth,  a 
cutting  one  in  each  jaw,  no  tusks,  and  feet 
with  rlaws  formed  for  running,  as  the 
beavei,  the  hare,  ice. 

GLOBE  (in  Ge«mietry).  A  round  spheri- 
cal body,  more  commonly  called  a  sphere; 
as  the  arinillary  sphere 

GLOBE  (in  Astronomy).  An  artificial 
sphere,  or  a  round  solid  ho<ty,  on  which 
is  drawn  a  representation  of  the  earth,  as 
on  the  terrestrial  globe;  or  of  the  heavens, 
as  on  the  celestial  globe. 

GLOBULES.  Little  globes  or  round 
bodies  observable  in  fiiiids. 

GLOSSARY.  A  vocabulary  or  imall 
dictiimary, 

GLUCIC  ACID.  An  acid  obtained  from 
the  solution  of  grape-sugar,  saturated 
with  baryta  or  lime. 

GLUCINA,  or  GLUCINE.  The  oxide  of 
glucinium,  a  white  powder,  so  named 
from  the  sweetness  of  its  salts. 

GLUCINIUM.  A  metal  in  the  form  of 
a  greyish-black  powder,  which  acquires 
a  dark  metallic  lustre  by  burnishing. 

GLUCOSE.  A  sugar  obtained  Irom 
grapes,  honey,  and  most  acid  fruits;  a 
potato-starch,  used  instead  of  gum-ara- 
bic, for  dressing,  in  the  process  ol 
weaving  and  printing  woolleus,  silks, 
or  cottons;  also  used  tor  the  glazing  o> 
ptvper.  stiffening  gauzes,  &c. 

GLUE.  An  inspissated  jelly,  made  frimi 
the  parings  of  hides  and  other  otfals,  hy 
lioiriiiL'  them  in  water,  then  straining  off 
the  iiiipuritips.  and  boiling  them  again. 

(;i.i;.ME  (in  Botany).  The  calys  or 
corolla  of  grasses. 

GLUTEN.  An  adhesive,  tenacious,  and 
elastic  substance,  similar  to  glue,  which  is 
procured  by  the  (lecomposilion  of  wtMat 
flour,  or  other  vegetable  substances,  of 
which  It  forms  a  part 


180 


GOL 


GUTTTON.  A  ciinnine  voniciotis  ani- 
mal, larger  Ih'tn  a  liailscr,  uliicli  iiiliatiiix 
E»r<)|>e.  Ania,  ami  America,  and  preys  uii 
the  car'-asnes  i>riiare!s,  mice,  &.c 

GNAT.  An  active  liiile  insecl,  uiiicli 
lives  by  sucking  the  blmxl  nf  (illier  ani- 
niala 

(;NEISS.  a  sort  of  rock  that  lies  imme- 
diately over  granite. 

ONO.MOM  (in  Dialling).  The  stile  or 
pinof  a  dial,  the  shadow  of  which  points 
out  the  hours. 

GNO.MON  (in  Astronomy).  An  instru- 
ment or  anuaraius  tor  measuring  altitudes. 

GNO.MO.N  (in  Geometry).  A  figure 
formed  by  the  two  complements  with 
either  of  the  parallelograms  about  the 
diameter, 

GNU.  A  particular  kind  of  antelope, 
having  horns  bent  forward  at  the  base  and 
backward  in  the  middle. 

GOAD.  A  staff  oointed  with  a  sharp 
iron  for  driving  cattle. 

G(JAT.  A  quadruped  fond  of  dry,  rocky 
■ituations,  and  feeding  on  anmiatic  vege- 
tables. The  varieties  of  t.le  goat  are  distia- 
guished  principally  by  their  horns. 

GOAT-SUCKER.  An  American  bird, 
so  called  because  it  was  supposed  to  suck 
the  teats  of  the  goats. 

GODFATIir.K.  One  who  stands  sponsor 
for  a  child  in  liapiisui. 

(;oli\Vn'  A  bird  resemliling  the  PI»- 
ver,  lliat  feeds  <ui  worms  km  the  seashore. 

(JOj.l).  Tlie  richest  and  heaviest  metal 
eM'epi  plaliiia,  being  the  most  solid  and 
the  least  porous.  The  daclllity  and  malle- 
ability of  gold  is  such,  that  one  grain  of  it 
will  cover  upwards  of  filly  sijuare  inches, 
and  an  ounce  is  capable  of  being  extended 
in  the  form  of  wire  many  hundred  miles. 
Gold  is  found  in  beds  of  quartz,  sand 
stone,  itec.  and  also  in  many  rivers,  par- 
ticularly in  Pern,  in  minute  and  irregular 
grains,  which  are  known  by  the  name  of 
gold  dust. 

GOLDBEATERS  SKIN.  The  skin  or 
membrane  of  any  animal,  which  is  used 
by  the  goldbeaters  in  preparing  gold  leaf. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER.  A  number  be- 
ginning with  one  and  increasing  one  every 
year  till  it  comes  to  nineteen,  when  it 
begins  with  one  again,  and  is  used  to  show 
what  year  in  the  lunar  cycle  any  given 
year  is. 

GOLDEN  ROD.  A  plant  which  is  for 
the  most  part  a  nat  ve  of  North  America. 
Two  species  only  are  found  in  Europe. 

GOLDEN  RULE.  A  name  given  to  the 
ftule  of  Three. 

GOLDFINCH.  A  beautiful  Euro(>ean 
lurd  with  a  fine  yellwvv  iiturk  in  its  black 


GOT 

(liiill  feathers.  It  sings  very  iharmingly 
and  is  very  docile.     See  Yeulow  Bird. 

(;OLD  FISH.  An  elegant  fish  of  a  gold 
colour,  originally  brought  from  China,  and 
uow  kept  by  way  of  ornament. 

(JOLD  LEAF,  or  I-kak  Gold  Gold 
that  is  hammered  by  the  beaters,  until  it 
l>ecniiies  as  thin  and  extended  as  a  leaf. 

GtM.DSMITH.  A  worker  or  s.ller  of 
gold  or  silver  vessels.  The  company  of 
giildsiniths  in  London,  were  incorixiraled 
in  the  reiuM  of  Richard  II. 

GOMiOLA.  A  sort  of  Venetian  plea 
sure  barge. 

(ioNG  (in  Music).  A  Chinese  instni 
nient,  I  lie  form  of  which  is  a  shallow  circu- 
lar concave. 

GOODS  (in  Law).  The  valuables  of 
which  a  man  is  possessed. 

GOOSANDER.  A  water  bird,  the  si2« 
of  a  goose. 


GOOSE.  A  well  known  domestic  fowl, 
which  exists  in  a  wild  as  well  as  a  tame 
state.  The  gray  lay  goose,  or  coiiimoii 
wild  goose,  is  easily  tamed  :  from  this  sort 
has  sprung  the  domestic  breed. 

GOOSEBERRV  (id  Botany).  A  plan 
that  is  set  with  prickles,  and  yields  a  fruit 
of  an  oval  and  globular  figure,  containing 
many  small  seeds  in  a  pulpy  substance 
It  is  a  bush  much  cultivated  in  gardens. 

GORGE  (in  Fortification).  Theentniiice 
of  a  bastion,  ravelin,  or  other  outwork. 

GORGET.  A  piece  of  armour  round 
the  neck  ;  souiething  similar  is  jiow"  worn 
by  officers  on  duty  by  way  of  ornament. 

(JOSHAWK.  That  species  of  hawk 
which  was  formerly  much  used  in  falconry. 

GOSPEL.  The  four  books  in  the  New 
Testament  written  by  the  Evangelists, 
St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St 
John. 

GOSSA.MRR.  A  fine  filmy  substance 
like  a  cobweb,  which  is  seen  in  clear  dayi 
in  autumn  in  stubble  fields,  and  is  prutia- 
bly  worked  by  spiders  for  catching  files. 

GOTHIC  i^TYLE.  A  style  of  architec 
ture  in  which  (Mi'iited  arches  of  greatei 
lieiubt  Mian  breadlli,  an>l  a  profusion  of 
ornaments,   in   imitation    uf   leaves   aot 


GRA 

Coi\erg,  nre  the  prin<-!jial  cliararterisiics. 
GOTHIC  AKCII.  All  arcli  called  by  the 
talinii^  arclie  tie  ler/.o  et  ili  r|iiar<i  aciilii, 
..  t.  (ifllie  third  and  fniirili  |M>int,  coiisisliiig 
el  tivii  arcs  ofa  cir:le  iiieeliug  id  an  angle 
•t  tbc  tup. 


C.liA 


18i 


GOVERNMENT.  The  power  in  n  state 
6y  wlik-li  the  whole  is  governed;  if  this 
p<iwer  be  in  llie  li»iids  of  one  it  is  a  Mo- 
narchy ;  if  III  (lie  hands  of  the  nobility,  an 
Ari.<tiH'nicy  ;  and  if  in  the  hands  of  the 
|>eo|ile,  or  those  chosen  liy  tliein,  a  I>e- 
iiKiciacy.  The  executive  Knverninenl  is 
tin-  (Kivver  of  i'lliiiinii^terinL'  puhlic  atl'airs, 
the  l.e;:islutive  Ciuverniiient  that  ut making 
tlie  laws. 

aOUL.\ED.  In  pnannacy,  an  extract 
of  sugar  oflead,  used  for  iuflanimatious 

GOVERNOR.  In  mechanical  science, 
a  contrivance  for  maintaining  uuitortu 
velocity  with  varjiug  resistance. 

GOWAN.  In  geology.decomposed  gra- 
nite. 

GOWT,  or  GOOUT.  In  engineering,  a 
sluice  used  in  embankments  lor  letting 
out  water. 

GRACE  NOTE.  In  music,  any  note 
added  a.s  an  ornamental  flourish. 

GR.-VDDO.  In  music,  a  word  applied 
to  the  notes  moving  by  conjoint  inter- 
vals. 

GRADIENT.  The  proportionate  ascent 
or  descent  of  the  several  planes  on  a 
railroad;  thus,  an  inclined  piano  2  mil<  8 
in  length,  with  a  total  fall  of  18  leet,  is 
de-cribed  as  having  a  gradient  of  9  feet 
per  mile. 

GRADUATE.  In  literature  and  the 
arts,  one  who  has  received  a  degree  iu 
a  college  or  university,  or  from  some 
prolessional  incorporated  society. 

GR.^DU.A^TION.  Regular  progression; 
a<'t  of  graduating. 

GRADU.AlTOR.  In  physics,  a  contri- 
vance for  accelerating  spontaneous 
evaporation;  also  an  instrument  for  di- 
viding any  right  line  or  curve  into  equal 
portions. 

GRAB.  A  ve.escl  used  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  having  two  or  three  masts. 

GRACES.  In  mythology,  three  beau- 
tiful goddesses,  .\glaia.  Thalia,  and 
Euphrosyne,  who  attended  upon  Venu.s 
In  music,  ornamental  notes  attached  to 
principal  ones. 


CRAIlirATION.  Dividing  any  thine 
into  eijii.tl  (Kirts  iir  ilrurreii. 

(JUAb'TI.N'G  (in  llurliruliiirr).  The  pro- 
cess of  Inserting  a  bnimh  ol  une  tiej*.  Into 
the  slock  of  another,  so  that  it  may  nceive 
notirishnirn!  from  it,  u'liilc  al  llie  same 
lime  ll  produces  a  new  tree,  like  the  o  d 
one  whence  the  graft  w!i«  taken. 

GRAFTI.NU-TOOL.  A  kind  of  curved 
spade  hi  for  cutting  trenches. 

GKAI.N.  A  general  name  for  all  kinds 
of  seen  corn. 

(H{AI.N  (inCoiiiiiierce).  A  small  weight, 
the  twentieth  |i.irt  <if  a  scruple  in  A|Hitlie- 
caries  weight,  and  twenty-fourth  in  Troy 
weight. 

GRAIN  (In  Mineralogy).  The  veins  of 
wood,  or  the  ci>iii|Hiiieiii  |>articles  of  stone 
and  metals  as  they  are  disposed  in  the 
mass,  &.C. 

GRAI.NS  OF  PARADISE.  The  seeds 
of  the  aminoiiiuni,  whicli  have  a  pungent 
taste  like  pepper. 

GRAIN  TREE.  The ciMihine.al  tree. 

GRAKLK.  A  bird  nut  inliahitlns  Eil 
nipe,  having  a  thick  hill  and  sharp  hooked 
claws. 

GRALL^.  An  order  of  birds  in  the 
I.innu!an  system,  with  olituse  blllsaiid  long 
legs,  as  the  crane,  sni|»e,  stork,  and  ostrich. 

GRA.MINA.  Grassrs;  the  fifth  family 
in  the  J^iniixan  system,  comprehending 
among  the  species  the  nty  gniss,  clovei, 
lref<iil,san(Jnin,lucern,i.c.  which  are  called 
artihcial  gni.sses,  as  distinguished  from  the 
meadow  grass. 

(;i!A.M.MAR.  The  art  of  s(«aking  and 
wriling  truly,  according  to  the  rules  estab- 
lished by  ciistiun  Riid  the  nulhorily  of 
good  writers.  I'niversal  tlranimiir  Is  that 
which  treats  of  the  first  principles  or  ele- 
ments of  language,  which  are  ftiiiniied  on 
lo<rc  ;  Particular  Grammar  is  the  eranimar 
of  each  language,  containing  not  only  the 
general  priiicipleu  of  :;r:iiiiniar,  but  also 
the  (leciiliarlties  in  the  structure  of  each 
laiignaiie. 

Grammar  is  divided  into  four  partf, 
namely,  I.  Orthography,  or  the  right  uinde 
of  writing  and  spelling,  which  treats  of 
tellers,  their  |«iwers,  different  offices,  and 
divisions  into  vowels,  consonants,  dipli- 
llionus,  mutes,  liquids,  syllables, wordi,&.c. 
touethrr  with  punctuation,  or  the  right 
inodeofdistiiigiiishiiigwords,&c.  by  poinU 
or  accents,  &.C.  2.  EtynmloL'y,  which  treats 
of  the  formal  loll  or  derivation  of  word* 
from  one  another,  and  their  distriliulion 
iniL  .ne  several  (uirts  of  s|>eech,  acC4irdin| 
to  their  .••everal  offices,  into  nouns,  adjec 
lives,  pronoMii*.  verbs,  adverbs.  piF|Hi4l 
lions,  ('i>fijiiiiciions, and  iiilrrjectlons    Ety 


i82 


GRA 


mology  also  treats  of  the  severil  inflections 
to  express  niiiiilier,  gender,  cose,  nioiiil, 
tense,  |>ers<in,  &.c.  Sdnielimea  etyrnulo^y 
treats  of  the  derivation  of  words  of  one 
lnn<:iiHge  fmrn  rlmse  of  another,  which  is 
called  remote  el)  inolojiy.  3.  Syntax  treats 
of  worils  as  they  are  conneiled  with  or 
dependant  on  eacli  other,  giving  rnles  for 
tbe  rijjJit  construction  and  disposition  of 
words  ill  a  seiileiice.  4.  I'rosody  treats  of 
the  quantities  and  accents  of  syllaldes  as 
parts  of  a  verse,  and  tlie  riglit  rules  of 
Tersificatioii. 

GRAAI.MAR,  Histort  of.  Grammar, 
as  a  practical  art,  must  have  existed  Ioiik 
before  it  was  considereil  as  a  science,  and 
the  rules  of  grammar  must  have  been 
formed  after  lauguaj^e  had  assumed  a  settled 
shape  by  the  practice  of  good  writers. 
The  works  of  Homer  contained  a  practical 
illustration  of  all  the  rules  of  the  Greek 
graininar  long  before  the  subject  of  pram- 
mar  e.vciled  any  attention.  It  is  likewise 
clear  that  as  there  is  a  close  connexion 
between  correctne-ss  of  thinking  and  cor- 
rectness of  speaking,  the  study  of  logic 
preceded  Ihat  of  grainniar;  hence  we  tiiid 
that  Aristotle  makes  a  logiial  distinction 
Between  Words  denoting  time  and  words 
not  denoting  time,  the  (<iriiier  of  which 
he  denominates  by  a  word  answering  to 
the  verb  in  grammar,  and  the  latter  by  a 
word  answering  lothenoiin.  Rut  although 
the  Greeks,  particularly  the  Athenians,  cul- 
tivated their  language  tor  purposes  of  ora- 
tory, yet  there  ap|>ear-<  to  have  been  no 
particular  advances  made  towards  bring- 
ing It  uniler  grainiiiaiical  rules.  They 
leem  to  have  studied  their  language  by 
the  ear,  which  was  so  universally  nice 
that  a  herb  wtimaii  at  Athens  is  said  to 
have  distinguished  Theophrastiis  to  be  a 
straniter  from  the  atTectation  of  a  single 
word  in  expressing  himself;  and  for  the 
•aine  reason  the  orators  were  careful  not 
to  Jet  a  single  injudicious  expre.ssion  e.-^rape 
them  which  might  olTend  the  audience. 
We  are  likewise  informed  that  it  was  a 
common  thing  for  the  young  people  to  get 
the  trageilies  of  their  favourite  authors  by 
heart,  which  they  would  recite  on  various 
occasions.  When  the  .Athenians, at^ertheir 
defeat  at  ^Syracuse,  were  made  slaves,  they 
softened  their  slavery  by  reciting  the 
works  of  Fiiripides  to  their  masters,  who 
treated  them  the  better  on  that  account. 
In  this  manner  the  (Jrecian  youth  were 
taught  their  laiiL'uage  at  school,  where  a 
Homer  was  looked  upon  as  inilisiwiisalile. 
I'o  a  light  minded  people,  like  the  Atlie- 
a*.ins,  this  mode  of  learning  a  language 


liUA 

would  be  far  more  agreeable  than  tne  di) 
method  of  studying  gntmiiiar;  but  as  th» 
former  course  was  iu>t  so  practicalile  is 
the  ac<|uiriiig  a  foreign  language,  tliis  it 
probably  the  rea.son  wliy  graiiiiiiar  seeinp 
first  to  have  been  cultivated  among  tha 
Komaiis.  who,  being  studious  of  the  (ireek 
were  iiaiiirally  led  to  a  comparison  of  lai> 
guages,  and  to  a  logical  and  abstract  con 
sideratniii  of  language  in  general.  Certai* 
it  IS,  lliat  the  .•■iiidy  of  grammar  cum 
inenced  with  the  Komans,  and  that  tli« 
names  of  all  the  parts  of  speech  are  Latin, 
and  to  be  found  In  the  writings  of  authors 
subseipieiit  to  the  ageot  Varro  and  Cicero, 
as  /Klius  Dionysius,  Julius  Colliix,  Vale- 
rius I'robiis,  llerodlan,  Suetonius,  Cliari- 
sius,  Macrobins,  Diomedes,  Augustin,  I'ria- 
cian,  ^-l^liiis  l)(matus,  &.c 

GKA.M.MAKIAiN.  One  who  is  skilled 
in  graminar  learning. 

(illA.M.MAR  SLIIOOh.  A  schiKJl  in 
which  the  learned  languages  are  gram- 
matically taught. 

(JKA.MMK.  A  small  FreHCh  weight 
GRA.NAKV.   A  storehouse  for  threshed 
corn 

CKAND  JURY  (in  Law).  The  jury 
which  find  bills  of  indictment  against 
often  lers,  who  are  afterwards  tried  before 
a  (M'lty  jury,  in  case  the  former  find  a  true 
bill  against  the  party  accused. 

GUAM)  SEl(;.\IOR.  The  title  of  the 
Turkish  sultan. 

GRANITE.  A  compound  rock,  consist- 
ing of  (piartz,  felspar,  and  mica,  crystal- 
li/.ed  and  cohering  without  cement.  (Granite 
is  hard,  and  admits  of  an  elegant  polish. 

(JRAN'I'  (in  Law).  A  gift  in  writing, 
of  such  ihinss  as  cannot  conveniently  be 
passed,  or  conveyed  by  word  of  moiitli. 

GRA.M;LAI'I(»N  (in  chemistry).  Pour- 
ing melted  metals  Into  Cold  water,  that 
they  ma\   divide  lliemselves  into  grains. 

<;KAPE.  The  triiit  of  the  vine,  growing 
lu  clusters,  from  which  wine  is  expre».«ed. 
Grapes  are  found  by  a  chemiral  aiialvsis 
to  contain  sii|)enartrale  of  pouish,  tartaric 
arid.  Citric  and  malic  aci<ls,  abundance  of 
siiLMr.  a  porlioii  id'  mucilage  jelly,  some 
albumen,  and  also,  as  is  said,  some 
(;'uten. 

GRAPESHOT  (in  Artillery).   A  combi- 
nation of  small  shot,  put  Inloathick  canvass 
bag,  and  corded  so  aa  to  form  a  kind  of 
cylinder. 
OR. ASSES.  See  GBAMtKA. 
^RASSIH>PPER.   An  insect  that  hnpg 
in  the  summer  grass:  it  is  allied  to  the 
IcM'iist  in   its  make,  but  is  very  liarmleM. 
GRAVEL.  A  kind  of  loamy  Ktnd  mixed 


GRE 

t/ilh  fwbhies,  ivliich  arlhere  »o  a«  to  form 
■  solid  hitndsdiiir  paili. 

GRAVER.  A  UhiI  ust'd  in  encmving. 


riRO 


18& 


GAAVR   SOUND    A  low  d^^p  note. 

GriAVIAlETER.  An  instruiiieiil  for 
nit*asijrin<!  the  specific  gravities  of  bodies. 

GRAVITATION.  The  prMsiire  that  a 
btidy,  hy  the  force  of  iu  gravity,  exerts  on 
another  body  under  it. 

GRAVITY.  The  force  by  whii  h  Iwidies 
are  carried  or  tend  towards  the  centre  of 
the  farlh. 

GRKEK  FIRE.  An  artificial  tire  in- 
vented liy  the  <;reeks  in  Iho  middle  agrs, 
during  their  wars  with  the  Arabs  and 
Turks.  It  consists  of  naphtha,  bitiinieii, 
sniplinr.  sum,  &c. 

GREEICBACK.  The  popular  natno 
piven  to  the  notes  issued  by  the  U.  S. 
Govemmeut,  first  i.«swed  in  180'i.  They 
derived  their  name  Ironi  the  green  color 
predominating  in  them. 

GREEN8.-VM).  In  geology,  arenaceous 
lieds  of  the  tertiary  formation  of  th 
cretaceotis  system,  so  termed  Irom  its 
abeundintr  with  email  grains  of  chlorite. 

GREENSTONE.  In  mineralogy,  a  va 
rietyoftrap;  an  igneous  rock  in 'which 
felspar  is  combined  with  atigite  or  horn- 
blende. It  sometimes  occurs  of  great 
extent  and  thickness. 

GREENSHA.N'K.  A  sort  of  snipe. 

GREGORIAN  STYLE,  or  llie  New 
STTLK(in  Chronolocy).  Anewaccoiini  of 
time,  accordinsto  the  improrved  Calendar 
made  by  onler  of  Pope  Grejrory  XIII. 

GRE.N'ADE.  A  hollow  globe  of  iron, 
filled  with  combustibles,  and  thrown  out 
of  a  mortar. 

GRENADIERS.  Foot  soldiers,  selected 
for  their  stature,  being  the  tallest  and 
•mutest  men  in  the  army. 

GREYHOL'.VD.   A  slenler  dog,  fitted 


Ibr  nintlln*  wtlh   grent   »wtft(ie»«.  who  IS 
ein|)loyed  luuiilly  in  coursiu;:  hares. 


GREVSaUTRREl..  A  beautiful  squirrrf 
commoa  in  America. 


GREYWACKE.  A  mountain  foriHa- 
tion,  consisting  mostly  of  a  sort  of  slate. 

GRIDIRON.  A  utensil  for  broiling 
meat. 

GRINDERS.  The  large  teeth  which 
serve  l>e.st  lor  grinding  the  food. 

(JKIST.  Corn  ground 

GRIT.  The  smaile.st  particles  of  sand; 
al.so  the  coarser  parts  of  meal. 

GROAT.  In  England,  a  silver  Coin,  first 
struck  ill  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  It  has 
since  been  used  as  a  money  of  account 
ec|iial  lo  four  pence  or  8  ceiist. 

GROCER.  One  who  sells  tea,  sugir, 
plums,  spices,  &.c.  The  company  of  gnt- 
cers  in  I.ondon,  were  incorporated  in  IH+l. 

<:R<)0M.  a  servant  who  looks  after 
horses. 

(;K<»(».m  of  the  stole,  in  Eng- 
land an  officer  of  the  court,  who  has  the 
charge  nf  the  king's  wardrobe. 

GROOVE.  A  hollow  channel  cut  with 
n  tiHil 

(;R0SS-REAK.  a  bird  with  a  stout 
bill,  anil  of  a  fiery  red  colour,  except  round 
the  bill  and  mi  (he  thriKtt,  which  is  black 
It  is  to  he  met  with  in  North  America, 
and  is  called  the  Virginia  nightingal*,  OB 
account  of  the  fineness  of  its  song.        ^ 


GROSS  WETCnT.  The  welpht  ti 
giMMis  together  with  the  cask  or  vessel. 

GRf)T,  or  GROTTO.  A  hollow  under 
eroiiiid;  also  an  artiticial  hollow  ii.ade  ia 
a  carilen. 

GUOTE.>Jtii;E  ;in  Paintins  and  Sculj* 


184 


GUA 


ture).  A  work  or  C(iin(io8iliort  in  the  gro- 
tesque or  wild  lasle. 

(jROVi:.  A  small  wood  or  place  set 
with  trees 

GROUND  (m  Husbandry).  Any  piece 
of  laud  in  cullivaliou,  ur  set  apart  lor  cul- 
tivation. 

GROUND  (in  Architecture).  Tlie  srouiid 
plot,  or  piece  of  i;ruuud  selecletl  for  a 
building 

GROUND  (in  Military  Tactics).  The 
field  or  place  fur  uclinu. 

GROl'.N'D  (in  i'aiiitius).  The  surface  oti 
which  the  ti<{iires  and  iibjecl^  are  raised 
and  represented. 

GROUND  (in  Music).  Tlie  plain  song 
or  tune  in  which  tlie  desceiit.-i  are  raised. 

GROUND  (aninng  Mariners).  The  place 
where  the  anclior  is  tixrd. 

GKOUNDASH.  A  sapling  of  ash  taken 
from  the  ground,  in  distiiictiun  from  a 
brancli  cut  from  a  tree. 

GROUNDIVY.  A  lierh,  Ihe  shoots  of 
which  trail  upon  the  ground,  and  lake  root 
at  their  different  Joints. 

GROUNDLING.  A  fish,  so  called  be- 
cause it  keeps  under  stones  111  small  bnioks. 

GROUND-PINE.  A  plant,  the  smell  of 
which  resembles  resin.  Il  grows  on  dry 
and  barren  hills,  and  on  thediichbanks  by 
the  roadside. 

GROUNDSILL.  The  lowest  hi.riz.nital 
timber  on  which  the  exterior  wall  is 
erected. 

GROUND-SQUIRREL.        See      I^'hip- 

SqUIRREL. 

GIIOUP  (in  Painting).  An  :isseiiililage 
of  figures,  appearing  to  have  a  connexion 
with  each  other. 

GROUPING  (amone  Painters).  Putting 
figures  together  in  groups. 

GROUSE.  A  bird  larjjertlian  a  partridge, 
iving  in  the  niouiitaiiioiis  parts  nf  Europe 
and  .Asia.  The  .American  partridge  :s  pro- 
perly the  riilTed  <! rouse. 

GKI'li.  The  worm  or  maggot  priMliiced 
from  the  Iteetle,  which  afterwards  becomes 
a  winged  insect. 

(JRUI.\ALES.  One  of  Linnieiis'<i  natu- 
ral orders  of  plants,  containing  the  gera- 
niums, flax,  lignnni  vita-,  &.C. 

GRI'S.     One  of  I5ayer'«  ronslell.itions. 

GUI.ACUM.  .\  resjiiiiii-i  siihsiaiire  pro 
cured  from  a  tree  of  the  same  name  iii  tiM 
West  Indies. 

GUARANTP'.E  (in  Diplnmary).  A 
prince  or  power  appoiiiied  by  the  sflpu- 
laline  powers,  to  see  ili.ii  the  articles  of 
any  treaty  or  agreement  are  perl'airmed  on 
each  side. 

GUARD.  The  liity  nf  eii.ir'liiie  orde- 
/ending  a.iV  post  or  |iers<Mi  from  an  sillack 


GUI 

or  surprise^  also  the  soldier*  who  do  thit 
duty. 

GI'Aiin  (in  Fencing).  A  poeture  or 
action  proper  to  defend  the  body. 

GUAKDUOAT  (in  Naval  Tactics).  A 
boat  appiiinied  to  row  aniimg  ships  of  war, 
to  see  that  the  othcers  keep  a  good  iiHik 
out. 

GU.ARDIA.V.  One  who  has  thecharge 
of  a  person  cmnmitied  to  him  )  as  the 
guardian  of  an  infant,  who  sees  to  liia 
education  and  ina.nages  his  atfairs,  &.c. 

GI;ARI)SHIP.  a  ve.s.sel  apiHiinled  to 
superintend  the  marine  atfairs  in  a  harbout 
or  river. 

GIJDGEt>.V.  A  fresh  water  fish,  of  the 
carp  kind,  the  ttesh  of  which  is  very  deli 
cate. 

GUIDE  (among  Travellers).  One  who 
accompanies  another  in  order  to  show  him 
the  way. 

<iU.  I)E  (in  Music).  The  leading  note 
in  a  hgure. 

GUiLD  (in  England).  A  company  or 
incorporated  society. 

GUILDHALL  (in  London).  The  com- 
mon hall  of  the  guilds  or  coiiipaiiiss,  which 
was  built  in  1411,  by  Thomas  Knolls,  then 
mayor. 

GUILLOTI.VE.  A  machine  for  behead- 
ing, first  invented  by  a  Siotchman  and 
now  u.sed  in  France.  It  was  introdll^e<i 
during  the  revolution. 

GUINEA  HEN  or  PINT  AND.  Aii  Afri 


can  bird  domesticated  in  Europe,  which 
makes  a  harsh  unpleasant  cry. 
GUINEA  PIG.    An  aatmal  betwiit  a 


rabbit  and  a  mnatM.  aii  Inhabitant  of  Rrm' 

7.11 

GUINEA      An  English  gold  com,  flm 


C.  U  i\ 

Sfiined  in  the  reign  of  Charles  fl.  nnrl  till 
'ately  current  fur  -iit.  It  was  so  calird 
*>ecaiise  il  was  niuili-  fmni  the  gold  that 
w»^<  bruiight  from  (Guinea,  nn  the  coast  iif 
Africa. 

GL'ITAR.  A  musical  .■iirineed  inxtru- 
nienl,  rather  larurr  lh:ui  a  violin,  and 
plaveil  wlih  the  fingers. 

GLLC;;;.  A  tincture  in  heralilry,  marked 
dl  «ngn/in|  by  straight  lines. 


GYP 


laJ 


GULP.  A  part  of  the  sea  running  in 
and.  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

(iTLL.  A  speciejiof  sea  bird,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties. 

(JI'M.  A  concreted  vegetable  juice, 
wliirh  exudes  throush  the  bark  of  trees. 
.A  gum,  properly  speaking,  is  that  only 
aiii.iiig  chemists  which  is  soluble  in  water; 
that  whicli  i^:  insolutile  In  water  is  a  gum 
resin.  The  gum  arable  flows  from  the 
ai:acia,  in  Africa  and  Arabia;  gum  lac  is  the 
jiiioe  of  the  croton  lacifera;  gum  ammoni- 
ac was  first  drawn  from  ammonia. 

GI'MS.  The  vascular  and  elastic  sub- 
«laiice  that  covers  the  arclies  of  the  upper 
mid  under  jaws,  embracing  the  roots  of 
the  teeth. 

GUM-TREE.  The  popxilar  name  of  the 
black  gum,  of  the  geuus  nyssa,  one  of 
the  largest  trees  of  the  Sou'tbern  States 
of  America. 

GUMliAC.  The  resinous  produce  of  an 
insect,  which  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
branches  of  a  tree  called  bihar. 

GUNNY.  A  coarse  sackcloth  manufac- 
tured in  Bengal,  of  which  bags  are  mac^e 
for  containing  salt  and  other  articles. 

GUN.  In  military  science,  a  genercl 
term  for  all  species  of  flre-aruis,  as 
muskets,  rifles,  carbines,  ordnances.  &c. 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  Mtizzle- 
loading  and  Breech-loading  guns,  the 
latter  comprehending  the  Ncedle-Gun 
(which  see).  Gunpowder  is  a  mixture 
ot  5  parts  of  nitre,  1  of  sulphur,  and  5  of 
charcoal,  finely  powdered  and  very  ac- 
curately blended.  Gun-cotton  is  a  prep- 
aration of  cotton  by  steeping  it  in  nitric 
or  nitro-BUlphuric  acid,  and  afterwards 
washing  it,  by  which  it  acquires  the  ex- 
plosive properties  of  gunpowder.  Gun 
barrel,  the  metallic  tube  of  a  gun.  Gun- 
boat, a  boat  for  carrj-ing  cannon.  Gun- 
lock,  the  lock  of  a  gun.  Gun-metal,  an 
alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 


GUNPOWDER-PLOT  (1b  England.) 
The  pU't  or  conspiracy  in  which  tiny  Kaux 
was  the  prlucipal  ageiii,  to  blow  up  the 
parliament  house,  by  means  of  gunpowder 
placed  underneath,  which  was  to  liare 
b»-en  set  tire  to  when  Kiiic  James  I  was 
assenililed  with  his  |Kirliaiiient;  also  the 
anniversary  of  that  day,  iiainely,  the  hit  h  of 
^iiveniher,  wlii-ii  this  plot  was  discovered. 

GI'NSIInT. 'riiere.achorrangeof  a  gun. 

GUNSTiH'K.  The  woikl  to  which  the 
barrel  of  a  gun  is  tixed. 

Gir.NTKR'S  CHAI.V.  The  chain  coin- 
mnnly  used  in  measuring  or  eurveyuig 
land,  so  called  from  Mr.  (iunter,  the  in- 
ventor. The  chain  is  66  feet  in  length, 
and  IS  divided  into  10(1  links  of  7.90  inches 
each,  ronsequeiitly  an  acre  of  land  is  eipial 
Ut  10  s<|uarr  chains. 

GL'NTKR'S  LINE.  A  logarithmic  line, 
usually  graduated  upon  scait^s,  sectors,  &c. 

GUNWALE  or  (lUNNF.L.  The  upper- 
most wale  of  a  ship. 

(>UST  [among  Mariners).  A  sudilen  and 
violent  squall  of  wind. 

(;L'TTA  t^KRKN  A.  A  disea.oe  in  the  eye, 
which  deprives  the  patient  of  his  siglil. 

GUTTURAL  LE  ITERS.  Letters  which 
are  pronounced  with  the  throat. 

GV.MNAS.IJM.  A  place  among  the 
ancients  where  Ihe  youth  were  trained  in 
gymnastic  exercises;  also  a  public  school 
of  learning,  in  which  latter  sense,  it  is  nuiv 
frequently  employed. 

CVMNASTICS.  Athletic exercises.sitcb 
as  wrestling,  leaping,  ninning,  and  throw- 
ing the  dart  or  ipioil,  whirii  were  much  in 
use  among  the  Greeks,  from  whom  the 
word  is  derived. 

GVMNOSdPHISTS.  A  sect  of  Indian 
philosophers,  who  always  went  naked, 
and  lived  a  solitary  life. 

GYiNAMJRIA.  One  of  the  classes  in 
the  Liiinsan  system,  consisting  of  plants 
with  hermaphrodite  flowers,  in  whicli  the 
stamina  are  placed  on  the  style 


GYPSUM.  A  sort  of  ealeareona  eutk, 
consisting  nf  sulphate  of  lime.  Wbea 
hichty  burnt  il  fal!s  into  powder,  froa 
winch  plaster  of  I'arii  it  made 


186 


HAI 


HAN 


fi.  the  eighth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  for- 
Bierly  stood  as  a  ininiertl  ('or  -JIH),  with  a 
d;ish  over  it  for  211,00(1;  in  Heraldry,  it 
stands  fi.r  the  middle  liane,  a  point  in  the 
escutcheon  ;  as  an  alibreviation,  for  hour. 

HAAKTE  BESTE.  A  variety  of  the  Af- 
rican Antelope. 

IIABKAS  cnRPUS.  In  England,  a 
writ  w  hicli  may  be  made  use  of  hy  the 
courts  at  Westminster  for  removing  pris- 
oners to  answer  any  cause,  as  a  Habeas 
Corpus  ad  >;espondeiidurn,  ad  satisfacien- 
dum, &c.-,  but  the  most  celebrated  writ  of 
this  itind  is  that  of  Habeas  t^orpns  ad  sub- 
jiciendum, which  a  man  who  is.  or  sup- 
poses hnnself  to  be  .iggrieved  by  an  unlaw- 
ful imprisonment,  in.iy  h.ive  out  of  the 
King's  Bench,  directed  to  the  person  de- 
taining hnn,  and  commanding  him  to  pro- 
duce the  body  of  the  prisoner,  to  submit  to 
or  receive  wliatever  the  court  shall  consider 
in  that  behalf.  This  writ  was  founded  on 
the  common  law,  and  secured  by  many 
statutes,  particularly  that  of  the  'M  C'has. 
[I.  wliichisby  disilnction  called  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act.  The  writ  of  Habeas  <;<>rpus 
!n  the  United  t^tates  is  that,  by  which  a 
man  in  prison  may  claim  an  immediate 
trial,  oi  examination. 

HABERDASHER.  A  dealer  in  small 
wares,  as  tape,  thread,  pins,  needles,  &c. 
The  company  of  haberdashers  in  I^indon 
was  incor|H>rated  in  1447. 

HADIXJCK.  A  fish  of  the  cod  kind, 
which  inhabits  the  northern  coast. 

HADI.EVS  aiJADRANT.  A  quadrant 
that  is  particularly  used  for  taking  altitudes 
at  sea 

H.'E.MORRHAnE.  A  flux  of  blood  from 
any  part  of  !he  botly 

HAIL.  A  meteor,  which consistsoffrozen 
rain,  or  drops  of  rain  aEghiiin.-tted  together 
by  the  frost,  so  as  to  form  little  pieces  of 
ice,  called  hailstones 

HAIMNO  (among  Mariners).  Saluting 
or  acrosiing  a  ship  at  a  distance. 

HAIR.  Small  filaments  issuing  out  of 
the  pores  of  the  skin  of  animals,  and  serv- 
ing for  the  most  part  as  a  covering,  'i'lie 
principal  consiiiueni  parts  of  hair  are  ani- 
mal matter,  oil,  silez,  sulphur,  carbonate  of 
tune,  ice. 

U.MR  (in  Boianyl.  The  down,  or  hair- 
'Ihe  threads  on  the  s  irfnre  of  plants. 

HAIRdRASS.  A  plant,  siune  species 
•f  wbicii  are  pereiint.ilsand  siunr  annuaiu 


HAFR'S  BUE.\DTH.  A  measure  tH 
length,  equal  to  the  Ibrty-ei;;liili  i>ari  of  an 
inch. 

HAl^BERT.  A  weap<m  something  Ilka 
a  spear,  formerly  carried  by  the  serieanta 
of  f(H)t  and  artillery. 

HAIX'VON.  A  name  for  the  kingfifcher. 

HAI.F-BLOOI)  (in  l^w).  Relationship 
by  the  father's  or  the  mother's  side  only. 

HALF-MOON  (in  Fortification).  Al 
outwork  having  two  faces. 

HALFPENNY.  An  English  copper  c«ir> 
of  the  value  of  one  ct-nt. 

HALL.  A  public  edifice,  a  court  of  jus- 
tice. 

HALL  (in  Architecture).  A  large  room 
at  the  entrance  of  a  fine  house 

HALLELUJAH.  A  part  of  church  music 
in  which  these  words  are  lejieaied. 

HALLI.\RDS  Ropes  for  hoisting  up 
the  yards. 

HALLOO.  A  hunter's  cry  after  the  dnjrs. 

HALLUCINATION.  An  alfection  either 
in  the  senses  or  the  imagination,  w  Inch 
causes  a  person  to  feel,  see,  or  hear  wh.it 
does  not  exist. 

HALM.  In  England,  the  stalk  of  rorii 
which  is  left  on  the  ground  when  it  is  i-iii. 

HALO.  A  ntpleor,  in  Iheforni  of  n  iuiiil 
nous  ring  or  circle,  apiwarinu  roiiinl  ilir 
bodies  of  the  sun,  moon,  or  stars. 

HAM  .MOCK  (among  Mariners).  .\  pi  ce 
of  hempen  clulh,  six  feet  long  and  tlnve 
feet  wide. 

HAMSTER.  An  animal  of  the  ni"iis« 
tribe,  entirely  black,  except  at  the  tip  '■( 
the  nose,  edges  of  the  ears,  feel,  and  84iiii«- 
tinies  tlie  tail,  which  are  white. 


HANAPER  OFFICE.  In  England,  an 
office  in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  out  of 
which  Issue  all  original  writs. 

HAN  I)  (in  the  Manege).  The  fist  clenched 
or  a  measure  of  three  inches,  by  which  the 
height  of  a  horse  is  C(mi|>uled  ;  also  the 
parts  of  a  horse,  as  the  forehand,  for  th» 
head,  neck,  and  fore  quarters;  the  hind 
liaiul,  wliiili  iiirliiiles  the  rest  ;  and  also 
Uiu  luirsemun'*  hand,  as  the  suur  hand. 


HAR 

which  Is  his  ris'it  liaiid  ;  and  llie  brlilie 
b.'iiid,  wliicli  is  liis  lrt>  liniiil. 

IIANf).  All  important  ineiiibwr  of  llic 
nody,  wliirliC'insislinoClliccarims, or  wrist; 
tlie  iiicliic:ir;i'is,  (ir  tlie  Toiir  Itunea  williiii 
Um  |>aliii  aiid  llie  liiigen. 


HAR 


1S7 


HAND  (amon^  VVatcliraakers).  The  in- 
dex of  a  clock  or  watch. 

HAXD-BARKOW.  A  barrow  without 
wlieels. 

HANDCUFFS.  Two  circular  pieces  of 
iron  locked  over  the  wrists  of  a  prisoner 
lo  prevent  him  using  his  liand.s, 

MA.N'DSriKKrf.  Wooden  levers  useil 
at  8ca. 

UA.N'CINCS  Tapestry  hung  or  fastened 
against  the  wall. 

IIANSK  TOWNS.  Port  towns  of  Ger- 
many, which  were  incorporaleii  for  the 
piir|K)se  of  protecting  tlieir  trade.  Tlie 
three  principal  of  these  towns  were  Ilaui- 
liiir)ih,  Rrenien,  and  Lubec,  which  still 
rttain  the  name. 

HARBOUR.  A  place  where  ships  may 
ride  in  safety. 

H  \RDNESS  (in  Physiology).  The  re- 
«istaiice  opposed  by  a  body  to  the  separa- 
tion of  its  parts. 

HARE.  A  timid  animal  of  excpiisite 
si;£ht  and  henrins,  with  a  short  tail.  It  is 
in  Europe  a  beast  of  chase,  ami  is  some- 
times pursued  by  greyliounds  in  open 
ground,  which  is  called  coursinc ;  and 
sometimes  by  harriers,  or  hare  hoiimls, 
which  is  called  hare  huntinc  Shooting 
of  hares  is  not  lawful  in  England.  A  spe- 
eles  of  hare  common  in  America,  passes 
under  tlie  name  of  rabbit. 


HARELIP  A  lip  cloven  or  parted  like 
(tia'.  of  a  hara 

HAR.MATTUN.  A  wind  which  blows 
•erio  licallv  from  the  interior  uarts  of  Africa 


towards  the  Atlantic.  TU  »  wind  is  remark- 
ante  for  iI^  dry  and  parch  n!J[  character. 

IIAU.MoNI(;A.  A  iiiusir.al  msiniment 
coiislrucl»-d  with  driiiknia  glasses. 

HARMONICS.  Thai  br.in.h  of  music 
which  considers  tte  dilferences  and  pro- 
portions of  sounds. 

HAR.Mo.NV  (in  Music).  The  acreeabU 
result  or  union  of  sevenil  musical  soiiiida 
heard  at  one  and  the  same  time.  Melody 
is  produced  hy  a  succession  of  inusic.il 
sounds,  as  liaruiony  is  produced  by  tbeir 
coml)iiiaiion. 

HARMD.NV  OF  THE  SPHERES.  A 
kind  ol'  music,  supposed  by  the  ancieiils  to 
he  pri>du('ed  by  the  accordant  molioiis  of 
the  stars  and  planets.  - 

HARP.  A  musical  stringed  instrument 
of  gieat  aiitiiiuity,  of  a  triav2ulur  form, 
and  played  with  the  finger*. 


HARPER.  One  who  plays  upon  the  narp 

tIAKPl.NS  (among  Mariners).  The 
breadth  of  a  ship  at  the  bow. 

HARPOO.VS,  or  Habpinu  Irons.  Irons 
formed  at  one  end  like  a  barbed  arrow, 
and  having  a  rope  at  the  other,  for  the 
purpose  of  spearing  the  whale. 

HARPSICHORD.  A  stringed  and  keyed 
instrument  in  a  mahognny  case. 

HARROW.  A  drag  with  iron  teeth,  to 
break  the  clods  after  ploughing. 


HARPY  A  fabulous  monster,  with  tua 
head  of  a  w<unan,  the  wingsof  a  bird.and 
the  tail  of  a  beast. 


188 


HAW 


HEA 


HARPALED^.  In  entomologr,  an  ex-     ,,  j        >  .  u  .  r 

tensive  laniUy  of  coleopterous  insects,  ^^^  *  moored  with  two  anchors  out  fron 
ot  which  the  Harpalus  is  the  type.         '.  '^''  bows,  as  '  a  cl^ar  or  open  hawse,'  '■ 

HAliTALL.  Orpiment,  an  oxide  of  ar-i  •"""'  I'awse,'  &c 


Beuic,  used  as  a  yellow  paint. 

HARTSHOKN.  In  phainjacy,  the  horn 
of  the  common  stag,  which  obtains  a 
place  in  the  phai-maoopoeia  because  it 
containsless  earthy  matter  and  more 
gelatine  than  other  bones. 

H.\TCHETIXK.  A  bituminous  mineral 


HAWSKIt.  A  small  cable. 
HA'/AI{n.    A  tranie  of  chance,  placed 
*j  much  liy  gamesters  ami  jsiiiililers. 

IIA/.r.C   N'C'T.    A  shrub   having  male 

flowers  growiiijr  at  remote  diiitances  from 

the   fruit  on  the   same    tree.     The    nuta 

grow  in  clu.sters,  anil  are  of  three  kinds, 

TjATjT-tTjTOT-      T      -r,  ■.  '*>*  comiuon  hazel  nut,  the  cub  nut,  and 

p<>^tf4':>5retended  ^oToret^efl  mTtire'i  ''^  «'^"''  -"'="  '=»"-  -"^  '"^  ""-  "* 


or  mouu tain-tallow,  found  at  Merthyr 
Tydvil,  inS.  Wale; 


events  by  the  entrails  of  beasts, 

IIA'I'CIII.N'U.'J'lieaciofiiiaiunnfflecnn- 
dated  eggs,  so  that  they  shmilil  (irddnce 
yomis  birds.  This  is  coineiioiily  done  by 
the  inciil)ali<>n  of  llie  mother  :  but  some- 
times by  means  of  arliticial  heat  in  ovens, 
aa  IS  practised  in  Ejrypt. 

IIATCIIME.N'T.     t^ee     AcHiEt-EME:iT. 

HATCIIW.AV  (amonj!  .Manners).  An 
oiwniii!.'  in  the  deck,  to  serve  as  a  (>Kssjij;e 
from  one  deck  to  another. 

II.ATTKR.  A  manufacturer  and  seller 
of  nals.  The  company  of  h:iiter»,  or  hat- 
makers  in  lAiiidon,  is  very  ancient. 

(CAVF.RSAl.K.  A  kimi  of  bas  of  sironj 
eo.irse  linen,  to  carr)'  breail  and  provisions 
nn  a  march. 

II AIJL,  or  YAULfaiiioncRopemakers). 
A  yarn  of  four  hundred  threads. 

HAUNCH.  The  hind  part  of  a  sUg,  or 
of  a  horse.  &c. 

K  AUNT.  The  walk  of  a  deer. 

HAIJTHOV.  A  musical  wind  instni- 
menl,  sliajied  much  like  the  flute,  only 
that  it  spreads  and  wid<f  .s  at  the  bottom, 
.ind  is  sounded  thron;:h  a  reed  at  one 
end. 

H  AWFrXril.  A  sort  of  finch,  so  called 
because  it  feeds  on  haws  and  cherries. 

HAWK.  A  bird  of  prey  of  the  eacle  and 
falcon  tribe,  the  two  principal  species  of 
which  are  the  sparrowhawk  and  the  ;>oa- 
hawk,  both  used  formerly  in  falconry. 

HAWKERS.  In  En-iland,  itinerant  [letty 
chapmen,  who  po  with  their  goods  from 
town  to  town  and  from  house  to  house. 
They  are  obliged  bjr  law  to  have  a  license. 

HAWKING.  The  ancient  »|K.rt  of  fowl- 
ing with  hawks. 

HAWKING  (in  Trade).  The  going  about 
with  commodities  to  sell,  after  the  manner 
of  a  hawker. 

HAWK'S  BRI.L..  The  bell  put  about 
the  feet  of  a  hawk. 

HAWKWEED.  A  plant  which  bears  a 
flnwer  in  the  form  of  a  marigold.  The 
whole  plant  has  a  milky  juice. 

HAWPE.  A  sea  term,  for  the  sittiatiim 
•f  the  cables  before  the  ship's  stem,  when 


teemed. 

HEAD  (in  Anatomy).  The  superior  part 
of  the  body,  placed  on  the  neck,  and  c^m- 
sisting  exiernally  of  the  face  and  the  hairy 
scalp:  internally,  of  the  brain  and  the 
medulla  oblongata. 

II  KAI)  (among  .Mechanics).  The  upper 
and  mor«  solid  part  of  iiianiiiiate  boiliea, 
as  I  he  head  of  a  nail,  the  head  of  a  gale, 
the  head  of  a  hammer. 

II  KAI)  (in  Painting),  The  representatioii 
of  the  head  of  a  person. 

II  EAO  (in  Architecture).  An  ornament 
of  sculpture  or  carved  work. 

IIBAI)  (in  (Juiiner)').  The  fore  part  ot 
the  cheeks  of  a  gun. 

HI:aii  (in  Printing).  In  England,  the 
top  of  a  page. 

HKADKOROUGH.  Formerly  the  oiiief 
of  a  borough,  or  frankpledge ;  now  a  sort  of 
peliy  constable. 

HEADER  (in  Masonry).  A  name  for 
the  bricks  which  are  inserted  lengthwise 
in  the  thickness  of  a  wall, 

HF.Ani-ANI).  A  point  of  land  lying 
farther  out  at  sea  than  the  rest. 

HEAnSTAM..  That  part  of  a  bridle 
that  goes  about  the  head;  also  a  kind  of 
halier. 

HEAI.IXG  (in  Snrger>').  Curing  a 
wound. 

HEAL.I.NG  (among  Rricklayers).  The 
covering  a  riKif  with  any  thing,  as  lead, 
slates,  &c. 

HEARING.  One  of  the  five  senses,  of 
which  the  ear  is  the  organ,  with  the  help 
of  the  auditory  nerves  and  membrane. 

HEAR.-^E.  A  close  carriage  for  convey- 
ing dead  bodies. 

II RART.  The  seat  of  life  in  the  animal 
hod v,  is  situated  in  the  thorax,  and  divided 
externally  into  the  base,  which  is  the  brivnd 
part:  the  superior  and  inferior  surface; 
anri  the  anterior  and  posterior  martin. 
Inteniallv,  it  is  divided  into  two  vantrt- 
cles,  riehf  and  left, 

HEARTBURN.  A  burning  pain  In  the 
stomach. 

iiEARTSE.\SB.  A  plant  cultiTtted  1j> 


HER 

^        it    Uint  yipl(l«  a  ^-tirieinited ,  nwpet- 

li^AR  'H  Tlie  p:ivetiieiit  of  a  fire- 
,»l.ire 

HKAT  (in  i*1iyi«inlo!jy).  See  Cai-okic. 

IIKAT  (aiii  .  %  Ueottnipliers).  The  lieat 
of  ilitfereiit  citmves.  which  arisen  froiii  the 
riirt'frt-iilaiiirles  iin.'er  which  the  sun's  rays 
strike  ii|>nii  the  siirfs'c  ■■<  the  earth  ;  added 
to  whirli,  the  licat  uf  ditfereeit  places  i* 
either  increased  ur  dii  utiahed  hy  llie  acci- 
dents til'  sitiiatinn,  with  rrgard  to  niniin- 
taiiis  and  valleys,  proxin''V7  to  the  sea, 
and  the  like. 

HEAT  (among  Smiths).  T.  *  decree  of 
heat  requisite  for  iron  work,  Nimely,  the 
blood  red  heat,  the  smallest  <.epAej  the 
tlaine,  or  white  lieat,  the  second  degree  ; 
and  the  s|>arklins,  ^"  welding  heal,  n.hich 
is  the  strongest  deiiree. 

HKAT  (among  Sportsmen).  A  CPiU'H 
^resmlied  distancv  which  a  horse  riina  v 

.e  Course. 

Ill-'ATII.  A  wide  oj)en  place,  general') 
•  fergrown  with  lienth. 

UK  ATM  (in  Hoiaiiy).  A  shnili,  which 
either  crows  wild,  or  is  ciillivaled  with 
great  care  in  hothouses.  'J'he  ciillivated 
sorts  are  remarkable  for  their  variety  and 
beauty. 

HKAVEN  (in  Astronomy).  Thit  im- 
mense region  wherein  the  planets,  stars, 
andc.imels  are  disposed,  anil  perform  their 
moriiiiis;  anion:!  tlie  anrii-nts,  a  heaven 
denoted  an  orh  or  cirriilar  region  of  the 
ethereal  heaven.  Aslronoiners  ther«fure 
assumed  as  many  ditl'ereiiilieaveiisa.^  Ihey 
ob-ervfd  ilifTerent  celestial  motions;  thus 
they  had  seven  lieaveiis  for  the  seven 
planets,  the  MiMin,  Mercury,  X'eniis,  the 
Sun,  .Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  The 
eiiihth  was  the  (i\ed  stars,  which  was  par- 
ticularly denominated  the  tirmament.  I't<v 
leiiiy  added  a  ninth  heaven,  which  he  calls 
the  I'riiniiin  Mobile  ;  Alphonsiisanerwards 
added  two  cr>'stalline  heavens,  to  account 
for  some  irregularities  in  tlie  motions  of 
the  oilier  heavens.  Other  ancient  aslromv 
mers  admitted  more  heavens,  according  to 
their  ilitferenl  liypolheses. 

IIKI{.  All  alilireviation  for  Hebrews. 

HE(;.\TOMB.  Jhesarrificeofa hundred 
oxen. 

HECTIC  FEVER.  An  habitual  fever, 
or  one  which  Is  slow  and  continued,  end- 
ing in  a  cimsumption. 

HKI>GC.  \  fence  of  thorns  or  ghnibs  to 
part  off  land. 

IIEDfJEHOG.  A  qn.idniped  defended 
al!  over  with  sharp  prickles,  which  is  a 
native  uf  Eiin>pe,  and  found  also  in  .Mada- 
gascar.    It  lives  in  thickets,  and   swims  \ 


HEL 


18» 


easily.  When  frictitened.  It  rolls  (Tselfup 
in  its  spiry  skin,  and  preseiica  uulhing  twl 
a  ball  of  pricklea. 


HEDGESPARROW.  A  kind  of  ajw 
row  that  lives  in  the  fields  and  about  tb« 
liedges. 

HEEL.  The  back  of  the  foot  pretuberat 
ing  behind. 

HEEL  (among  .Mariners)  The  heel  of 
a  mast,  that  part  at  the  foot  of  a  ship'l 
ni:ist  that  is  pared  away  slanthig. 

HEELPIECE.  A  piece  of  le.ilher  put 
I  pon  the  heel  of  a  shoe. 

HEGIR.\  (in  Chroiiolncy).  An  icra 
'^  hich  lakes  its  date  from  Mahomet's  flight 
from  .Mecca,  a.  d.  Vf&. 

HLIR  (ill  Law).  Dne  who  succeeds  by 
descent  to  lands  and  tenements. 

IIEIRLOO.M.  Househohl  gixnU  and  fur- 
niture which  have  for  several  ilesreiils 
belonged  to  a  house,  and  necessarily  cuuie 
to  the  heir  wuh  the  house. 

HELIAC.VL  (in  Astronomy).  A  term 
applied  to  the  s.ars  or  planets  when  they 
rise  and  set  wi.h  or  at  the  name  time  as 
the  sun. 

HELIOCE.NTK  i'.  An  epithet  for  what 
relates  to  the  centre  if  the  sun. 

HELIO.MKTER.  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  diameter  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  This  instriimei  t  is  a  kind  of  tele- 
scope, consisting  of  two  ibjecl  glasses  of 
equal  fiKal  distance,  pl.ved  one  by  the 
side  of  the  ottier,  so  that  th«  same  eyeglass 
serves  for  both. 

HELIOTROPE,  or  Tir:«,  jle.  A  plant 
which  IS  said  always  lu  follow  the  cours* 
of  the  sun. 

HKLLEBORB.  A  plant,  tLt  flower  of 
which  exiKinds  in  the  fonn  of  a  rose.  The 
seed  is  oblnng,  like  a  grain  of  wheat  It 
is  very  doubtful  whether  the  plant  now  sc 
named  be  the  true  hellebore  so  famous  for 
its  (Miisonous  quality  among  the  ancients. 

HEL.M  (ill  .N'aval  .Architecture)  A  long 
flat  piece  of  timl>er  suB|)ended  at  the  hind 
part  of  a  ship's  stemi>ost,  which  servea  to 
direct  the  course  of  the  ship.  It  is  com- 
posed of  three  |>arts,  namely,  the  /udder, 
which  turns  u|Nin   its  hingea     vbe  ti.lei 


J  90 


)IKR 


wliirii  serves  lo  dirert  ilie  rmlilpr;  and  the 
wlieel,  riiiiiiil  winch  llieullerriii)e  is  wimnd 
ill  I;ir2>'  vi'ssels. 

11  KIjM  K'l".  A  lie:id[>ifc-e.  or  armour  for 
the  iiead,  whicli  was  iViniierly  llie  imlilesl 
piece  III'  I'oat  aniiuiir. 

JIKL.MI.N  THOLLKJY.  'J'he  science  of 
worms. 

IIKLVE.     T.ie  handle  of  an  axe. 

IIKM.    The  edue  pari  of  cldh. 

HEMIPTKRA.  The  second  order  of  in- 
lect!)  in  the  l.iiiiiiraii  !^y!ltelIl,  iiichiding 
Ihone  wlilch  have  their  iipjier  winss  iieini- 
mistaceoii*,  a:<  the  cock-roacli,  main  is  or 
walkiiiu  leaf,  hrf-iist,  cricket,  !.'iiu«hii|i|ier, 
lanthBrii-riy,  boat-Hy,  water  scorpion, 
aphis  or  plant  louse,  and  the  coccus  ur 
Cochineal. 

IIKMifPIIERE.  One  half  of  the  mun- 
dane sphere. 

IIK.MhOt'K.  A  narc<itic  plant,  the  leaves 
of  whii'li  are  cut  into  many  niiiiiite  seg- 
ments, like  pansley.  it  is  duulilfiil  wheth- 
er tills  lie  the  true  hemlock  of  the  ancients. 

IIE.MI'.  A  filiroiis  plant,  of  which  linen 
and  ropes  are  made. 

II  E.\.  A  female  bird  oi  any  species,  par- 
tii  ularly  the  domestic  fowl. 

IIE.NUA.VE.  A  poisonous  plant  that 
grows  in  hedges. 

Iir,.\DECAGO.\.  A  figure  of  eleven 
aides. 

IIKI'TAOO.V.  A  figure  of  seven  sides 
ftiiil  seven  anglej. 


HEPTAXURIA.  One  of  the  Linniean 
ela.'i!>es,  including  those  plants  which  have 
seven  stamens  to  the  flower,  as  the  horse- 
cbeslnut,  cliickweed,  lizard's  tail,  &c 


HKfTA  ICHY.  The  seven  kin(tdoms 
forinod  b;  the  i^axnns  oh  their  first  settle- 
ment ill  England.  They  were  all  united 
Into  one  kingdom  by  Eehert. 

HEK.\LU      (in  England).    An  officer 


HER 

whose  bii»lne«s  it  is  lo  proclaim  war  and 
peace,  to  marshal  pnicessions.and  reeiilale 
armorial  ensigns,  &.C.  The  heralds  are  six 
in  number,  and  are  distineuished  bv  the 
names  of  Kichmond.  Lancaster.  Chester, 
Windsor,  Somerset,  and  Nork.  They  are 
all  e(|ual  In  degree,  and  have  precedence 
only  according  to  the  seniority  of  their 
creation. 

IIEKAIiORY.  All  ancient  art  whirb 
professed  to  teach  the  true  :ise  of  arms;  Ha 
how  to  blazon  or  describe  them  in  proper 
terms,  and  how  to  marshal  or  dispose  the 
ditferent  arms  in  an  escutcheon  or  shield. 

IIEUALDRV,  History  of.  Although 
the  science  of  heraldry,  as  far  as  regards 
the  distinctions  of  families  by  means  of 
coat  armour,  is  comparalively  of  modern 
date,  yet  the  Romans  were  not  wiilioiii 
their  marks  of  honour,  wliicli,  being  here- 
ditary, served  as  a  proof  of  nobility,  and 
a  title  to  a  certain  rank.  This  was  known 
among  them  by  the  name  of  jus  iinagiiium, 
which  was  the  ri&lit  of  having  the  statues 
or  images  of  their  ancestors;  that  belongec 
to  tliose  only  who  were  either  of  patrician 
rank  or  had  risen  to  distinction  in  the  state. 
He  who  had  the  privilege  of  using  the 
statues  or  images  of  liis  ancestors  was 
termed  '  nobilis;'  he  who  could  only  use 
liisown  wasa  'novushomo,'oraii  upstart, 
like  one  who  first  procures  a  coat  of  arms; 
and  he  who  had  neither  his  own  statues 
nor  those  of  his  ancestors  was  termed  '  ip- 
nobilis.'  These  images  or  statues  were 
made  of  wood,  brass,  marble,  and  some- 
times in  wavwork,  and  were  painted,  ac- 
rording  to  the  life,  with  the  several  ein- 
hlems  of  military  honour  which  IH-Ionged 
to  the  individual.  Thus  the  collar  or 
chain  on  the  statue  of  Tor<pi:ilus.  and  the 
tuO  of  hair  on  that  of  ('incinnaius,  were 
the  trophies  of  wliirh  these  brave  warriors 
had  desiKUled  their  eiieiiiles. 

These  statues  commonly  stood  in  their 
courts  in  a  cabinet  of  wood,  whence  pro- 
bably originated  our  cabliieLs  of  arms, 
where  the  helmet,  crest,  gauntlet,  spurs, 
banner,  iiC.  were  kept;  and  as,  upon  par- 
ticular occasions,  these  cabinets  were  set 
open,  and  the  statues  were  exposed  to 
public  view  before  the  porch  or  gate  of 
their  houses,  so  our  nobility  and  gentry 
have  their  coats  of  arms  cut  in  stone,  and 
painted  in  escutcheons  over  their  gates. 
At  their  funerals  those  statues  were  borne 
before  such  as  had  the  jus  imaginum, 
whence  in  aOer  times  it  fiecame  the  prac- 
tice, at  the  funerals  of  great  men,  to  carry 
their  ensigns  of  nobility,  and  the  arms  jf 
those  from  whom  they  were  descended, 
which,  being  all  painted,  are  placed  under 


HER 

Ae  name  of  an  acliievement  on  the  hou.se 
of  llif  p«T!iori  deceaiied.  As  a  tarllicr  proof 
Uial  our  lienilitic  disUiictious  lake  llieir 
rise  from  the  Jus  iiiiagiuum  of  ihe  Koiiiaus, 
Ua|i()ears  lha(  the  law  nf  arms  among  Ihe 
Europeans  in  the  middle  ages  was  regu- 
lated by  the  civil  law. 

The  introduction  of  armorial  bearings, 
in  place  of  the  inuiges  and  statues  of  the 
Romans,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  northern 
tribes  whe  overran  Europe  on  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  empire.  The  Goths,  Vati- 
dalii,  and  other  such  people,  were  in  the 
practice,  like  their  ancestors  tlie  Celts  and 
Scythians,  of  painting  on  their  shields  the 
Aguresof  animals,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  themselves  formidable,  or  more 
probably  by  way  of  distinction;  and  al- 
though, from  their  martial  character,  their 
ensigns  of  honour  were  at  first  purely  mili- 
tary, yet,  by  being  transmitted  to  their 
posterity,  they  became  badges  of  civil  rank 
and  honour;  :ind,  in  process  of  time,  other 
circumstances  gave  rise  to  bearings  which 
were  not  purely  midtary.  Thus,  on  the 
establishment  of  the  feudal  system,  the 
tenants  of  the  king,  or  the  great  lords,  re- 
presented on  ihwir  sh  ields  the  services  they 
owed  to  their  superiors  by  way  of  an  ac- 
knowledgement of  their  fidelity,  wheiir« 
originated  roses,  cinque-foils,  spurrowels, 
bowsaud  arrows,  huti(iiig-hurns,ships,&c. 
which  are  to  be  found  so  frequently  in 
coats  of  arms.  So,  in  like  manner,  the 
crusades  gave  rise  to  the  figures  of  the 
cross,  which  is  borne  in  a  diversity  of 
forros;and  tournaments,  which  »  ere  intro- 
duced by  Henry  the  Fowler  in  the  tenlh 
century,  are  sup|)osed  tuhave  civeii  rise  to 
the  fesse,  pale,  bend,  and  other  ordinaries 
which  represented  the  fillets  or  lists  of 
different  kinds  which  were  worn  by  the 
combatants  and  those  whoattended.  From 
tlie  practice  and  ceremony  of  the  herald's 
recording  the  names,  arms,  and  proofs  of 
the  nobility  of  the  knights  at  tournaments, 
the  science  of  heraldry  took  its  iianie-,  and 
as  this  ceremony  was  preceded  by  tfie  blow- 
ing of  a  horn,  blazon,  which  comes  from 
the  German  '  bhuxm,'  to  blow,  is  now  used 
for  a  scientific  description  of  coals  of  arms. 

HERB  (in  Botany).  That  part  of  the 
vegetable  which  rises  from  the  root,  and 
eoniprehends  the  stem  and  leaves,  &.C. 

HERB.f;.  Herbs;  the  fourth  tribe  into 
which  l.inncus  divided  the  vegetable 
kingdimi. 

HERBAL.  A  book  giving  an  account 
of  the  names,  natures,  and  uses  of  plants. 

HERCULAM'.IJM.  .\n  ancient  ciiy  of 
Naples,  overwhelmed  by  an  eruption  of 
Mot  at  Vesuvius  iu  the  reign  of  Titus-  it 


HER 


191 


was  discovered  iu  the  year  1689,  slnc« 
which  time  many  nianiiscripls,  paintings, 
slalues,  and  other  relicit  of  antiquity,  have 
been  discovered  by  disumg- 

HERCUl.Eri.  A  ceieUrated  hero  of  an- 
tiquity, the  son  of  Jupiier  and  Alcmena, 
who  travelled  as  far  as  (he  Straits  of  Gilt- 
raltar,  and  is  said  lo  have  erected  two 
pillars,  one  at  Cadiz  in  Spain,  and  the 
other  at  Ceula  in  Africa,  ills  exploits  ar« 
celebrated  by  the  poets  and  historians  oi 
antiijuity. 


HEREDITAMENTS  (in  Law).  Im- 
moveables, which  a  man  may  have  to  him 
and  his  heirs. 

HERESV.  An  error  in  some  fniidanien- 
tal  doctrine  of  the  Christian  faith,  or  a 
private  opinion  different  from  that  of  tlie 
ortliodox  church. 

HERETIC.  One  tainted  with  heresy. 

HEBIOT  (in  England.)  The  besl  beast 
that  the  tenant  died  possessed  of,  which 
was  due  to  the  lord  of  the  manor. 

HERU.N.  A  bird  similar  in  form  to  the 
crane  and  stork,  but  much  larger,  being 
aeven  feet  in  standing. 


iy^l^l//f*:yv!^^'  1 


HERISON.  A  barrier  made  of  beams 
stuck  with  spikes,  to  block  up  a  (lossage. 

HERMETICAL  SEAL  (among  Chem- 
ists). A  method  of  stopping  glass  vessels 
so  closely  that  the  subtlest  spirit  cannot 
escape. 

HERNIA.  Every  kind  of  rupture,  «• 
ried  according  to  llie  part  alTecied. 


192 


IMC 


rIKRDIC;  f(1KM.  A  fvifm  wttlng  furth 
.llP  fXJili'itu  111' Millie  llt-r-i. 

HKROM;  VKKc<K.  Ilfxaiiieler  verse, 
»>  cilleil  bf cause  il  is  U!<eil  by  piifls  iii 
tne-ir  liuroic  piwiiis. 

HKKRINt;.  A  small  snafish  of  a  gri-en 
i-oliiiir.  w.Tich  iiilialiiis  ilir  \iirth  s«'a.s,  .ukI 
iniiir;ilrs  siiullif  riy  iii  iiiimeiise  shiials,  (lar- 
ticiilarly  in  the  iiiniith  I'f  June.  'I'lii-ir 
[>riigre8s  ia  marked  by  llie  ininiber  of  hints 
winch  follow  Ihein  U>  (irey  u(>oli  llleiii. 
riiosr  Which  Hock  lo  the  British  coasts 
are  to  be  found  in  the  jzreatesl  number 
olf  Yarmouth,  the  inurl  lor  liernnss. 

IIKKf^K  (in  Fortilicatioin.  An  engine 
ike  a   harrow,  stuck  full  of  spikes 

lll".?!HKUIL)^  (in  Moi.iiiy ..  A  natural 
^riler  of  plants,  iiicliiilin:!  Ilie  myrtle  irilie. 

HK'IKKOSCIl  (in  (;e.icrapliy).  'I  hone 
inhabitaiiLs  of  tlie  e  irtli  which  have  their 
sliadows  falling  bul  I'lie  way.  as  those  liv- 
ing between  the  tropic  and  polar  circles. 

HK.KAEDKtJ.V  (in  (Jeoiiietry).  A  nolid 
figure  of  six  equal  sides. 

IIE.XAGO.N  (in  (".eoinetry)  A  figure  of 
•U  lidea  aud  8U  angles. 


HrXAGVNIA  (jnootany).  Anorderof 
^  A.-iU.  which  ha  ve  si  n  sty  lev  in  the  rlowers. 

lli;.\A.\IK'rKK  (III  I'oetry).  A  verse 
consHiini!  of  six  feet. 

IIK.XANDKIA  (in  Rotany).  Oneofthe 
l.iniiieaii  chisses,  comprelieHding  those 
piaiils  which  have  fix  stamens  in  each 
n<'Wer,  a-s  the 'pineap|>le.  bamboo,  spider- 
won.  Illy  of  tile  valley,   arrow  gnua,  &.C. 


RI?T).  An  abbreviation  for  bo|!!ihead. 

HIATUS.  A  gap  or  ctiastn  in  verses; 
■Isoany  deficiency  in  a  manuscript  which 
fleslroys  the  connexion. 

IIIICOUCH.  or  lll<'Oi;P  A  conviil- 
•tve  motion  of  (he  stuiuuch 


IHP 

fflPE  Mn  Law.  A  portion  of  land, 
from    Mill  ti.  I-.M)  acres. 

il.DK  tamoiiK  Tuiiiiera). 'I'he  skins  of 
beiula  alter  lliey  are  taken  otf. 

IIMlEB'iLi.Mi  (in  Farriery).  A  di8eaf<« 
III  horses  and  cattle  when  the  akin  cleave* 
to  tlie  sides. 

lllllt;i)(iL'NI>  (in  Botany).  A  diwnji« 
III  trees  when  tile  bark  cleavea  tu  lite 
wood. 

UlKR ARCHY.  Church  government,  oi 
the  subordination  of  rank  among  tlie  dif- 
ferent orders  of  clergy. 

HIKROGLVPIIICS.  Certain  charac- 
ters, figures,  or  signs,  made  use  of  by  th« 
Kgyptians  instead  of  letters,  toexpre.ss  th* 
Conceptions  of  men,  pailicularly  the  mys- 
teries of  llieir  religion.  In  ageneral  sen.«e 
ail  hieroglyphic  is  any  .symbol  or  ligur* 
wli  <h  may  serve  to  represent  an  object; 
thus  lliea-strononiicalcliaraciersare  many 
<if  them  of  this  nature,  as  the  charactei 
tor  Mercury,  5  ,  which  is  the  ligure  of  hi? 
caduceus;  that  of  .Mars,  J  ,  which  in  sup- 
posed to  represent  his  shield  anil  spear; 
that  of  Saturn,  l^  <  which  represents- hit 
sickle,  Slc. 

HIGH.NESJS.  In  Europe,  a  title  of  hon- 
uui  given  tn  a  prince. 

Illiai-VVATER.  When  the  tide  is  at 
its  highest  point. 

H1<;HVVAY  (in  I^w).  a  pnblicor  free 
pa.ss.ige  for  tlie  people. 

HIGIIWAVMK.V.  Robbers  on  the  high- 
ways. 

H'GLKR  In  England  one  who  buys 
piiiiltry  III  the  country,  and  carries  them 
Dp  to  town. 

lll.Nll.     The  feiiLile  of  the  stag. 

IM.N'UE.  The  iron  work  on  which  a 
door  is  made  to  turn. 

HIP.  The  upper  part  of  the  thigh. 

HlPHUPOTAiMl'S,  or  Th«  Rtraa 
HuRiB.  An  amphibious  creature  found  in 
the  rivers  of  Africa. 


HIP-ROOP(ln  Architecture).  A  parti- 
cular kind  of  roof,  which  has  neither  gaMs 
heads,  shred  heads,  nor  jerkin  he.ads. 

IMPS  (in  Botany).  The  ripe  fruit  of 
the  doerrtse,  which  is  principally  mad* 
into  a  sweetmeat 


HOM 

riRSTORV.  In  ii!>  iiiosi  gMiicral  Minse, 
Ui  account  ur  >lescri|ili>iii  of  oveiiU  Had 
Uiiii|;s  ill  an  orderly  srrie!<,cuiii|>reliendiiig 
Civil  ur  i'(iliiic'4tl  liislory,  bacred  History, 
Eccl«sia.stuMil  H i:ilory .  and  Natural  Histo- 
ry; III  a  particular  8t;ii!«e,  a  narrative  of 
political  eventti  in  the  order  of  lime. 

lllsruRV  (ill  I'aintiiig).  A  picture 
coiupuc^d  of  divers*^  li<;iire8  or  periioiuj, 
repreNeiaiiig  Koine  traiisacliuii, 

lirrc'li  (among  .Muriiii-ni).  A  sort  of 
knot  or  uouse  lor  I'asteiiiug  a  rope  tu  any 
tiling. 

Ill  V'l;.  A  lia.~kei  or  box,  which  g-'ves 
an  a  rece|iU':;le  (or  Lees. 

H.  iM.  ;S.  Ill  Kn",land,  aa  athrcviation 
for  Her  .Majesty's  ti'^'p. 

HoBiiU.\'dCllUlCE.  A  by-word,  sig- 
utfyiiig  thai  ur  tniiie,  taken  from  one  Hol>- 
Soii,  a  livery-slalilt  keeper  at  Caniliriiige 
England,  who  obliged  hi8  custoinerti  eith- 
er to  take  the  horse  that  dtood  next  the 
■table  door,  or  to  go  without. 

tiuUMA.V.  A  bricklayer's  labourer. 

UUK.  A  husbaiiduian'8  tool  for  cutting 
up  weeds. 

HUEl.NG  (in  Husbandry).  The  process 
•'  citaiii't.  the  weeds  with  a  hoe,  and 
Breaking  .  c  the  earth  on  planted  groiuid. 

HCHi.  A  doir.e.stic  quadruped,  very  vo- 
raoioue  end  very  prolific. 

riOGSHEAD  (in  Coniinerr*).  A  mea- 
sure of  ca-jncily,  containing  txi  gallons. 

HUL.I).  The  whole  interior  cavity  or 
belly  of  the.  ship,  v^liere,  in  inerchaiiliiien, 
Uie  goods  Kte  ooiiihionly  slowed, 

HOI.LF.\ST.  An  iron  book  for  fixing 
any  thii^  xi  a  wall. 

HOI.'if.ACtivii.  One  of  Lirnaeus's  na- 
tural orders  if  plaiilK,  including  ohrubs 
and  (teo/niiials.  as  rhiibarli,  &v.. 

HULLuVV  (in  Archileclure).  A  con- 
cave moulding. 

HOLLY.  A  prickly  shrub  wliiclv  forms 
an  imper.fXjiJ'ie  hedge.  The  vanegaled 
boUiea  are  reiiiark:>.lile  for  then  iieauty  ; 
•onie  bear  yellow  herrieg,  and  others  white. 

HOL.M-OAK.  The  evergreen  oak.      ' 

HOLY  GHOST.  The  third  person  of 
the  Holy  Trinity. 

H0MA<;E.  In  England,  lli«  oath  of  sub- 
mission and  loyalty,  which  the  tenant, 
under  the  leudal  system,  used  to  take  to 
bis  lord  ivheii  first  admitted  to  Ins  land. 

Home,  a  sea  phrase  for  the  situation 
which  belon;!s  properly  to  the  tackling  or 
parts  of  the  ve.s8«l,  as  liie  anchor  oiiiies 
home  when  it  is  draun  oul  of  Uie  groiiud. 

HOMICIDE  (in  Law).  I'he  caiisiim  the 
death  of  a  hniiinii  creature,  which  is  jiisll- 
ftable,  if jusllIieU  by  unavoidable  neccinilyi 
17 


HON 


193 


excui>Rhle  if  it  happen.-i  by  misadventure  ; 
and  felonious  if  done  wtthoni  exciiae. 

HOiMILY.  A  plain  discourse  made  to 
Uie  people,  instructing  them  in  matiers  oi 
religion 

HO.MOGtlNEAL  (in  Physiology)  Of 
the  same  nature  and  properties  as  houtu- 
geneal  particles. 

HO.N'E.  A  niie  kind  of  whetstone  used 
for  selling  ra/.ors. 

HONK  V.  A  thick,  viscid  Hiiiil  substance. 
collected  by  tlie  l>ees  from  vegetables  aioi 
tloweni.  It  IS  disiiiigiiisiied  inin  ihiee 
kinds,  namely,  fiisi,  the  virgin  honey, 
which  is  the  first  produce  of  the  su  ari,-!, 
I  obtained  oy  draining  from  the  combs 
without  pressing;  the  second  sort  is  tliickei 
than  the  first,  and  is  procured  by  pressure  : 
the  third  is  the  worst  sort,  which  IS  extracted 
by  heating  tlie  combs  over  ttie  lire,  and 
then  pressing  them.  In  the  flowers  of  plants, 
near  the  basis  of  the  petals,  are  certain 
glands  ooniaiiiing  a  sweet  Juice,  which  the 
bees  suck  up  by  means  of  their  proboscM 
or  trunk,  and,  flying  with  it  to  their  hives, 
discharge  it  again  from  tlie  stomach  ilirougk 
the  mouth  into  some  of  the  cells  ol  the 
comb.  I'his  honey  Is  destined  for  the  foo>l 
of  the  young,  but,  in  hard  seasons,  the  bees 
are  sometimes  reduced  to  the  iiecessiiy  of 
feedingon  it  themselves,  and  die  of  hunger 
after  they  have  eaten  it  all  up.  In  Kraii'e, 
a  good  swarm  of  bees  will  yield,  in  two 
years,  nearly  thirty  pounds  of  lioiiey  ;  bm 
honey  is  most  abundant  in  the  islands  of 
the  Archlpelago,and other  coniilnes  whii  h 
abound  with  flowers  throiighoiil  Ihe  yea/ 
rroiii  honey  is  made  the  strung  liijuor 
called  mead. 

HONEY-HAG.  The  stomach  of  tht;  bee, 
i  which  IS  the  reservoir  of  the  honey. 

HONKY-CO.MB  (ui  Husbandry).  The 
I  rsj-osilory  wImcIi  the  bees  make  in  the  hive 
I  for  saving  their  honey  in. 

HONEY-CO.MH  (in  Gunnery).  A  flaw 
in  the  metal  of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  wlieo 
it  IS  badly  cast. 

HO.NKY-OEW.  A  sort  of  mildew  of* 
sweet  taste,  found  early  in  the  iiiurniug  on 
plant.-<,  flowers,  &c. 

HONEY-FLOWER  (In  Botany).  A 
plani  having  the  apfiearance  of  a  shrub, 
and  tiearing  spikes  of  chocolnte-coloiireu 
flowers  111  -May,  in  each  of  which  a  quan- 
tity of  black  sweet  liquor  is  found 

HONEY-SUCKLE  (in  Botany).  A  shrut 
with  a  climbing  stalk,  the  flowers  of  whick 
forir  A  tube  in  the  shape  of  a  huntsman's 
horn.  They  are  produced  In  clusters,  ami 
are  very  sweet. 

HONl   SOIT  QUI   MAL    Y    P£.\&fo 


194 


HOP 


In  England,  the  inotio  ot  the  order  of  the 
Uarier,  xigiiil'yiii)!,  Evil  be  tu  him  that 
evil  ihiiiks. 

Mi).\t)i;R.  [ii  England,  the  most  noble 
part  III  sejjiiuiries. 

HU.NMIJ R  (ill  Military  AfRiirs).  External 
iiiirk.s  (if  luiiDiiir  paid  t(i  superior  otticers. 

HOMJL'R  COURTS.  In  Kiigland, courts 
held  within  the  bounds  of  an  honour. 

HONOUR,  Maids  of  (in  Court  Eti- 
quflle).  In  England,  ladies  in  the  queen's 
hoiisoiidid,  who  attend  the  queen  when 
she  };iip3  out. 

HONOURS  OF  WAR.  Honoursble 
terms  granted  to  a  vampiislied  enemy, 
when  he  is  permitted  to  march  out  oi  a 
town  with  all  tiie  insignia  of  military 
etiquette. 

IIO<  )r).  An  upper  covering  for  the  head 
of  a  \v  iiiiiaii. 

Ilool)  (at  the  University).  In  Enulaml, 
an  ornamental  fold  that  liani;s  down  liie 
back  of  a  ^adiiate,  to  mark  hi.i  depree. 

HOOF.  The  horny  part  of  the  fiMit  of'a 
horse  or  other  cattle. 

llooK.  A  lieiided  iron  lo  '.lans  thins? 
iiiHiii  ;  also  a  bent  piece  of  iren  or  wire 
atia'  lied  lo  a  fisliinj!-rod  for  caf-hing  fish. 

IU)OP,  or  HOOPOE.  A  bird  iniiabit- 
iiig  Euru|)e,  Asia,  and  Africa,  W£.:ch  is 
■ulit»ry  and  migratoiy 


HOP.  A  plant  with  a  creeping  ivoc, 
the  st.<ilks  of  which  climb  and  twist  about 
wli:uever  is  near  them  ;  wherefore,  in  hop 
(;i..  ind*,  poles  are  fixed  near  to  the  plant 
fur  tliein  to  rise  upon.  Hups  are  said  to 
liiive  been  intnxtiu-ed  into  England  from 
It-f  Netherlar-ds  in  the  sixteenth  century  : 
Ilicy  art-  priiiripally  used  to  boil  up  with 
liet-r.  III  order  to  prevent  it  from  turning 
si'iir,  and  lo  give  it  a  strengthening  quality. 
Ili<|is  reijiiire  to  he  planted  in  o[)en  sitiia- 
lii'ii<,  and  in  a  rii:h  strong  ground.  The 
wo  liest  .sort.'"  are  the  white  and  the  gray 
;inil.  These  ghmilil  be  planted  in  hills 
»bc>iil  eiaht  or  nine  feet  nsiinder.  About 
ijMt  Wgintiing  of  July  hups  begin  to  Wi>w. 


HOR 

iu»d  are  .ead;-  to  gather  about  th»  latin 
end  of  Augu.st,  when,  by  their  strong  sct^iit, 
tlieir  hardness,  and  the  brown  coloiti  of  th« 
seed,  they  may  be  known  to  be  tit.  Th« 
be.st  method  of  drying  hops  is  on  a  kiln 
over  a  charcoal  lire  ;  wlien  the  stalks  are 
brittle,  and  the  top  leaves  easily  fall  off, 
they  are  properly  dried.  VVIwii  taken  from 
the  kiln,  they  should  be  laid  to  cool  for 
three  weeks  or  a  month  before  they  are 
•  teed. 

iOHfZO.\   (in    Astronomy).    A    great 

I  ci.vle  ol  ihe  sphere,  which  divides  it  into 

ip.er  anil  ;<wer  hemispheres.     I'he  appa- 

:  r<ii-  or  seiisiole  hori/.oii  is  that  circle  of 

I  ;h«-  h»'avt:is  wht;.a  hounds  the  view  of  the 

nnaerver,  in  disiii.ciVn  from  the  rational 

or  real  hori/on,  w;.ich  is  a  circle  enconi- 

piLssiiig  tlie  eaiih  t.xactly  in  the  middle. 

It   is   represented    in    the    globes    by   the 

wo<Hlen  frame  which  contains  the  globe. 

HORN  (in  Natural  History).  Tl>e  hard 
pointed  bodies  whicn  grow  on  the  heads 
of  some  gritnivorous  animnts,  and  serve 
eillier  for  defence  or  ornament  •,  also  the 
.^lender  iiodies  on  the  hentls  of  nisecls,  &6. 

IHjRX  (in  Chemistry).  Is  mo.stly  com- 
posed of  albumen,  gelatin,  and  phosphate 
of  lime,  hut  the  horns  of  the  buck  and 
.stag  are  of  an  intermediate  nature  between 
horn  and  bone. 

IIORM  (III  .^lusic).  A  wind  instrument, 
chiefly  ii><-il  in  hunting  am)  in  tlie  chase. 

HOR.MJE.A.M.  A  tree  that  has  leavea 
like  the  elm  or  beech  tree  ;  it  was  formerly 
u.sed  in  he  dgerows.  'J'lie  timber  is  very 
tough  and  ;nlleilhle. 

MORiNBLCNDK  (in  Mineralogy).  A 
7nrt  of  slaty  stone,  of  a  green  and  blackish 
g.-»-.en  colour.  It  is  a  very  abundant  inin- 
«ial. 

.'iL  RiV  B'  »OK.   The  first  book  for  ehil- 
.'.'«i,  contiiining  the  alphabet,  which  wa» 
i  t-.Tic'iy  covered  with  trans|>arent  horn. 
I      HtJkNE'J'.  A  lar<:e,  stroll",  and  stingini* 
1   'it*ct,  of  the  wasp  kind. 

HORN-ORE  (in  Mineralogy).  One  ol 
the  S|>ecies  of  silver  ore. 

HORNPIPE.  An  animated  sort  ot 
dance. 

H(jR.\-STONE.  A  species  of  niiil. 

HOR.WVORK  'in  Fortification).  An 
outwork  which  advances  toward.*  the  field. 

HOROLOGY.  The  science  which  treate 
on  the  meiisiiring  of  portions  of  time.  Tlie 
principal  instruments  used  in  the  mea.siir- 
ing  of  time  are  dials.  clepsyilr<e  or  water- 
clocks,  clocks,  watches,  and  in  some  casef 
also  hour-glasses. 

The  dial  was  doubtless  one  of  the  first 
instruments  rontri veil  for  the  measiiringof 
time  bv  means  of  the  sun.    The  first  jn 


HOR 

Upcorti  is  the  dial  of  Aha/  mentioned  in 
(aninh.  This  kiiij;  he;:»n  lu  n;i!!ii  4U0 
yvara  before  Alexander,  and  \iilliiii  IQ 
yearn  of  the  hiiildin"  of  Koine.  'I'lie  Jhal- 
dee  historian  Iterosiis  is  saiil  to  have  i;on- 
Etnicted  a  dial  on  a  recliiiiiii:  plane  ahimiit 
parallel  to  the  equator.  Aristarcniis  the 
Sainean,  Thales,  and  oMiers  are  also  incn- 
tioneil  as  the  makers  of  dials.  The  first 
sun-dial  at  Rome  wa.s  set  np  liy  fapiriiis 
Cursor  in  the  460th  year  of  the  hiiililing 
of  the  city.  The  subject  of  iliallihi;,  or  of 
niakiiii!  dials,  has  particularly  occupied 
the  attention  of  ntatheinaticians  within 
the  last  tlire*  centuries.  Clavius  is  the  first 
pr<ifessed  writer  on  the  subject.  Deschales 
and  U/.anani  in  their  Courses,  and  Wolfms 
in  his  Elements, havesiinplitied  thescience. 
M.  Picard  ;:ave  a  new  method  of  niakin;; 
large  dials  by  calculating  the  hour  lines, 
and  De  la  Hire,  in  his  Dialling,  gave  a 
geometrical  method  of  drawing  hour  lines 
from  certain  points  determined  by  obser- 
vation. 'J'he  method  of  drawing  primary 
dials  on  easy  principles  is  to  he  found  in 
the  Dialling  of  Everliard  VValper,  and  the 
Riidiinenta  .MalhematicaofScliastiaii  .Mon- 
ster. Among  the  more  modern  treatises  on 
this  subject  may  be  reckoned  that  id'  Wells 
in  Ills  Art  of  i;hadows,  KVrgu.son  In  his 
Lectures  cm  Mechanic*,  Kmersini  in  his 
Dialling,  Leadbetter  in  his  .Mechanic  Dlal- 
.ing,  Mr.  VV.  Jones  in  his  Instriimenlal 
Dialling,  and  Bisliop  Horsley  in  his  Mathe- 
matical Tracts. 

Scipio  Nasica  was  tlie  first  who  con- 
structed the  clepsydra,  although  it  is  8U|>- 
posed  to  iiave  been  invented  by  tlie  Egyp- 
tians under  the  Ptolemies  about  150  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  They  serve  ff)r 
measuring  time  in  the  winter,  as  the  sun- 
dials do  in  the  summer  ;  but  they  had  two 
great  defects  :  the  one,  that  the  water  ran 
out  with  greater  or  less  facility,  as  the  air 
was  more  or  less  dense ;  and  the  other, 
that  the  water  ran  more  readily  at  the 
beginning  than  towards  the  conclusion. 
The  Egyptians,  by  this  machine,  measured 
the  course  of  the  sun  ;  and  Tyclio  Brahe, 
in  modern  times,  made  use  of  it  to  mea- 
sure the  motion  of  the  stars,  &,c.  Dudley 
also  used  the  same  contrivance  in  making 
all  his  maritime  observatiims. 

The  invention  ol  clocks  has  been  ascribed 
to  differen*  authors  ;  namely,  to  Hoetius  in 
tlic  sixth  I  entiiry,  to  Paciticiis,  Archdeacon 
of  Verona,  and  to  Silvester  in  the  textli 
century. 

HORoMETRY  The  art  of  mejusuring 
boiirs 

IHHJOPTER  (in  f)ptlcs).  A  right  line 
Imwn  through  the  (nMiit  wliere  the  two 


HOR 


195 


optic  axes  meet,  |)arallel  to  that  whick 
joins  the  two  pu|ils. 

HOROSCOPE  (in  the  exploded  Science 
of  Astrology)  The  degree  or  point  ot  ilie 
horizon  rising  above  tiie  eastern  jtoint  uf 
the  horixun  at  any  given  time,  when  z 
prediction  was  to  be  made  of  a  future 
event ;  also  a  scheme  or  figure  of  the 
twelve  hou^<s. 

HORSE.  A  domestic  animal,  that  excels 
all  others  in  beauty  and  usefulness.  The 
most  esteemed  breeds  of  liorses  are,  the 
Burbary  or  Arabian  horses,  remarkable 
for  their  fleetness  ;  the  English  racehorse 
and  hunter,  which  combines  beauty  with 
s^viftness;  and  the  English  draught- horses 
which  are  distinguished  for  their  si/.e  and 
strength,  &c.  There  is  no  creature  so 
valuable  as  the  horse,  and  none  that  often- 
times fares  worse.  The  age  of  a  horse 
under  eight  years  old  is  mostly  to  lie  known 
by  his  teeth.  The  horse  has  twenty-foui 
grinders  ;  four  tushes,  or  single  teeth  ;  aiiii 
twelve  front  teeth,  or  gatherers.  Mares  in 
general  have  no  tushes.  The  black  mark 
or  cavities  denoting  the  age,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  corner  front  teeth,  adjoining 
the  tushes.  At  four  years  and  a  half  idd. 
the  mark  teeth  are  just  visible  above  the 
gum,  and  the  cavity  is  distinctly  to  be  seen. 
At  five,  the  remaining  colt's  teeth  are  shed, 
and  the  tushes  appear.  At  six.  the  tnshes 
are  up,  and  appear  white,  small,  and  sharp, 
with  a  small  circle  of  flesh  growing  near 
them;  the  horse's  month  is  then  ik)inpleted 
the  corner  teeth  being  filled  up  At  eigttf 
the  black  marks  disappear. 


HORSE  (in  Military  AITaira).  A  body 
of  horsemen. 

Hf)RSE  (amoim  Carpenters).  A  frame 
or  trestle  on  which  boards  or  planks  are 
laid  to  be  cut  and  otherwise  worke<l. 

HORSE  (ainmig  I'rinters).  A  stnee  on 
which  pre.ssinen  set  their  heaps  of  paper 
for  priiiliiig. 

HORSE.    A  sea  term  for  a  rope  made 


(94 


HOK 


f;isi  t<i  une  ol  llie  slirouiis,  having  a  dead 
ni:iil'!i  eye  al  tlir  end 

HOKj^E-liliA.N'.  A  sniaU  beaii  usually 
givra  tu  liurses. 

HORSE-BREAKEK.  One  who  hreaks 
in  yoiin-;  horses,  uiiil  tila  them  lor  mm. 

HORSE-CMESI'MJT.  A  tree,  which 
yields  u  prickly  mil. 

HORSEUEALER.  One  whohuys  horses 
to  sell  iJteni  again. 

nORt-E- DOCTOR.  One  who  iindtrtakes 
to  cure  liie  diseases  ol"  horses. 

HORSE-LEECH.  A  large  sort  of  leech 
that  fastens  on  liorsea. 

HORSEM.\N.  One  skilled  in  ridiiij!. 

HORSEMANSHIP.  The  an  of  riding 
and  managin;;  horses. 

HORSERACE.  A  match  of  iiomes  in 
running. 

HORSESHOE  (in  Sinithery)  A  circu- 
lar piece  of  iron  tilted  to  the  t'<H>t  of  a  horse. 
This  shoe  is  sometimes  turned  up  in  the 
winter  season,  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
slipping :  this  is  called  rough-shoeing.  As 
ail  improvement  upon  tins  sort  of  shoeing, 
the  clips  have  lieen  made  removeable  at 
DleaMire  by  means  of  a  (crew 


HORSESHOE  (in  Fortification).  A 
work,  sometimes  of  an  oval  figure,  raised 
in  marshy  grounds. 

HORSESHOEING.  The  fitting  and 
nailing  a  shoe  to  a  horse's  foot. 

HORTICULTURE.  The  art  of  culti- 
vating a  garden,  and  rearing  the  finest 
kinds  of  plants. 

HORTUS  SICCUS.  Literally,  a  dry- 
garden  ;  an  appellation  given  to  a  collection 
of  specimens  of  plants  carefully  dried  and 
preserved.  Various  methods  have  heen 
adopted  by  botanists  for  obtaining  a  hortiis 
siccus  ;  but  that  of  pressing  the  plants,  that 
are  to  be  dried,  in  a  box  of  sand  or  with 
a  hot  smoothing  iron,  has  been  recom- 
mended. If  pressure  be  employed,  that  is 
bustetTected  liy  means  of  a  botanical  press 
made  for  the  piirpuse,  in  which  the  plants 
«re  put,  with  sheets  of  dry  paper  between. 
At  first  they  ought  to  be  pressed  gently, 
and  occasionnt  ly  taken  out  in  order  to  see 
thai  none  of  the  leaves  are  rumpled  or 
folded.  A  i  they  continue  to  dry,  the  pres- 
wire  may  be  increased.  When  they  are 
•utiicieiiily  diteil,  ihty  may  be  taken  out 


liOU 

and  laid  on  dry  pajier.  Plants  that  are 
succiileiil  re(iiiire  a  Innserand  harder  pre* 
sure,  t'li'  tor  'he  most  part  three  days' 
pres.-5Ure  is  sutticienl. 

HOSANNA.  A  sulenin  acclain;itior.  used 
by  the  Jews  in  the  Eeast  of 'I'aliernacles. 

HOSE  (aiming  Marineisi.  A  leathern 
tube  for  roiiveyiiig  water  from  the  main 
decks  into  the  cisks. 

HOSIERY.  Stockings,  and  other  goods 
in  a  shop  that  are  *pun  or  wove. 

HOSPITAL.  A  house,  erected  out  of 
charity,  for  the  support  and  relief  of  the 
sick  and  poor 

HOSPITALLERS.  An  order  of  knights 
who  built  an  hospital  at  Jerusalem  for  the 
entertainment  of  pilgrims. 

HOST.  The  consecrated  wafers  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  communion 

HOSTAGE.  A  person  lell  as  a  surety  foi 
the  perfnrmanceorthe  articles  of  a  treaty 

HOTBEU.  A  lied  made  in  a  wooden 
frame  with  horse-dung,  and  covered  with 
glasses,  for  raising  early  plants. 

HOTCH-POT.  Pr(.(K'ly,  tiesh  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  stewed  with  herbs  and 
'ools;  in  Law,  In  England,  the  putting 
lands  together,  that  belong  to  coparceners, 
for  the  purpose  ofdislriliulingthem  eipially. 

HOTHOUSE.  A  building,  construrted 
in  a  garden,  for  the  rearing  of  exotics  and 
tender  plants  that  require  heat. 

HOUND.  A  kind  of  8|iorling  dog,  having 
pendulous  ears,  and  very  siruug  aceat. 


HOUND'S  TONGUE.  A  plant  culti- 
vated in  gardens,  bearing  a  pink  flower. 

HOUR.  The  twenty-fourth  part  of  a 
natural  day;  the  space  of  sixty  ininiites 

HOUR-GLASS.  A  ghiss  for  measuring 
the  hours  by  the  running  of  the  sand  fro.n 
one  part  of  the  vessel  to  another. 

HOUSE.  A  building,  constructed  with 
all  ccmveniences  for  hubiiation. 

HOUSE  (among  Genealogists).  A  noble 
family,  or  an  illustrious  race  descended 
from  the  same  stock. 

HOUSE  (in  Astrology).  The  twelftb 
part  of  the  heavens. 

UOUSEIIULU    The  whole  of  a  rAiuily 


HUR 

HOUR  CIRCLE.  In  cosmography,  a 
term  applied  to  any  great  circle  that 
passes  through  the  twu  poles;  the  hour 
of  the  day  being  known  when  that  circle 
is  ascertained  upon  which  the  sun  is  for 
the  time  being.  Hour-circles  are  drawn 
on  the  globe  at  l.^''  distant  from  each 
other  on  the  equator. 


HOWITZER.  A  kinrtot  mortar,  mount- 
ed upon  a  carriage  like  a  -run. 

nOV.  A  small  vessel  for  carrying  pas- 
sengers from  one  place  to  another. 

HUE  AND  CRY  (in  Law).  The  com- 
mon law  process  of  pursuing  n  felon. 

HUUUE.NOrS.  The  Protestants  of 
France,  so  called  hy  way  of  ctmieinpt  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

HULK.  Any  old  vessel  that  is  laid  by, 
unfit  for  furtlier  service 

HULKS.  Old  vessels,  stationed  in  the 
river  Thames,  in  P^nglund,  wherein  con- 
victs are  kept  to  hard  labour. 

HULL.  The  main  body  of  a  ship. 

HU.M.MINC  BIRD.  The  smallest  of  all 
birds,  which  extiacts  the  nectar  from  the 
flowers  with  a  humming  noise  like  'hat  of 


H  YD 


197 


rfUMOURS  OF  THE  EYE.  Are  three; 
namely,  llie  aqueous  or  watery  humour, 
which  lies  in  the  fore  part  of  the  glohe  ; 
the  crj'stalline,  or  icy,  next  to  the  .mpieous  ; 
anil  the  vitreous  or  glassy  humnur,  wliirli 
is  larger  than  the^  rest,  atid  tills  the  back- 
ward cavity  of  the  eye 

IIUNKKKD.  A  number  consisting  of 
ten  nuiltiplied  by  ten. 

HUNDRED  (in  Law).  A  part  of  a  shire 
or  county,  which  formerly  ciuisisted  often 
tithini!s.  or  ten  times  ten  households. 

HUREALITE,  A  crystidlized  mineral, 
with  a  vitreous  lustre,  whose  constitu- 
ents are  phosphoric  acid,  piotoxidc  of 
iron.protoxide  of  manganese,  and  water 

HURONITE.  The  name  ol  a  yellowish- 
green  mineral  which  occurs  in  boulder 
stones  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake 
Huron;  its  constituents  are  silica,  al- 
umina, protoxide  of  iron,  lime,  mag 
nesia,  and  water:   sp.  gr.  2'86:  H  =  225. 

HURRICANE.  A  storm  of  wind,  fre- 
quent in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  whicli 
•rises  frcun  the  conflict  uf  opposite  winds. 


HUSBA.NDRY  The  practical  part  of 
agriculture 

HUSH-.MONEY  on  Law)  A  bribe 
given  to  a  persun  not  to  reveal  »oniellimg 
to  which  he  is  privy. 

HUSSARS.  Hungarian  lidrsnuen,  saia 
to  be  so  c-tlled  from  the  liu/./.u  ur  sIhmii 
which  they  gave  at  tlie  onset  in  batli-s 

IIV.\Cli\TH  (in  Botany).  A  bulbous 
plant,  the  leaves  of  which  are  long  and  nar- 
row, the  stalk  upriglit  and  naked,  and  the 
Mower  growing  on  the  upper  pait  of  a  spike. 
IIY.\C1NT11  (in  Minerali.gy).  A  sort 
of  pellucid  gem  of  a  red  colour  with  a 
mixture  of  yellow. 

Hy.\DES.  A  cluster  of  live  stars  In  the 
face  of  the  constellation  Taurus. 

HY^^NA.  A  ferocious  beast,  nearly  al- 
lied tolhe  wolf  and  dog.  It  infests  burying 
grounds,  and  seizes  whatever  comes  in  its 
way. 

HYBRID.  An  epithet  for  any  animal 
whose  sire  is  of  one  kind,  and  dam  nf 
another  kind. 

HYDATID.  An  animal  substance,  in 
shape  like  a  bladder,  and  disien<le<l  with 
an  aqueous  fluid,  w  lilch  grows  in  the  vis- 
cera of  the  hiiiiiaii  body. 

HYDRA.  A  fabulous  monster  withinany 
heads,  that  is  said  tu  have  infested  the  lake 
Leonu^a. 

HYDRA  (in  Astronomy).  A  southern 
constellation. 

HYDRA.V'UEA.  A  greenhouse  plant, 
bearing  a  flower  with  a  lariir  lieail. 

HYDRATE  (In  Modern  Cbumislry). 
The  combination  of  water  with  orliel 
bodies  In  a  solid  state,  as  slarked  lime 
which,  being  a  combination  of  lime  and 
water,  is  a  hydrate  of  lime. 

HYDRAULK.UN,  or  W.tkr-Oko*.^  (in 
.Music)  All  instrument  acted  upon  by  wa. 
ler. 

HYIiRAI'MCS.  That  part  of  statics 
whicli  treats  of  the  motions  of  tluida,  par- 
ticularly of  water  issuing  from  orifices  in 
reservoirs,  or  moving  pipes,  tubes,  canals, 
rivers,  &.C.  .Aiiiong  the  inacliines  which 
serve  for  the  display  of  the  phenomena  of 
hyilraulics,  are  the  syphon,  the  piiinp,  ai.4 
the  tire-engine.  Among  the  nioilerns,  tiie 
terms  |I\  ilraulics  and  llydrodyiiainics  dre 
employed  indifl'erenlly  to  denote  this  sci- 
ence      See  II YURoDYriAMict. 

HYDRonYNAAIICS.  Is  properly  that 
science  which  treats  of  the  power  or  force 
of  waier,  whether  it  acts  by  impulse  or 
pressure  ,  but  in  an  extended  sense,  it  iM 
that  branch  of  mechajiics  which  trbata  of 
the  motion  of  liquids  or  nonelastic  fluids, 
and  the  forces  with  which  lliey  act  ua 
other  bodies 


»8 


HYD 


IIVDRODYNAMICS,  History  of.  A1- 
thiiugli  the  ddctriiie  of  lluids  and  their 
motion  la  but  parti:illy  treated  by  the  an- 
cients, yet,  as  respects  the  action  of  water 
in  rivers,  fonntaiiis,  and  a(|ne<lucts,  it  is 
Mrtain  that  tlicy  must  have  had  a  consi- 
deralde  portion  of  practical  knowledge. 
Aristotle  treats  on  the  natnre  of  subterra- 
neous waters,  as  also  of  those  which  are 
ahove.  Hero  of  Alexandria  made  an  arti- 
flciai  fountain,  which  hears  his  name.  The 
Uonians  displayed  theii  acquaintance  with 
the  art  of  carrying  waters,  in  their  famous 
aqueducts)  and  Krontinus,  an  engineer, 
who  wrote  on  this  subject,  has  given  some 
fewrulesand  hints  on  the  motion  of  lluids. 
It  is,  however,  only  within  the  three  last 
centuries,  tli.it  tliis  subject  has  attracted 
any  particular  notice.  Benedict  Uastelli 
Wits  the  first  who,  in  his  treatise  Dell' 
Aiiiesiiradell'  Ac<iueCurren I i, investigated 
the  ine:isure  of  the  dux  of  waters,  which 
t.v-  found  to  depend  upon  tlie  area  of  the 
section  and  the  velocity  of  the  water  con- 
jointly, i^ince  his  time,  many  discoveries 
and  theorems  have  lieeii  made  on  tlie  uiu- 
tioiis  of  fluids  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in  his 
Principiaj  Daniel  Rernonilli,  in  his  ily- 
drodynamlque;  D'.VIembert,  in  his 'l'rait6 
des  F'luides;  .\1.  Rossiit,  in  his  Mydrody- 
namiqne;  .M.  I!uai,  in  his  I'rincipes  d'ily- 
draulique;  and  .M.  Eytelwein,  in  his  lland- 
bucli  der  Mechanik  iind  der  ilydranlik. 

IIYI)ll()(;i-:.\  (;AS.  a  ctmstituent  of 
water  and  the  li<>hlesl  species  of  ponder- 
able mutter  liillierto  known,  which  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  Cavendish  in  ITGii.  It 
is  an  intlainmahle  air,  or  an  invisihleaeri- 
forni  fliiid,  whicli  burns  rapidly  when  kin 
died,  in  contact  with  atmospheric  air,  and 
forms  what  are  now  termed  gas-lights. 
When  combined  with  oxygen,  it  produce* 
water.  It  is  iinht  for  respiration,  so  that 
animals,  when  obliged  to  breathe  it,  die 
almost  immediately. 

HYDRO«llAPIIY.  A  description  of 
rivers,  bays,  lakes,  and  other  pieces  of 
water. 

HYDROLOGY.  That  part  of  natural 
history  which  treats  of  and  explains  the 
nature  ami  properties  of  waters  in  general. 

HYDRO.METKR.  An  instrument  for 
measurine  the  density  and  gravity,  &,c.  of 
water  and  other  liipiids.  That  which  is 
designed  simply  for;i.scertaining  thespecif- 
c  gravity  of  different  waters  is  more  com- 
monly called  an  aerometer  or  waterpoise, 
the  term  hydrometer  being  more  commonly 
used  todenotean  instrument  for  measuring 
the  specific  gravity  of  spirits,  thoiigli  some- 
times used  indifferently  for  eillier.  Dr. 
Wesagnliers  contrived  an  hydrometer  for 


HYD 

determining  the  specific  gravities  of  differ 
eiii  waters  to  such  a  nicety,  that  it  would 
show  when  one  kind  of  water  was  but  the 
40,(ll)lltli  part   heavier  tlian  another. 

IIVDRUxMliTRY.  The  meii.suralion  of 
fluids,  as  to  their  density,  gravity,  &»< 

IIVDROl'lloRlA,  i.  e.  A  Dread  of 
Water.  A  distemper  arising  from  the  Dite 
ofa  mad  dog,  which  isalwaysaccompaiiied 
witli  a  liornir  of  water  and  otiier  liquids 

H  YUKOSCORE.  An  instrument  an- 
ciently used  for  the  measuring  of  time 

HYDROSTATICAL  BALANCE.  A 
kind  of  balance  contrived  for  the  find  ig 
the  specific  gravities  of  bodies  soUl  ta 
well  as  fluid. 


HYnROSTATICAl.  BELLOWS.  A 
machine  for  showing  the  upward  pressure 
of  fluids,  and  the  hydrostatical   paradox 


HYDRO.«TATlCAL  PARADOX  A 
principle  in  hydrostatics,  so  called  because 
it  has  a  paradoxical  ap[.earanie  at  first 
view;  it  is  this,  that  any  quantity  of  water 
or  other  fluid,  how  small  soever,  may  be 
made  to  balance  and  support  any  quantity 
or  any  weight,  however  great  it  may  be. 

HYDROSTATICS.  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  laws  regulating  llie  motions, 
pre.ssiire.  gravitation,  and  equilibrium  of 
fluid  bodies,  particularly   water,  and  also 


•fsolid  bo;f":e8  inimrrged  therein.  This 
•ciciicv  U  divided  into  three  bniiicheii, 
(liinifly,  hydriK«t;itics,  pmperly  so  lutled, 
which  treats  ot°  t]uid.s  ill  an  e<)iiilihiiiiiii, 
their  density,  gravity,  Slc;  liydruulics, 
which  treats  of  tluids  In  a  slate  orinnlion; 
and  piieiiin.'ilics,  which  treats  of  elastic 
Hinds  These  two  last  liranches  will  lie 
fdiiinl  explained  in  their  respective  places. 
'J'he  hrst  branch  of  hydrostatics  eiieaged 
Ciic  atteiitiim  of  Archimedes,  who  appears 
to  nave  hrst  attempted  to  determine  the 
•pecilic  gravity  of  bodies,  in  consequence 
of  the  following  circiiiiistance.  Iliero, 
king  III  Syracuse,  haviiis  reason  to  suspect 
tliat  a  goldsmith,  whom  lie  employed  to 
make  him  a  crown  ol  gold,  liad  adulterated 
it  with  a  quanlily  of  silver,  he  reijuesled 
Archimedes  to  detect  the  cheat.  Accord- 
ingly this  philosopher  procured  two  masses 
of  gold  and  silver  of  equal  weight  witli 
the  crown,  uhlch  lie  iiniiiersed  in  a  vessel 
full  of  water,  at  the  same  time  carefully 
noticing  the  quantity  of  water  which  each 
displaced;  after  which  he  immersed  the 
crown  of  gold  also  in  (he  same  vessel,  and 
by  cumparing  the  quantity  of  water  which 
flowed  over  each  time,  he  was  enabled  to 
ascertain  the  proportions  of  gold  and  silver 
ill  the  crown,  lie  is  said  to  have  been 
leil  to  (his  idea  by  observing  on  one  occa- 
sion, whilst  he  w:is  bathing,  that  as  he 
iiiiiiierged  his  body,  the  water  ran  over 
till-  bath,  whence  he  concluded  that  the 
water  which  ran  out  when  his  whole  body 
was  iminerged  was  equal  ill  bulk  to  liis 
body;  and  on  the  same  principle  lie  oin- 
sidt-red  that  if  (he  crown  were  altogether 
of  gold,  the  ball  of  gold,  being  of  the 
same  bulk  as  the  crown,  would,  when 
immersed,  niise  the  water  just  as  high  as 
the  crown  immersed,  but  if  it  were  wholly 
of  Sliver,  the  ball  of  silver  being  immersed 
Would  raise  the  water  no  higlier  than  the 
crown  immersed;  and  if  the  crown  was  of 
gold  and  silver  mixed  in  a  certain  propor- 
tion, this  proportion  would  l>e  discovered 


ICH 


199 


by  the  height  to  which  the  crown  would 
raise  tlie  water  higher  ihaii  tlie  gold  and 
lower  than  the 'silver.  'J'he  authors  who 
have  treated  further  on  thissubject  tnay  b« 
found  under  tile  article  llyuKoDTMAMii-t. 

HVOKoMK'i  ER.  An  insirument  for 
measuring  the  itegree  of  moisture  and  dry 
ne.ss  of  the  atmosphere 

HY.ME.N'.     'J  he  gild  of  marriage. 

HYMENOn  ERA.  Anonler  of  insectt 
in  the  i.innu;an  system,  having  membra 
naceous  wings,  as  the  »all-i:y,  the  saw-tly, 
the  bee,  the  wasp,  the  ichneuiiioii,  jcc 

HYl'ERBULA.  One  of  (he  curves 
formed  by  cutting  a  cone  obliquely  to  its 
axis;  and  if  the  plane  be  produced  sou 
to  cut  the  opposite  cone,  another  hyiier 
bola  will  be  formed,  which  is  called  ttM 
opposite  hyperbola  to  tlie  former 


HYPERBOLE.  An  exaggerated  repre- 
sienladon  of  any  thing. 

HYI'(K:llO.\DRIAt;.  One  troubled 
with  (lie  spleen  or  melancholy. 

II Y  !•<  )TH  E.NX'SE.  'ihe  loiigest  side  of 
a  right  angled  triangle. 

HYPuTHliS;t:.  A  principle  taken  for 
granted,  in  order  to  draw  conclusions 
therefrom  for  tlie  proof  of  a  point  in 
question 

HYSSOP.  A  plant  with  long  narrow 
leaves,  bearing  a  Gre.>t  of  rtnwers.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  this  be  the  liyssop  men- 
tioned in  Scripture. 

HYSTERICS.  Spasmodic,  convulsive 
affections  of  the  nerveji,  to  which  women 
are  particularly  subject 


,  the  ninth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  nsed  as 
A  numeral  signifies  one,  and  stands  for 
iiiy  numbers  of  units  as  often  as  it  is  re- 
peated, as  II,  two.  III,  tliiee,  &.C.  When 
placed  befnre  a  higher  numeral,  it  dimi- 
nishes it  by  one,  as  IV,  four,  IX,  nine; 
»nd  when  after,  it  increa-'Jes  it  by  one,  as 
XI.  eleven,  XII,  twelve,  XIII,  thirteen, 
tc. 
tA.\rBl«?  VERSE.    Verws  composed  of 


iambic  feet,  that  M,  a  short  and  a  long  foot 
alternately. 

IBIS.  A  bird  like  a  slork,  which  was 
worship|ied  in  Egypt. 

ICKHOI'SE.  A  hoii<e  in  whirli  ice  la 
deposited  against  the  warm  iiiKiiths. 

ICH  UIE.N,  i.  e  I  serve.  Ilie  motto  on 
the  arms  of  the  I'mue  i.f  \\  airs  in  Eug- 
land,  hrsl  taken  by  Edwaid  lae  Blac> 
Prince. 


200 


ICH 


IB.  IBID,  or  IBIDKM.     The  same 
lUEX.      An    European   variety  uf  die 
goat  with  very  lung  burna 


ICHNEUMON.  An  Egyptian  animal 
•f  the  weasel  k  ind  that  feeds  upon  the  eggs 
•f  the  crocodile. 


ICHNEUMON  (in  Entomology).  A 
■ort  of  fly,  which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
bodies  of  other  insects. 

ICHN0(;RAPHY  (in  Architecture). 
The  ground  plan  of  a  liiiilding. 

ICHNOGIIAPHY  (in  Fortification).  A 
draught  of  the  Ii-ngtU  and  lireadth  of  the 
works  raised  ahout  a  place. 

ICHTHVOLOGY.  That  hranch  of  gene- 
ral zoology  which  treats  of  fishes.  These 
animals  are  divided  into  five  orders,  name- 
ly, into  apodal,  or  those  which  have  no 
ventral  fins;  jugular,  which  have  the  ven- 
tral fins  placed  more  forward  than  the 
pectoral;  alidominal,  or  those  which  have 
the  v;ntra!  fins  situated  behind;  thoracic, 
or  those  which  have  their  ventral  fins  situ- 
ated immediately  under  'lie  pectoral;  and 
tne  cartilaginous  fishes,  whicli  have  a  car- 
tilaginous instead  tif  a  bony  skelelmi. 

ICHTHYC)I,(MJV,  IIisVoBv  of.  The 
subject  of  fishes  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  naturalists  from  the  time  of  Aristotle  to 
the  present  period  Aristotle,  probably  the 
first  writer  on  the  subject,  divided  fishes 
Into  cetaceous,  spinose,  and  cartilaainoua; 
ae  was,  after  a  lone  interval,  followed  by 
•everal  others,  who  treated  of  the  fishes  of 
MrlicitUii  places,  as  Uvid,  who  truals  of 


I  IIS 

the  fishes  of  the  Euxine,  Appian  of  thofw 
of  the  .\driaiic,  and  Ausoiiius  of  those  of 
the  Moselle,  &,c. ;  among  the  moderns  there 
are  also  some  who  liave  treated  this  subject 
partially,  its  I'aul  Joviiis,  who  described 
the  fishes  of  the  Mediterranean,  Schwenk- 
fell  those  of  5-ilesia,  Schonefelt  those  of 
Hamburgh,  Marcgrave  the  fishes  of  Hra/.il, 
Russell  and  Trancis  Valentine  those  of 
Amboyna.  I'liiiy  was  a  general  writer 
on  the  subject,  and  pursueil  no  method; 
>!-;iian  and  Alheiueiis  have  only  scattered 
notices  of  some  few  fishes.  Among  liia 
moderns,  Belloiiius,  Koiideletius,  Gesner, 
W'illughby,  Kay,  Artedi,  and  Liniia'us 
have  done  most  towards  reducing  tins 
science  to  a  systematic  order. 

lUOSAMullA  (in  Botany).  The  twelfth 
class  in  the  Linmean  system,  including 
plants  with  twenty  stamens  or  more  to 
their  flowers,  as  the  melon,  Indian  fig, 
pomegranate,  |ilum,  &,c. 


IC.  In  chemistry, a  termination  affixed 
to  those  acids  which  contain  in  combin- 
ation the  highest  known  quantity  of 
♦he  acidifying  prini'iple. 

ICE.  Water  or  other  liquid  solidified 
by  cold;  water  becoming  solid  at  32'^ 
Fahrenheit.  Icebergs  are  vast  bodies  of 
ice,  among  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  are  those  of  Spitzbergeu.  Some 
of  these  icebergs  are  the  creation  of 
ages,  and  receive  annually  additional 
bulk  by  the  falling  of  snow  and  oi  rain, 
which  often  iustajiUy  freezGS,  and  more 
than  repairs  the  loss  occasioned  by  the 
influence  of  the  sun.  Icefloe  is  an  ag- 
gregated mass  of  floating  ice,  frequent 
in  the  northern  seas,  and  very  dang&r- 
ous  to  navigation. 

ICELAND  SPAR.  In  mineralogy,  a 
pure  variety  of  calcareous  spar  or  car- 
bonate of  lime,  remarkable  lor  its  clear- 
ness, and  thobeaufiiul  double  refrac- 
tion which  it  exhibits. 

ICE  SPAK.  A  miueial  of  a  whitish- 
grey  color,  consisting  ol  silica,  alumina, 
potash,  lime,  peroxide  ot  iron,  and 
water:  sp.  gr.  i'.il;  H  =3. 

ICHNEUMONES.  A  tribe  of  paraniti- 
cal  hymenopterous  insects. 

ICHNITE8.  In  geology,  fossil  foot- 
prints of  animals,  lehnoliteis  a  stone 
retaining  the  impression  of  fossil  foot- 
marks. 

1.  11.  S.  An  abbreviation  for  Jesus  Ilo 
niiniim  Salvalor,  i.  e.  Jesus  the  Saviour  of 
Mankind. 


ICH 


IMP 


201 


ICHNOGEAPHT.  In  perspective,  the 
view  of  unytliiug  cut  off  by  a  plane  par- 
allel to  the  horizon.  In  architecture,  a 
transverse  or  horizontal  section  of  a 
building,  exhibiting  the  plot  of  the 
whole  edifice,  and  01  the  several  apart- 
ments in  any  story.  Among  painters 
the  word  is  used  to  describe  images  or 
ancient  statues  of  marbles  and  copper, 
of  busts  and  semibusts,  of  paintings  in 
fresco,  or  mosaic  works. 

ICHNOLOGY.  The  science  of  fossil 
footprints. 

ICHOR.  A  thin  and  sanious  fluid, 
which  escapes  from  wounds  or  sores, 
«nd  irritates  or  inflames  the  parts  over 
which  it  flows. 

ICHXHVOCOIXA.  ITie  scientific  name 
of  isinglas.s,  a  very  j)ure  form  of  gela- 
tine, prepared  from  certain  parts  of  the 
entrails  of  several  fish.  Good  isinglass 
is  free  from  smell  or  taste,  and  perfectly 
Boluble  in  boiling  water. 

10HTHYOL.ITE.  A  stone  containing 
the  petrifaction  of  a  fish  or  any  of  its 
l)art8. 

ICHTHTOLOGT.  The  science  or 
knowledge  of  fishes;  that  department  of 
natural  history  which  treats  of  the 
structure,  habits,  and  classification  ot 
fishes.     Ichthyotomy,  the  anatomy  of 

ICHTHYOPHTHALMITE.  A  mineral 
of  pearly  lustre;  the  fish-eye  stone. 

ICHTHYOSIS.  In  pathology,  a  rough- 
ness and  thickening  of  the  skin,  por- 
tions of  which  become  scaly,  an  occa- 
sionally corneous,  ^yith  a  tendency  to 
excrescences. 

ID^,  or  IDES.  A  Greek  termination, 
employed  in  natural  history  to  denote  a 
certain  order  or  class  of  animals  to 
which  the  termination  idse  or  ides  is  af- 
fixed. 

IDE.  In  chemistry,  a  termination  for 
certain  compounds  which  are  not  acid; 
as  oxides,  chlorides,  &c. 

IDEALISM.  In  metaphysical  science, 
the  theory  or  system  which  makes 
everything  consist  in  ideas,  and  denies 
the  existence  of  material  bodies.  Ideo- 
logy is  a  treatise  on  ideas,  or  the  science 
of  mind. 

IDIOIiECTRIC.  Having  the  property 
of  manifesting  electricity  on  friction. 

IDIOPATHY.  In  pathology,  a  primary 
disease,  not  consequent  on  other  mor- 
bid aflfeotions. 

IDIOSYNCRASY.  In  physiology,  a  pe- 
culiarity of  temperament  or  constitu- 
tion, which  predisiwses  persons  to  the 
attacks  of  certain  disorders  from  which 
others  are  exempt. 

IDEOLOGY.  A  treatise  on  ideas,  or  the 
doctrine  of  ideas;  the  science  of  mind. 

IDES.  In  the  ancient  Roman  Calendar, 
the  15th  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and 
October,  and  the  13th  day  of  the  other 
months. 

mOCRASE.  A  mineral  of  various 
fliiades  of  brown  and  green,  with  a  vit- 


reouB  lustre,  consisting  of  silica,  alu- 
minia,  protoxide  of  iron,  lime,  and  mag- 
nesia:  sp.  gr.  3-34;  H  =  6. 

IDRIALINE.  A  mineral  substanoe, 
composed  of  18  parts  of  carbon  and  1  of 
hydrogen. 

ION  IS  FATUUS.  A  luminous  meteor 
seen  in  summer  nights  in  marshy 
places;  Jack -a-lantern;  Will- with- the- 
wisp. 

IGUANIDiE.  A  family  of  Saurian  rep- 
tiles, of  which  Iguana  is  the  type  and 
genus. 

IGUANODON.  In  geology,  an  extinct 
Saurian  reptile  of  enormous  size.  The 
remains  ot  one  discovered  in  Tilgate 
I'orest  measured  70  feet  Irom  the  snout 
to  the  tip  of  the  tail;  the  head  was  4f^ 
feet  in  length;  the  tail,  13  feet;  height 
of  the  body,  9  feet;  its  circumlerence, 
U^i  feet;  length  of  the  thigh  and  leg,  8 
feet  two  inches.  (Dr.  Mantel).  The 
Wealden  formation,  which  contains  the 
remains  of  these  more  than  gigantic  ten- 
ants of  a  former  world",  is  overlaid  by  the 
chalk  rocks  of  England,  and  is  a  fresh- 
water deposit. 

ILLUMIXATI.  A  sect  of  heretics,  who 
sprung  up  in  Spain  about  the  year  1575; 
the  name  gis-eu  to  certain  associations 
in  modern  Europe,  who  were  said  to 
have  combined  to  overthrow  the  exist- 
ing religious  institutions. 

ILMENITE.  In  mineralogy,  a  variety 
of  iron  ore,  of  a  dark  brown  color,  con- 
sisting of  titanic  acid,  peroxide  of  iron, 
protoxide  of  iron,  protoxide  of  mangan- 
ese, and  magnesia:  sp.  gr.  4flli;  H=5-75. 

IMMERSION.  In  astronomy,  the  dis- 
appearance of  any  cellestial  object  be- 
hind another,  or  its  shadow.  Thus,  in 
the  eclipse  of  one  of  Jupiter's  sateUites, 
the  immersion  take  place  when  the  sa- 
tellite disappears  behind  the  body  of  the 
planet,  or  enters  into  the  planet's  shad- 
ow; and  in  an  occultation  of  a  planet  or 
fixed  star  by  the  moon,  the  immersion 
is  the  disappearance  of  the  star  or  planet 
behind  the  body  of  the  moon,  and  its 
reappearance  is  called  its  emersion. 

INALINE.  A  vegetable  product,  re- 
sembliug  starch,  obtained  from  the 
roots  of  Inulahelleniumby  boiUng  them 
in  water. 

INCIDENCE.  In  dynamics  and  optics, 
the  angle  of  incidence  is  the  angle  made 
by  a  ray  of  light  falling  on  an  object 
with  a  lino  drawn  perpendicularly  to 
the  surface  struck 

IMPACT.  In  mechanical  science,  the 
action  of  one  body  upon  another,  to  put 
the  latter,  if  at  rest,  in  motion,  or  if  in 
motion,  to  increase,  retard,  or  alter  its 
direction.  The  point  against  which  the 
impelling  body  acts  is  called  the  point 
of  impact. 

IMPA8TATI0N.  In  sculpture,  the  mix- 
ture of  diff'erent  mattei^  bound  together 
by  means  of  cements,  capable  of  resist- 
ing the  action  of  fire  or  air. 


M2 


INC 


INCOGNITO,  or  INCO«  (in  Europe). 
Litenlly,  iilikiiinvn,  not  tu  be  recognised; 
a  niiide  (if  travelling  witlioul  niiy  mark  uf 
distinctiun,  wlilcli  is  soniellnies  adopted 
by  princes  and  great  people  who  do  not 
wish  tu  be  reoigliised. 

lA'CLlNEI)  I'LANE  (in  Meclianics). 
A  plane  inclined  to  ttie  borizon,  or  making 
•n  angle  with  it,  wliich  is  one  uf  the  iiie- 
ciiauical  puweis. 


mrOMBI'STIBI^.  A  body  that  U 
incapable  of  undergoing  conibiislion. 

INCOMIM  SI  IBLK  CLU'III.  A  sort  of 
cloth  made  from  a  slune  in  the  form  of  a 
talc;  wliich  stone  is  called  lupis  iimianlhus, 
and  asbestos. 

INCO.MMKNSURABLE  (in  Geometry). 
A  term  a|  plied  to  two  lines  or  quantities 
which  have  no  coninioii  measure  by  wliicta 
they  can  be  divided. 

INCORPORATION  (in  Law).  The 
formation  of  a  body  politic. 

INCOKl'ORATION  (in  Chemistry). 
The  mingling  the  particles  of  different 
bodies  together  into  one  mass,  in  such 
manner  that  the  diflerent  ingredients  can- 
not be  distinguished. 

INCREMENT  (in  Fluxion^).  The  small 
increase  of  a  variable  body.  Dr.  Brook 
Taylor,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the 
doctrineof  increments  or  finite  differences, 
denoted  his  increments  by  a  dot  under  the 
variable  <|uaiitity,  thus  the  increment  of  j: 
was  denoted  by  z:  others  have  employed  a 
■mall  accent,  thus  r',  or  thus  i.  M.  Nicole 
uses  another  letter  to  denote  the  increment 
of  I,  or  any  variable,  as  by  n;  but  Euler 
employs  the  character  A,  thus  Az  the  in- 
crement of  r,and  Ay  the  increment  of  y. 
Dr.  Erook  Taylor  first  published  his  Sle- 
thodiis  Increinentonim  in  171.'),  which  was 
afterwards  illustrated  by  M.  Nicole  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Uoyal  Academy  of  Sciences 
for  the  years  1717,  172:'.,  and  1724.  In 
17£!,  Kmerson  published  his  method  of 
Increments;  but  the  writer  who  contri- 
buted most  to  the  elucidation  of  this  sub- 
ject was  Ruler,  who,  in  his  Institutiimes 
Calculi  Differentialis,  pave  a  new  and  ex- 
tended form  to  this  Iranch  of  analysis. 
Various  other  writers  have  since  treated 
•n  this  subject,  ainont  whom  Lacroix,  in 
ais  Traites  des  Differences,  kc.  istliought 
«  have  bei  n  the  most  happy. 

INIX'BATION.  The  priKiesg  of  a  bird 
■lUing  ;3  af^ii  and  hatching  its  young; 


IND 

the  time  required  for  this  varies  in  dilTei 
em  birds,  domestic  I'ou  is  sit  three  week* 
ducks,  geese, and  liirkeysaniuiilh,  pigeoiui 
eighteen  days,  6:.c. 

INCUBUS,  or  NiiiHT  .Marc.  A  disease 
which  consists  in  uii  obstructed  respira- 
tion, that  irrodiices  the  scnsaiioii  in  sleep, 
of  a  weight  pressing  on  thr  brensi. 

I. NCI 'M KENT.  One  in  present  posse*- 
sion  of  a  benefice 

INDECLINABLE.  Not  varied  by  ter- 
minations, as  an  indeclinable  noun. 

INDEFINITE  I'KONOLNS.  Words 
that  are  louse  and  undetermined  in  their 
meaning,  as  whatsoever,  any,  every,  &.C 
INDEMNITY  (in  Law).  The  saving 
harmless;  or  a  writing  to  secure  one  from 
all  damage  and  danger  that  may  ensue 
from  any  act. 

ETDEHISCENT.  In  botany,  applied  to 
fruits  which  do  not  split  open,  as  the 
apple. 

INDENTED.  In  fortifleation.  Inlented 
line  is  a  serrated  line  formiu  ;  several 
angles,  so  that  one  side  defend ■«  another. 
INDENTURE.  A  writing  containing  a 
contract,  originally  so  calle.l  from  the 
two  copies  being  indented  to  show  their 
counecting .  corresp judeuce  with  each 
other. 

INDETERMrNATE.  In  algebra,  inde- 
terminate analysis  is  a  brancli  which 
has  for  its  object  the  investigation  of 
problems  that  admit  of  an  iufi'.iito  num- 
ber of  different  solutions.  In  letermi- 
nate  coefficient  is  a  method  of  analysis 
of  very  extensive  apiJlication  iu  the 
higher  mathematics. 

INDEX  pi.  INDEXES,  an  1  in  matl^- 
matics,  INDICES,  iu  musx,  a  chiract^r 
or  director  at  the  en  1  of  a  stave  fj  direct 
to  the  first  note  of  the  nest  st-ive.  In 
arithmetic  an;l  algebra  it  is  used  as  au 
exponent.  In  optics,  it  expresses  the 
constant  ratio  which  exists  between  the 
sines  of  the  angles  of  incidence  and  ra- 
I'racti  in.  Index  of  a  globe  is  a  little  style 
fitted  on  t'l  the  mrth  pole,  and  turning 
round  with  it,  piinting  to  certain  flivi- 
Bions  in  the  hour  circle. 

INDIANITE.  A  greyish  shining  min- 
eral found  in  the  Indian  Carnatic,  in 
masses  of  a  foliated  structure. 

INDIAN  RUBBER  CAOUTCHOUC.  An 
elastic  gum  which  exudes  from  a  tree  in 
South  America. 

INDICATOR.  Applied  to  the  muscle 
which  extends  the  forefinger- 

INDICOLITE.  An  indigo-colored  min- 
eral, a  variety  of  tourmaline  or  schorl, 
found  in  Sweden. 

INDIGOTIG.  In  chemistry,  noting  an 
acid  obtained  from  indigo  when  it  is 
gradually  added  to  boiling  nitric  acid, 
previously  diluted  with  1'2  or  1.5  parts 
of  watea.  It  forms  flue  colorless  or  yol- 
lowish-white  needles. 
INDITED.    In  law,  that  is  accused, 


INI- 

of  (H>ine  offence  by  bill  preferred  to  jurors. 

I.NKICTIW.N,  or  Ctclb  of  Isdutiom 
(in  Clironology).  A  mode  of  cuiiipuuiig 
tttiieby  llies|Kice  of  fiflerii  years,  inslitiiled 
by  C'oiislaiitiiie  tlie(>real.  'I'lie  poiiex,  since 
tlie  time  of  Cliarlein:i|!ne,  have  dated  Ihrlr 
acts  by  the  year  of  the  iiidii  tiuu,  wliicli 
was  fixed  (HI  the  first  of  .laiiiiary.  At  the 
time  of  the  reformation  of  the  calendar  ihe 
year  ir>8'-2  w;is  reckoned  the  tenth  jrar  of 
tne  indirtion.  Now  tins  date  when  divided 
by  fifteen  eaves  a  remainder  seven,  tlial  is 
three  less  than  the  iiidictlon,  and  the  same 
must  necessarily  be  the  case  in  all  subse- 
quent cases,  so  tliat  in  order  to  find  the 
Indiction  for  any  year  divide  the  date  by 
fifteen  and  add  three  to  Ihe  remainder. 

I.M):CT.MK.N'T.  A  bill  or  accusation 
drawn  up  in  form  of  law,  and  exiiihiting 
some  offence,  which  is  preferred  to  a 
grand  jury  preparatory  to  the  trial  in 
open  court. 

INDIGENOUS.  Native,  as  applied  to 
animals  and  plants. 

INDIGO.  A  beautiful  blue  colour  or 
dye  procured  from  a  plant  called  by  the 
Americans,  anil;  in  the  Linniean  sysiein, 
Indigofeni.  The  indigo  used  by  the  diers 
is  a  fa-cula  procured  from  the  leaves  of 
the  plant,  which  are  laid  in  vaLs  full  of 
water,  and  left  to  ferment.  'Ihe  liquor  is 
tlien  drawn  off  into  another  vat,  and  after 
having  been  well  stirred  up,  it  is  drawn 
off.  and  what  remains  at  the  bottom  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air  until  it  is  thorouglily  dry, 
when  it  is  fit  for  use.  The  principal  con- 
stituent parts  of  indigo  are  mucilaginous, 
resinous,  and  earthy  matter,  with  some 
oxide  of  iron. 

lND<tU.<I.NG.     :«ee  F,?<i)ORsi?(o. 

IM)i;cTKJ.N  Tin  Kiialandi.  I'lilting  a 
clerk  in  p«KJsesslon  of  his  living. 

IMHILTION  (in  I^.pic).  A  mode  of 
arsuiiieiitation  or  reiusoning,  when  the 
S|iecies  is  gathered  out  of  Ihe  iiidi\  idiials, 
and  the  genus  out  of  the  s|>ecles.  &c.:  a.«, 
if  it  be  true  that  all  planets  borrow  their 
light  from  the  sun,  then,  by  indiirlion,  it 
is  true  that  Jupiter,  .Mars,  and  eacli  indi- 
vidual planet  does  Ihe  same. 

I  N  D  U  l.G  E  N  C  I:  S  ( i  n  the  Romish 
Church).  I'ardons  for  sin,  granted  by  the 
pope  to  such  as  profess  to  be  iienitKiits. 

INKRTIA,  or  Vm  Hertuj  (in  I'hysi- 
ology).  A  passive  principle,  supposed  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  to  reside  in  bodies,  by 
which  they  persist  in  their  motion  or  rest, 
and  receive  motion  accordinc  to  Ihe  force 
impressed  upon  them,  and  resist  as  much 
M  they  are  resisted 

I.N'FANT  (in  Law).  Any  penon  under 
Um  age  of  twenty -i(ue. 


ING 


201 


INFANTA.  The  title  given  to  the  eldest 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Sp:iin  or  I'ortigal 

liNFA.NTK.  The  title  given  toihe eldest 
son  of  the  king  of  Spain  and  Portugal 

INFAN  TKV.  The  body  of  foot  soldiers 

INFKCTIO.N.  The  coinniuii  coition  o' 
a  disease  by  certain  effluvia  which  tiy  off 
from  disteniprred  bodies,  or  from  good< 
that  are  infected. 

INFIMTESI.MALS.  Indefinitely  small 
parts. 

INFINITIVE  .MOOD.  The  mood  of  a 
verb,  8<i  named  becau.se  it  is  not  limited 
by  niiinber  or  person. 

I.NFiKMAKY.  A  place  where  the  sirk 
poor  are  received,  or  can  get  advice  and 
medicines  gratis. 

INFLKCTION  (in  Opticsi.  A  multiplex 
refraction  of  the  rays  of  light,  caused  by 
the  unequal  thirkness  of  any  medium. 

INFLECTION  (in  Grammar).  The 
change  which  a  word  undergoes  in  it* 
ending,  to  express  case,  number,  gender, 
mtNid,  tense,  &.c. 

INFl.ECTIO.V,  Point  or  (in  Geome- 
try). A  point  where  a  curve  begins  to 
bend  a  contrary  way. 

INFUtKESCKNCE.  The  manner  in 
which  plants  Hower,  or  in  whiih  flowers 
are  fastened  to  the  stem  by  means  of  the 
peduncle. 

l.VFLUENZA.  A  sort  of  catarrh  or 
disease  from  cold,  so  called,  because  it  was 
sup|H>sed  to  be  produced  by  the  peculiar 
influence  of  the  stars. 

IN  FORMA  PAUPERIS.    See  Form*. 

INFORMATION  (in  Law).  An  accu- 
sation or  complaint  exhibited  ugaiiist  a 
pers<m,  for  some  criminal  offt-nce.  An 
information  diflers  Iroiii  an  inilictnient, 
in.-isiniirh  as  the  latter  is  exhibited  on  Ihe 
oath  of  twelve  men,  but  the  information 
is  only  the  allegation  of  the  oflicer  or  in 
dividual  who  exhUiits  it. 

INI'dRMEK  (in  l,aw.)  One  who  give* 
information.  |>articularly  private  iutorma- 
tlon,  to  a  iiiaizi.stRite. 

I.NFUSIULE.  Not  to  be  fused,  or  made 
fluid. 

INFUSION.  A  method  of  obtaining  the 
virtues  of  plants,  riMiis,  ice.  by  steeping 
tbein  in  a  hot  or  cold  liquid. 

INFUSORIA.  One  of  the  I.«nn*aD 
orders  of  animals,  of  the  chiss  vermes,  in- 
cluding such  as  are  simple,  mi"  roscoplt 
animalrulx  found  in  stagnant  water. 

INGOT.     A  wedge  or  bar  of  gold. 

INtJREDIENT.  Any  simple  that  enten 
into  the  composition  of  a  compound  medi- 
cine. 

INGRESS  (in  Astronomy \  The  sun't 
entering  into  the  first  scruple  of  .^ries,  ^lA. 


204 


I  NO 


INS 


IMIKUI  r.V.VCE  (III  ImW). 
tu  a  iiiuii  ;iiitJ  lilii  iieirx. 

I.VJi:<,  IIU.V  OH  Aiialoiiiy). 
tlir    v«!M<eU    iif  . 
coliiuiril  iiiiiltrr  t' 


INQUIRY.  The  act  of  inquiring,  warch 
for  truth,  infonnatioii,  or  knowledge; 
exaiiiiuation  into  lactH  or  ])riucipli;8,  iii- 
'J"lie  filling  turrogatiou,  Hcrntiny,  investigation. 
In  law,  a  Writ  ol  Inquiry  in  a  writ  di- 
rected to  the  slicriff,  commanding  him 
,.,,.,..,.,,   V  -1.     ■  t;'«ii"""onu  jury,  and  to  inquire  into 

l.\Jl,«  llo.N  ,11,  .-.irttrry).    I  lie  l..rcing  |the  amount  ol  damages  due  from  the 


tteuii  itiilijuct  Willi  any 
Ikivv  iliKir  riiiiitlicuiiiiiiii. 


Riiy  li'^ulil    intu  the  ImhI,«    liy  mean*  uf  a 
clyxtef. 

■  .Xri'lAI.**.  I.4*(teni  (iluct^d  at  the  lie- 
(iiiiiiiigs  of  wiirdi)  or  mmiu-uckh. 

I.\JC\(  l',o.\.  A  kind  of  prohibition 
griiiled  py  courlA  of  eiiulty,  (iriiicqiully 
•,*ilh  a  view  of  preiierving  property  peiid- 
liiK  a  iiuit. 

I.VK.  A  black  liquor  for  writing:  ft  is 
•oiiiriitiir*  rrd,  whrii  it  ii«  called  red  ink. 
Ill;i<:k  inn  I*  ••('  tlurr  kiiiiU:  iianii-ly,  In- 
dian ink,  made  in  l.'hiiia  of  laio|i-lila(.-k 
and  *ii*;  priiiler'n  ink,  ronipoM-d  of  nil 
and  hiMipbluck  tor  the  lihick  ink.  or  of 
vernuliiin  for  the  red  ink,  vvriliiiK  ink, 
colli))'-!'-!  of  an  iiifiiHioii  nf  niili-allri,  aul- 
fdiaie  of  iron  or  cop|>«r  diMnlvt-d  in  water, 
logwood, and  gum  arable.  The  red  ink  In 
compiMied  o(  llra/.il  wikmI,  cum,  and  alum. 
I.NK.tJTMi-ATHCTic.  i^etsSr ur AiHKiic 
Ink. 

IM.AM).  That  placr  which  I*  lituated 
in  (he  Interior  of  a  c<iuairy,  far  Ooui  the 
■facoHMt. 

I.NLA.M)  BILLS  (In  Commerce).  liilU 
payable  In  tho  country  where  lliey  un- 
drawn. 

INI-ANI)  TKADK.  Tmd«  carried  on 
within  the  coiiiilry,  home  trade,  ai«  oppo- 
•i-d  to  forirign  Coinnierce. 

I.N  LA  VIN(;  (aiii.ng  .Mechanic*).  Work- 
ing In  wood  or  mvtal  with  (everal  pit^cen 
of  dltrrentcoloiiiKjCuriouHly  |iiit  topellier. 
I.\     I.LMI.NK.     In    the    outMl^    before 
any  thing  U  iinid  or  doti«. 

INN.  A  houM  of  entertainment  for 
trnvellers.  ■ 

I.N'.Xfe  OF  COailT'ln  Lonrton).  Hniisex 
or  rfillegwi  for  the  «iitertainment  of  «tii- 
deiu-  in  the  law;  the  principal  of  iheiie 
Dorieiii-ii  at  prnxeiit  are  l.lncoln'i  Inn,  Ihe 
Inner  Teiiiplc,  and  the  .Middle  Temple. 

IN.\i;E.\l)0(ln  Uwj.  Ahlnl,adouht- 
fiil  or  oliHcnre  expreit«ion. 

I.VOCt'LATION  (in  Surgery).  The 
o)ieniiion  of  giving  the  imallpox  to  pcr- 
•oiM  by  Inrlvion.  When  a  pemm  in  Iikk-u- 
Inted  with  the  cow-pox,  it  In  called  vacci- 
nation. 

I.Nn(;l.'LATI<)N(ln(;nrdenine).AI<lnd 
of  griding  In  the  binli  an  when  llie  bud  of 
Ule  fVull  tree  In  »et  in  Ihe  Him-k  or  branch 
•r  another,  wt  an  to  make  Keveral  »orlx  of 
ftnit  grow  1^  the  laine  tree 


'Jelendant  to  the  ijlaintilT  in  a  f,ivon 
action.  In  military  jnatterw,  a  Board  of 
Inquiry,  in  a  term  used  in  coutradiB- 
tlnction  to  a  court-martial.  It  conBimta 
ofacertaiu  ni'.mlier  of  ollicera,  who  aa- 
Hunihle  to  make  inquiry  on  certain  mat- 
tcrM,  but  not  on  oath,  an  a  i;ourt-martial. 
INO.SCULA'JION.  In  anatomy,  union 
by  junction  of  the  extreniitie«,  aa  in 
arterieH  or  veins. 

IN.SALIVATION.  In  phyBlology,  the 
admixture  of  saliva  with  the  aliment 
during  the  act  oiniaflticalion. 

IN3CO.\CIilJ.  In  military  science,  a 
term  used  when  any  part  of  an  army 
h:iH  lortillcd  itK.lf"with  a  sconce,  or 
«:nall  work,  in  onh^r  to  defend  a  paas. 
IN.SJiCT.  A  small  winged  or  creeping 
auimal;  anything  small  or  contempt- 
ible. Iuz.))logy,  oueot  the  third  claaa 
or  articulated  animals,  withabody  com- 
pwe.l  of  three  distinct  parts— the  Lead, 
th«  th'^nix,  an  1  the  abdomen;  they  have 
six  le;;sand  u.siially  two  or  four  winga 
attached  to  the  thorax,  two  antenniB 
and  a  distinct  head,  and  respire  by 
means  of  spiracles  or  minute  punctures 
along  the  sides  of  the  abdomen.  Insects 
undergo  what  Is  termed  mctamorijho- 
sis;  the  flrst  of  which  is  that  of  the 
larva;  the  se<'ond,  pupa,  or  chrysalta; 
and  the  third,  the  imago,  or  perfect 
iuse<;t.  The  uptera,  or  wingless  insects, 
however,  issue  lioin  the  ovum  with  the 
form  they  always  possess. 

IN.SKCTIVOUA.  A  family  of  vertebrate 
quadriipeiis  living  on  insects,  including 
the  shrew,  hedgehog,  and  mole;  an  or- 
der of  birds  that  feed  on  insects. 

INSI'^y'T.  A  numerous  clasa  of  Invef" 
tnbrate  animals,  whose  bodies  are  com- 
posed of  three  distinct  parts  joined  to- 
gether, with  three  pairs  offcet,  and  gen- 
erally wings. 

INSKKTION.  In  pafliology,  the  same 
SR  inoculation.  In  unatomy  and  botany, 
thi!  intimate  atta<;hment  of  one  part  or 
organ  to  another,  as  tlie  insertion  of  a 
ligi'.mont,  muscle,  or  its  tendon  into  a 
bone;  or,  in  botany,  that  of  a  corolla, 
stamen,  pistil,  leaf,  or  ovary  into  any 
determinate  point  of  a  plant. 

INSRSHOUICH.  In  ornithology,  an  or- 
d«r  of  birdi<  which  iienh  on  trees. 

INSI.ST.  Ill  geometry,  an  angle  is  said 
to  insist  upon  the  arc  of  the  <;ircle  in- 
terci'pted  between  the  two  lines  wbh.'h 
coutain  the  angle. 

IN  HITU.  In  mineralogy,  a  term  fre- 
quently apiilied  to  mi:ierals  when  found 
in  their  original  bed  or  stratum. 

INSPIBATION.      lu    anatomy,     the 


I  .\  s 

act  of  breathing  nr  ukiiig  in  the  ni  ,  by 
itM*  altKriiah;  cuntriicuniiaiid  tlilalatiuii  <>r 
the  riircl. 

I  .%>!'.  I{  ATIO.N  tin  'riiei.logy).  The  <  on- 
vi-yinp  certain  exinioniiiiiir)  nutlet;!"  or  luo- 
imntf  iuto  tie  uiiiul;  ur,  in  ct^iieritl,  any  ku- 
prrnillllflil  jnttue-iicc  on  tlir  lininiili  uiliid. 

i.S:^i'.\l.l..\  I'.x.N  ,111  l-hj-lanJ;.  'I'lic 
ccrfHi.'iiy  III'  iii!>i:illiiii>,  or  imtiini;  intonny 
ollii-i-  or  (Jitfnily,  u»  jiliuinu  ii  dt-iin  or  prr- 
beniiury  in  liui  »tull  ur  st;at,  ur  u  liiiiglit 
into  liis  ordt-r 

l.\.<I'ALMi:.\T.  'llie  iKiymeiil  of  a 
crrttiin  |H>rtion  of  a  gn>«$  8uni,  wbiih  is  lu 
bt-  |i:tid  at  dilfert'iit  tunes, or,  udUiv  pbruise 
bi,  by  instulinents. 

I.NSTAM  Ii  (in  Civil  Law).  The  pn*- 
•ecution  of  a  xuit. 

KN'S'l'A.NT.  'J'he  smallest  perceptible 
purtidii  of  tune;  that  wherein  we  iieiceive 
iiu  «ucceiu>ioii. 

l.NtSTA.NI  KR.      Iiistnnlly. 

IN  y'I'Ai'U  Ul'O  \in  Diplomacy).  A 
term  signifying  that  coiiilitnni  in  which 
tilings  weie  lelt  at  a  certain  pertwl,  us 
when  belligerent  partieit  agree  that  their 
mutual  rvlatioiiii  .-Imuld  be  in  Ktatu  <{no,  or 
as  they  were  before  the  coiiiiiienc«iiient 
of  a  war,  and  the  like. 

INSTI.NCT,  The  sngacity  or  natural 
aptitude  of  bruted,  which  supplies  the 
place  of  reason. 

INSTITUTE.  AnywKiTty  instituted  or 
e-stablished  according  to  certain  laws,  or 
regulation  for  the  lurtb^mnce  of  sumo 
paiticular  object,  such  an  college!),  or  aca- 
demies, us  they  are  sometimes  called,  Llte- 
niry  institutes,  .Mechanics'  Institutes, and 
itie  like. 

INSTITl-'TKS.  A  bor^  bo  entitled,  con- 
taining the  elements  of  the  Koiiian  or  Civil 
l,aw  'I'lie  Institutes  ar*;  divided  into  four 
bonks,  nnd  contain  an  aNridgement  of  the 
whole  body  of  the  Civil  Law. 

IXSTEIXrON.  TUo  ivgiou  of  stars,  or 
that  spaoo  boyoud  the  solar  Hysti'iu. 

INSTKP.  The  lore  part  of  the  upper 
sido  of  the  foot,  near  its  Juuctioii  witli 
the  leg.  TUo  instep  ot  a  horse  is  tliat 
part  of  the  hind  leg  whicU  roaches  from 
the  ham  to  the  pastcrii-joiut. 

INSl'EXU'S.  Tho  first  word  of  an- 
cient chartiTH,  t'oufiniiiit(;  a  lormor 
royal  ^raiit  or  ehirtur. 

INSTRl'.ME.NT.  A  rioi  to  do  any 
thing  with. 

INSTIU  MENT  (li»  l,aw).  A  deed  or 
writini;  drawn  up  between  two  parties, 
Riiil  roiitHlning  several  covenants  agreed 
kelween  tlietii. 

INSIItCMEN'T  (in  Music).  Any  frame, 
structure,  or  contrivance,  by  which  har- 
"Wiiilous  sounds  inav  b*  produced. 

to 


INT 


205 


INSTRl'MENTAl,  (in  Min<ir^.  An  cpi 
thet  (or  the  music  of  iiie^lrMinriils,  as  dl»- 
tliiguislied  from  the  vocal  uiusic,  ur  timt 
of  the  human  voice. 

INSULATE.  I'roperly, standing  alone; 
r_s,  in  Arcliitecliire,  an  iiifulale  culuiun, 
thai  which  siaiiils  almie 

INSILATl^U  (in  i  liomistry).  A  term 
till  liiidies  thai  are  supported  by  electric* 
or  nunconductors,  .-iii  that  their  conimuni- 
cation  with  the  earth,  by  coiiducling  sub 
siunces,  is  Interriipled 

INSURANCE,  or  AS.><rRANCE  (in 
Law).  .\  contract  or  agreeiiienl  by  which 
one  or  more  persons,  called  insurers  or 
assurers,  engage,  for  a  certain  premium 
paid,  to  make  gi«Hl  the  loss  «f  any  house, 
■hip,  or  goods,  liy  fire,  shipwreck,  urother- 

Wl:ie. 

INSURA.N'CE  CO.MPA.MES.  Poin- 
paiiies  of  (tervuns  who  form  a  fund  or 
capital,  which  they  dispo.<e  of,  in  insuring 
the  pro|ien^'  of  others  against  casualties 
by  fire,  &c. 

LNSUKAXCE  OEKICE.  The  place 
where  insurance  C4iiup.iiiie.<  conduct  llieir 
business,  of  which  theie  are  many  in  Lon- 
don and  in  all  the  capitals  of  Europe,  and 
America. 

INTAGLIOS.  Precious  stones,  having 
t!i4  beads  of  great  men  or  iiiKcriptionK, 
&.C.  engraven  on  them,  such  as  are  to  bt* 
seen  on  ancient  rings,  seals,  Acc. 

LNTEUEK  vin  ArithineliC).  A  whole 
nunilier,  a!<  disltnsulshed  from  a  frariion; 
as  uiie  pound,  one  yard,  Alc. 

INTEGKAL  rAR'l"S.  Parts  which 
make  up  a  whole. 

l.NTE(;t'MEN'l"8  (tn  Anatomy).  The 
coverings  of  any  part  of  the  Itody,  as  i%r- 
cuticle,  cutis,  SiC.  1'he  cumnion  Integii 
meiits  are  the  skin,  with  the  lUl  and  cellii 
tar  membrane  adhering  to  it,  also  particu 
lar  nieinbraiies,  which  in vc.-t  certain  parts 
of  the  tHMly,aie  called  Integuments,  as  the 
tunics  or  coats  of  the  e\e. 

LN  TENDANT.  A  milit.iry  officer.  wh«' 
has  the  iiis(iectiiui  and*  maiiagenieol  of 
certnin  atllilrv. 

INTENSITY.  The  Slate  ofbeingoff^ctwl 
to  a  higli  degree,  the  power  or  energy  of 
any  i|uality  ntised  to  its  highest  pitch 

INTERCALATION  (in  Cliro;i«logy) 
An  inserting  or  putting  In  a  day  in  th« 
liumth  of  February  every  I'ourtli  year 

I.\TI:RL)ICT'.  A  papal  ceiisuie  prolii 
biting  divine  offices  to  lie  performed  witliui 
any  parish  or  town,  ice;  which  was  pul 
in  force  In  England  in  the  reign  of  King 
John,  and  in  liermany  several  times  a< 
ttitrrreiil  |ieriiHU. 

IN'l'EKEsj'I'    111     CouimriM).     Money 


a>c 


INT 


p;ii(l  for  the  use  or  I<an  f-f  money.  The 
sriin  lent  Is  c:lll^(l  ilm  |iriiict|ial ;  the  sum 
pii:il  hy  ihe  iMirrower,  the  iiilert^.st ;  ami 
wften  the  two  are  incorporated,  tile  mleresl 
|>H!d  U|Miii  that  is  called  cunipound  iiitere:il, 
or  interest  ii|Kin  interest. 

INTKUKS'I'  (in  Aritliinetic).  A  rule  by 
which  the  interest  of  money  is  computed, 
which  ;s  either  simple  or  ronipoiiiid. 

IiNTKIUKCTION.  An  imlecliiiahle  part 
if  speech,  serving  to  express  the  emutiuns 
of  the  mind, 

INTEHX^OCUTORY  ORDER  (in  Law). 
•An  order  wliich  does  not  decide  the  cause 
itAelf,unly  some  intervening  matter  relating 
to  it. 

INTERLOPERS  (in  Law).  Those  who, 
without  leeal  authority,  intercept  or  hinder 
the  trade  iifa  company,  lawfully  established 
to  trade  in  a  particular  way  or  part. 

IN'I'ERLIJDE.  An  entertainment  be- 
tween the  acts  of  a  play,  for  the  pur|H»se 
of  allowing  the  performers  time  to  re$t,&c. 

INTERP(JLATL\G  (among  Critics).  In- 
serting a  spurious  passage,  into  tlie  writings 
of  some  ancient  author. 

LN'TERREGNL'.VL  In  Europe,  the  va- 
cancy of  a  throne,  by  the  death  or  deposition 
of  a  king. 

LVTERRE.V.  He  who  governs  whUe 
there  is  no  king. 

LNTERRUUATION.  A  question  put. 

LNTERROGA'IMO.N,  or  Notb  or  Ix- 
TERHunATioM  (III  Gnuiiinar).  A  mark  tlius 
(!)  put  at  the  end  of  a  ijuestion. 

INTERROGATIVES.  Words  used  in 
atsking  a  question,  as   why,    wherefore, 

&.C. 

INTERROGATIVE  SYSTEM.  A  mode 
of  teaching  by  means  of  question  and  an- 
swer. 

LXTERROGATORIES  (in  I^w).  Ques- 
tions in  writing  demanded  of  witnesses  in 
a  cause,  particularly  in  the  Court  of  Chan- 
etry. 

IN  TERROR  EM.  By  way  of  frighten- 
ing or  deterring. 

LN'JERfJECTIOiV  (in  Mathematics), 
riiecuttingofone  line  or  plane  by  another. 

LNTEUVAL  (in  .Music).  The  ditference 
between  two  sounds,  as  xespecls  acute  and 
grave. 

INTEST.'^TE.  One  dying  without  a  will. 

INTESTINA  (in  Zoology).  An  order 
in  the  Linnxaii  syst«<n,of  iJie  class  venues, 
indnding  earthworms  and  leec'ies. 

INTESTINE  MOTION  fin  Pnysiology). 
That  motion  which  takes  place  in  the  cor- 
puscles or  smallest  particles  of  a  body. 

rNTKS'I'lNES.  The  convoluted  mem- 
kraneoiis  tube  in  the  body  uf  auimals.  In 
the  human  Kubjecl,  tlie  iivestinea  ore  divi- 


I  O  i\ 

ded  into  large  and  small,  each  of  which 
consists  of  three  <listin(t  (lortions. 

INTOLERANCE.  The  not  tolerating 
or  allowing  of  every  man's  private  jiidg 
ment,  in  matters  of  dociniie  or  discipline. 
INTON.\TION  (in  Music).  Tlie  act  of 
sounding  the  notes  in  the  scale  with  the 
voice,  or  any  other  given  order  of  miisica) 
tones. 

INTRA.N'SITIVE  VERBS.  Verbs  thai 
express  actions,  that  do  nut  pass  over  to 
an  object,  as  go,  come,  &c. 

L\  'I'RA.VSITU.  During  the  passage 
from  one  place  to  another. 

INTRUSION  (in  Law).  A  violent  or 
unlawful  seizing  upon  lands  or  tenements 
I.VTUITION.  The  mental  view  of  a 
inatter,or  the  instantaneous  act  of  the  mind, 
in  perceiving  the  agreement  or  disagree- 
ment of  ideas. 

L\  V.\CUO,  i.  e.  In  empty  space,  or 
in  spare  comparatively  empty. 

IN  VALID  (in-Military  or  Naval  AfTairs). 
A  soldier  or  sailor,  wounded  or  disabled 
in  war,  and  unfit  for  service. 

INVENTIO.N.  Any  new  mechanica. 
contrivance  for  assisting  human  labour. 

INVENTORY.  A  catalogue  or  list  of 
goods. 

L\ VERSION  (in  Geometry).  The chang 
ing  antecedents  into  consei|uents  in  the 
terms  of  prop<irtion,  and  the  contrary. 

INUNDAT.*  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linna-an  natural  orders,  consisting  of  aqua- 
tic plants. 

I.\  VOCATION  (among  Poeta).  An  ad- 
dress to  their  favourite  poet. 

I.\  VOICE.  A  bill  or  account  of  goods 
sent  by  a  merchant  to  his  correspondent 
in  a  foreign  country. 

INVOLUNTARY  HO.MICIIIE  'in 
Law).  The  killing  a  man  by  accident, 
which  differs  from  excusable  homiiide  by 
misadventure  in  this,  that  the  hitler  hap- 
pens in  the  performance  of  a  lawful  act, 
but  the  former  may  ha  an  indiflerent  or 
a  |K>sitively  unlawful  art,  which  is  murder 
or  maiislaiighter  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  case. 

LNV(M.UTION.  The  raising  any  quan- 
tity to  a  given  power  by  multiplying  it 
into  iiself  the  required  number  of  limes; 
thu»,  the  cube  of  :i  is  got  by  multiplying  3, 
the  root,  into  itself  twice,  as  3X3X''=27. 
lODI.N'E.  A  deadly  poison,  of  a  black 
colour  and  metallic  lustre,  procured  from 
kelp,  which  resembles  chlorine  initsodoiir  ■ 
and  power  of  destroying  vegetable  colours 
Iodine  is  incombustible,  but  with  azote  it 
forms  a  curious  detonating  powder. 

lO.MC  ORDER  (in  Architecture).  An 
order  so  called  from  Ionia  in  Lisser  Asix 


IRO 

The  body  of  (he  pillar  is  usually  channelled 
or  fiirrciwert  with  twenty-four  gutters,  and 
it:^  leu'.'ili,  with  (he  capital  and  hase,  is 
twenty-nine  modules,  the  chapiter  being 
ciiietiy  composed  of  volutes  or  scrolls. 


ISS 


207 


juuu/jjjatxT 


•\^W.',\  ^.•^•.  KT^J^  ■,  A    ^  > 


^i 2 


IPECACUANHA.  A  m«dl;inil  root, 
which  conies  from  South  America,  and  was 
introduced  into  Europe  in  I  lie  seventeenth 
eontury,  when  it  was  much  esteemed  for 
the  cure  of  dysenteries,  but  afterwards  fell 
into  distioe. 

IPSE  DIXIT.  Literally,  he  himself 
said  It ;  a  term  sivnifyini;  an  opiniim  that 
rests  on  ihe  word  or  authority  of  an  indi- 
vidual only. 

IPSfl  FACTO.  The  very  fact. 

IRIDIUM.  A  metallic  substance  procured 
from  platina. 

IRIS  (in  Anatomy).  A  striped,  varie- 
fated  rirrle,  next  to  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 

IRIS  tin  Botany).  The  flower  de  luce 
K  flag  flower,  &.C.;  a  plant  with  a  bulbous 
foot,  which  bears  a  beautiful  blue  flower. 
There  are  in;iny  species  of  it,  as  the  coin- 
nen  yellow  nr  water  iris,  the  fla;;  Iris,  the 
■Iwarf  iris,  tec. 

IRIS  (aiming  Opticians).  The  change- 
ihle  colours  which  ap|iear  in  the  gla:ises 
of  telescopes,  &.c. 

IRON.  One  of  the  most  useful  and 
abundant  metals,  which  was  one  of  tbn 
first  metals  thai  was  Known  and  worked. 
Tills  iiietal  IS  easily  oxidi/.e.d,  but  Is  infii- 
»ible  e-ccept  by  an  intense  heat  ;  It  is,  how- 
ever, mallealite  at  a  less  degree  tt  heat, 


and  several  pieces  may  be  united  into  one 
muM),  by  a  process  called  welding.  Iron  is 
rhe  only  metal  that  is  susceptible  of  mai;- 
nelic  attrarticm.  Pure  iron  is  very  rardly 
to  be  found  ;  the  principal  varieties  of  irua 
are  the  cast  or  pig  iron,  or  that  which  is  im- 
mediately extraited  from  the  ore  ;  wrought 
iron,  that  which  has  gone  through  the  pro- 
cess of  melting  in  a  furnace  ;  and  steel, 
that  which  has  been  heated  in  charctval, 
and  hardened  by  its  combination  with 
carbon, 

IKON.  The  name  of  several  tools  made 
of  iron,  particularly  that  which  serveii, 
when  heated,  to  smooth  linen  after  it  has 
been  washed. 

IRONiMONGER.  A  dealer  in  iron. 
The  company  of  ironmongers  In  London, 
were  incorporated  in  1462. 

IRONMOULDS.  Spots  in  linen,  leU 
aner  ironing  fnuii  stains  of  ink. 

IRON.MOULDS  (among  Winers).  Yel- 
low lumps  of  iron  or  stone  found  in  chalk- 
pits. 

IRRATIONAL  (In  Mathematics).  An 
epithet  applied  to  surd  quaiilitivs. 

ISINGLASS.  A  gelatinous  matter, 
formed  of  the  dried  sounds  of  cod  and 
other  flsli.  It  is  the  principal  ingredient 
In  the  blancmanger  of  the  cooks,  and  is 
also  used  medicinally. 

ISIS  (in  the  Mythology  of  the  Egyptians). 
The  wife  and  sister  of  Osiris. 

ISLAiND.  A  country  surrounded  on  all 
sides  with  water,  as  Great  Britain,  Ii«- 
lanil,  &c 

ISLA.XT)  CRYSTAL.  A  transparent 
stone  of  the  nature  of  spar,  a  piece  of 
which  laid  upon  a  book,  every  letter  seen 
through  it  will  appear  double.  It  Avas 
originally  found  in  Iceland,  whence  it  was 
called  Iceland  or  Island  Crystal,  and  is  to 
be  met  with  in  France  and  other  ports  of 
Europe. 

ISOCHRONAL  or  ISOCHRONOUS 
VIBRATIONS.  Vibrations  of  a  (lendulum 
performed  in  the  same  space  of  time. 

ISOPEREMETRICAL  FIGURES.  Fk 
giires  having  equal  perimeters  or  ctrcua»- 
ferences. 

ISOSCELES  TRIANGLE.  A  triar,gle 
having  two  sides  or  legs  equal  to  aach 
other. 

ISSUE  (In  Law).  L  The  children  hm- 
gotten  between  a  man  and  his  wife.  2.  The 
profits  arising  from  lands,  tenements,  fines., 
&c.  3.  The  point  of  matter  at  issue  between 
contending  parties  in  a  suit,  when  a  thing 
Is  aflirmed  on  the  one  side,  and  denied  on 
the  other.  Issues  my  be  either  on  matten 
of  fact,  nr  matters  of  law. 
ISSUE    (in    Medicine)     An   artiOcial 


208 


JAC 


^p«rtiire,  sivliig  vpnt  la  noxious  hiiinoiire 
n  tht;  liodv. 

rssUKS  (in  Atilitary  Affiirsl  Certain 
»iims  of  indiiey  tiveii  iiil.n  the  hnnds  of 
asfnt".  for  llif  payineiit  dfllu*  army. 

ISSUES  (III  Ktirtificatioii).  OutleW  in  a 
kown. 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES.  Games  formerly 
selebralecl  by  the  (Jreeks  at  llie  Isthmus 
of  Corinth  every  three,  four,  or  live  years. 

ISTHMUS.  A  Iittleiieckof  land  joining 
n  peninsula  to  a  continent,  as  the  Isthmus 
of  (^riiith.  Sec. 

ITALIC.  A  kind  of  letter  used  in  print- 
Jne,  by  way  of  di.^tinction  from  the  Roman, 
as  in  tins  word,  Italy. 

ITCH.  A  cutaneous  disease,  supposed  to 
tm  caused  by  an  insect  of  the  aciiriis  trilie 
called  the  Itchniite.  This  small  insect, 
wbich  ii  white,  with  reddish  legs,  i8  found 


JAL 

In  the  small  peinicir:  vesicles  of  the  haoili 

nnd  j.'.ints  ii.i-rted  with  the  itch. 

ITTNERITE.  A  bluish  mineral,  con- 
sisting of  silica,  alumina,  limo,  soda, 
paroxide  of  iron,  and  water:  s'j.  er  .2-33: 
H  =70. 

ITTRIA.  TTTUIA.  A  non-acid  com- 
pound of  tlie  metal  ittnum  or  yttrium 
with  oxygen. 

IXODES.  The  name  of  a  genus  of  par- 
aHitical  Acari  found  on  the  skins  of  do- 
mestic qniidrupeda. 

IXOLITE.  A  mineral  ofa  greasy  lustre, 
found  in  bituminous  coal. 

IVORY.  A  finer  sort  of  hone,  or  an 
Intermediate  siilistaiice  between  lione  iiiid 
horn,  prepared  from  the  tusk  of  the  male 
elephant. 

IVY.  A  parasitic  or  twining  plant,  that 
nins  about  trees,  walls,  &.c.  by  means  of 
roots  and  fibres  from  ito  branche*. 


J. 


J,  the  tenth  letter  ofthe  alphabet. 

J.^t,'K  (In  Meihamrg).  An  uiiiriimpnt 
m  coinmon  ii-se  for  rai.siiij;  very  great 
weights  of  any  kind. 

J.ACK  (among  Mariners).  The  flag  which 
18  hung  out  in  the  bowsprit  end. 

J.At'K  I  III  .Natural  History).  A  kind  of 
pike  lliat  is  very  destructive  in  lisliponds. 

JACK,  Smokb.  An  engine  placed  in 
cliiiiineyB,  and  turned   by  means  of  the 


Bac«B«iing  smoke,  which  answer*  the  pur- 
pose of  the  kitchen  Jack. 
JACKAXi    A  beast  of  prey  nearly  allied 


to  the  dog.    It  follows  the  lion  and  feed* 
opon  the  remains  of  animals  he  has  killed 


JACKDAW.  A  bird  of  the  crow  kind, 
having  a  white  collar  about  its  neck. 

JACKS.  Small  bits  of  wood  tixed  to 
the  keys  of  virginals,  harpsichords,  and 
spiniiets. 

JAC  K-W  IT  H-T  H  E-L  A  NTE  R  N.or 
U'lLu-o'-THK-VVur.  Vulgar  names  for  the 
ignis  fatiiiis  or  meteor,  which  hovers  in  the 
iilght  alxiiit  marshy  places,  and  seems  to 
be  iiio-itly  occasioned,  by  the  e.\trication  of 
phosphorus  t'rom  rotten  leaves,  and  other 
vegetable  matters.  Ii  appears  like  a  candle 
ill  a  lantern,  and  hits  sometimes  caused 
travellers  to  lose  their  way. 

JACOBliN.  A  partisan  of  the  French 
revolution. 

J  ACOBITKS.  A  name  given  to  the  ad- 
herents of  James  II.  at  and  alter  the  revo- 
lution in  England. 

JACOB'S  STAFF.  A  mathematical  in- 
strument for  taking  heights  and  distanres. 

JACOBCS.  A  gold  coin  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.  current  at  20*.  23».  and  *2.'w. 

JACTITATION  OF  .MARRIAGE.  In 
England,  a  suit  in  the  ecclesiastical  court, 
when  one  of  the  parties  boasts  or  gives 
out  tliat  he  or  she  is  married,  which  the 
other  party  denying,  and  no  adeipiate 
proof  of  the  marriage  being  brought,  the 
offending  party  Is  enjoined  silence  on  thiU 
head. 

JADE.  See  Nkphritk 

JAG  (in  Botany).  A  division  or  cleft  in 
a  leaf. 

JALAP  The  root  rf  a  West  Indian 
plant,  of  the  convolvulus  tribe,  of  a  blac^ 
colour  on  the  outside,  and  reddish  withia 


JEL 

with  resiiiniis  veins.  It  was  not  )<nown  in 
EiiclAiid  until  after  the  dip-overy  of  Ame- 
rica, nnil  received  iis  name  fnun  Xnlnpa,  a 
town  in  New  ^|miri.  Tlie  principal  con- 
ttitiieiit  pans  of  Jahip  are  resin  and  starrh. 
JAGUAR.  An  animal  of  the  cat  liind, 
reseuililJiii!  the  panther  j  it  is  found  in  the 
northern  part  of  South  America,  aiid  in 
Mexico 


JEW 


ao9 


JAMB  (among  Carpen'era).  Any  anp- 
porter  on  either  aide,  ms  the  poata  of  m 

door. 

J.\MR  (among  Miner*).  A  thick  bed  of 
Etone  that  obsiructs  the  miners  in  their 
piirsnins  the  veins  of  ores. 

JAMZARIES.  Tlie  grand  seignior's 
guard,  or  the  soldiers  of  the  Turkish  in- 
fantry, which  have  lately  been  aliolislied, 
and  their  places  supplied  by  troops  trained 
aflerthe  European  manner. 

JANUARY.  The  first  month  in  the  year, 
supposed  to  take  its  name  from  Janus,  an 
ancient  kin;!  of  Italy. 

JAPAN.NING.  The  art  of  varnishing 
and  painting  figures  on  wood,  metal,  &.c. 
as  is  practised  by  the  inhabitants  of  Ja- 
pan, &c. 

JAPONIC  A.  The  Japan  rose. 

JAR.  A  measure  of  capacity,  as  ajar  of 
t»il,  rontainins;  from  18  to  26  gallons 

JASMIN.  See  Jessamine. 

JASPER.  A  precious  slone  of  a  green 
i,ransparent  colour,  with  red  veins.  It  Is  a 
Bort  of  silicioiis  earth,  consisting  mostly  of 
silica,  with  a  smalt  portion  of  alumina, 
oxide  of  iron,  magnesia,  and  potash. 

J.W'ELIN.  A  sort  of  half  pike  c  spear. 

J.AUNDICE.  A  disease  proceedi^i  from" 
olistructions  in  the  glands  of  the  li  ver,which 
causes  the  bile  to  overdow,  and  turns  the 
complexion  yellow. 

JAW.  A  bone  of  the  mouth,  in  which 
the  teeth  are  fised. 

J.AWS.  The  two  pieces  in  the  ;ock  of 
a  gun  between  which  the  flint  is  i;xed. 

JEIIOVAll.  The  proper  name  of  the 
Host  ilit;h  ii  the  Hebrew. 

JELLY.  .Vuy  lifpiid,  as  the  Juice  of 
it* 


fruits,  coagulated  into  a  treiiinlous  soft  siib- 
Riaiice :  when  long  boiled  it  lo.'^es  the  pro- 
perty of  gelaliitizing,  and  becumts  anala- 
gous  to  mucilage- 

JERBOA.  A  lively  little  animal  shaped 
like  the  Upossum  of  the  size  of  a  rat,  and 
found  in  Egypt,  and  the  adjacent  cuaniritis. 

JAY.  A  bird  with  particoloured  pluii>a{>e, 
some  varieties  of  which  may  be  taught  to 
speak.  The  blue  jay  of  America  is  remark 
able  for  its  brilliant  plumuf  e. 


JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE.  A  sort 
ofsunflower.whichresemblea  the  artichoke 
in  taste. 

JESSAMINE,  or  JASMIN  A  plant 
bearing  fragrant  flowers,  which  Is  com- 
inonly  trained  to  the  walls  of  houses. 

JESUITS,  or  the  Order  of  Jtsi-s.  A 
religions  order  founded  by  Ignatius  l^woU 
in  15.38,  and  abolished  in  ITT3,  on  arcuuiil 
of  their  intrigues,  but  partially  restored 
since. 

JESUITS  BARK.  The  Cinchona  or 
Peruvian  Bark,  so  called  because  it  was 
first  used  by  the  Jesuit  missionarie.'*  im 
Pent. 

JET  (In  Alineralogy).  A  deep  black  sort 
of  bitumen. 

JET  D'EAL'.  The  pipe  of  a  fonotaht 
which  throws  up  the  waier  in  the  air. 

JETSAM  (in  l«nw).  Any  thing  throvvD 
outof  asliip  which  is  in  danuerof  a  wreck. 

JEt;  D'ESPUIT.  A  lively,  pretty 
thought. 

JEWEL  The  name  of  the  precioua 
stones  which  are  worn  as  ornaments. 

JEWELLER.  One  who  works  or  deals 
in  jewels  and  all  kinds  of  precious  stoiiea. 

JEWEL  OFFICE.  In  England,  an  of 
fice  where  the  king's  plate  is  fashioned, 
weighed,  and  delivered  out  by  the  war- 
rant of  the  lord  chamberlain 

JEWS.  The  descendants  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel,  who  were  so  called  after 
their  return  from  the  captivity  o(  Babylon, 
from  Jiidah,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob, 
wliose  tribe  formed  the  most  considerable 
part  of  those  that  remained  of  the  IsraHitea 
Although  the  Jews  have  lost  the  dlstinctloa 
of  tlie  ir  tribes,  and  are  dispersed  throughoot 


no 


JOU 


all  nations,  yet  they  remain  a  perfectly 
distinct  (leople,  and  adhere  to  the  religion 
tf  their  fotefathers.  Tlieir  condition  had 
mten  considerably  ajiiellorited  in  all  Chris- 
tian countries  where  they  now  reside. 

JEWS-EAR.  A  kind  of  mushroom. 

JEVV'g-IIAIiP.  A  nnisical  in.-itrument 
whlcii  is  played  between  the  teeth. 

JBWS-MALLOVV.  A  plant  whose 
leave*  are  produced  alternately  at  the 
maifcs.  The  flower  expands  in  tlie  form  of 
B  roMi. 

J I  n.  1  he  foremost  sail  of  a  ship. 

JOBBER.  One  who  buys  and  sells 
for  another. 

lOCfcEif.  A  man  who  rides  horses  at 
njces. 

JOHN  DOREE.  A  species  of  flsh. 

JOINER.  A  worker  in  wood,  who  fits 
together  the  several  pieces  which  have  been 
prepared  for  each  other,  lie  dilfers  from 
the  car[>enter,  masmuch  as  he  does  the  finer 
work,  that  requires  more  skill.  The  com- 
pany of  joiners  in  London,  was  incorpora- 
ted hi^570. 

JOI.VT  (in  Anatomy).  The  place  where 
•ny  hone  is  articulated,  or  joined  with 
another. 

JOl.NT  (in  M.isonry).  The  separatinn 
between  the  stones,  which  is  filled  with 
timrtar. 

JOI.\T  (In  Joinery).  The  parts  where 
two  pieces  of  wood  join. 

JOINT  (in  Botany).  The  knot  in  the 
stalk  of  a  plant. 

JOINT  (among  Butchers).  The  limb 
that  is  cut  from  the  carcass  of  an  animal. 

JOINT  STOCK  (in  Comuierce).  A 
«tnck  or  fund,  formed  by  the  union  of 
several  shares  from  different  persons. 

JOINT  STOCK  CO.MPANIES.  Com- 
mercial associations,  having  a  stock  con- 
sistlngof  many  shares:  in  such  associations 
the  shareholders  gain  or  lose,  according  to 
the  number  of  shares  which  they  hold. 

JOINTURE  (in  Law).  A  settlement  of 
lands  and  tenements  made  over  by  the 
husband  to  the  wife,  to  be  enjoyed  after 
his  decease. 

f  O  rSTS.  Timbers  framed  Into  the  girders, 
or  sommers  af  a  building. 

JONaUIL.  A  plant  of  the  Narcissus 
kind,  the  flowers  of  which  are  either  single 
or  double,  and  are  much  esteemed  for  their 
fweet  scent. 

JOURNAL.  Any  book  In  which  is  kept 
»n  account  of  what  passes  in  the  day. 

JOURNAL  (in  Merchants'  Accounts). 
A  book  wherein  every  thing  is  posted  out 
jf  the  waite-book. 

JOURN  \L     (antong     Pub^ishtsra    aDd 


JUD 

Booksellers)     A   periodical   work,  either 
daily,  weekly,  or  monthly,  &.c. 

JOURNAL  (.-imons;  iM.iriners)  A  book 
wherein  is  kept  an  acco«int  of  the  ship's 
way  at  sea. 

JOVE.  The  name  ot  the  enpreme 
deity  among  the  Romans;  Jupiter;  the 
planet  Jupiter;  the  air  or  atmosphere, 
or  the  god  of  the  air.  In  alchemy,  tin. 

JOURNEYMAN.  One  win  works  by 
the  day,  liie  week,  or  the  year,  trc.  for 
another. 

JUBILEE.  Every  fiftieth  year,  cele- 
brated as  a  festival  among  the  Jews,  ia 
commemoration  of  their  deliverance  out 
of  Egypt.  At  this  festival,  which  was  a 
season  of  joy,  bondservants  were  set  free. 

JUBILEE  (in  the  Romish  Church).  A 
solemnity  instituted  a.  d.  1300,  by  Poi>e 
Boniface,  to  be  observed  every  hundredth 
year,  or  every  twenty-liflh  year,  as  er 
joined  by  Pope  Sixtiis  IV.  for  the  per- 
formance of  several  cerem(.nies  in  order  to 
obtain  pardons,  remissions  from  sins,  in- 
dulgences, &c.  The  juhilee  lasts  a  whole 
year,  and  as  it  brings  in  great  stores  of 
wealth  to  the  popes,  it  has  been  called  the 
Golden  Vear. 

JUD.AIS.M.  The  rites,  customs,  and 
doctrines  of  the  Jews. 

JUDGE  (in  Law).  A  chief  magistrate 
apiioJnted  to  administer  justice  in  civil 
and  criminal  causes. 

JUGATE.  In  botany,  a  term  applied 
to  the  leaflet  pairs  in  compouiid  leaves. 

JUGULAR.  Pertaining  to  the  throat 
ornook.  Jugular  veia.s  are  tbo  veins 
which  bring  the  blood  from  the  head 
down  the  sides  of  the  neck.  By  their 
union  with  the  subclavian  vein,  they 
iorm  the  superior  veua  cava,  which 
terminates  in  the  superior  part  of  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart.  Jugulars, in 
ichthyology,  comprehend  (hat  class  of 
fishes  wliich  are  distinguished  hy  having 
ventral  fins  anterior  to  the  pectorals. 

JUDGE  AlARTIAL,  or  Jidoe  Aoro- 
CATE,  or  Advocate  Ge:<eral.  The  su- 
preme judge  in  courts  martial. 

JUDG.MENT  (in  Law).  The  sentence 
of  the  court,  pronounced  by  the  judge  on 
the  matter  in  the  record,  either  in  cases  ol 
default,  where  the  defendant  puts  in  no 
plea  ;  or  of  confession,  when  the  defendant 
acknowledges  the  action;  or  upon  demur 
rer,  where  the  defendant  pleads  a  bad  plea 
in  bar ;  or  upon  a  nonsuitor  retraxit,  where 
the  plaitKiflT  withdraws  or  abandons  the 
prosecution.  Judgments  are  either  inter- 
locutory, that  is,  given  In  the  middle  of  a 
cause  on  some  intermediate  point,  or  final, 
so  .as  to  put  an  end  to  llie  action. 

JUDICIAL  (in  Law).  An  epithet  foi 


JUP 

«rh»t  apperlains   to  a   court,  as   judicial  I 

JUJUBES.  In  the  materin  niedioa.  a' 
Criiit  of  the  pulpy  kiuil,  prciiice'l  on  a 
tree  wlilcli  LiunKua  couwders  as  a 
jpecies  oi  Khaniuus. 

JULEP.  Ill  medicine,  inucilagiuous 
mixture. 

JULUS.  In  botany,  a  catkin:  an  in- 
Soresceuce  of  tlie  Wdlow,  Hazel,  &:. 

Jin, IAN  PKKIOli  .ui  (:iir..ii..logy). 
A  period  of  7980  Cdu-ifriiiivf  vf;(rs,  pro- 
diirrd  by  tlie  niiillipliralinii  nf  the  thrt^e 
c>clps  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  indiction  into 
one  another.  Il  waa  so  culled  because  it 
eon.'i-Jls  of  Julian  years 

JI'MA.N  YI'.AR.  A  sp.ar«  of  time  con- 
■if>lin2  of  :itw>  days  and  l>  huiir!<,  so  called 
from  Jiilms  Cssar,  hy  whom  it  was  esta- 
blished. The  calendar,  which  contained 
an  nccoiint  of  Julian  time,  was  called  the 
Julian  Calendar-,  and  llie  time  when  it 
wa-a  first  instituted,  namely,  46  a.  c,  the 
Julian  K|Ni<*ha. 

JULY.  The  seventh  month  in  the  year, 
BO  called  in  honour  of  Julius  Ca!sar. 

JUMPER  TREE.  A  sort  of  tree  or 
shrub,  having  long,  narrow,  and  prickly 
leaves,  and  bearing  a  soft  pulpy  berry. 
This  r^hrub  is  coinnion  on  heaths  and  bar- 
ren hills,  but  the  berries  which  are  used 
medicinally  are  brought  from  (Jeniiany. 
Frtuii  the  lierries  is  made,  in  Holland,  the 
gin  called  Mnlb.i'ds  gin 

JUNO  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology).  The 
wife  of  Jupiter,  whose  emblem  was  the 
peacock. 


JUS 


211 


JUPITER  (in  the  Heathen  Mythology) 
The  son  of  Saturn  and  Oiis,  and  chief  of 
the  gods,  was  the  most  honoured  among 
men.  His  most  usual  attributes  are  ttw 
eagle,  and  thunder,  and  someliiuea  a  figure 
of  victory,  and  a  spear,  &.C. 


JUNO  (hi  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
■ewly  discovered  planets. 

JUNT.'V.  A  Spanish  term  for  a  meeting 
of  men  silting  in  council. 

JUPITER  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
largest  of  all  the  planets,  being,  according 
to  stune,  upwards  of  two  thousand  times 
bigger  than  our  eartii.  It  is  the  most  bril- 
lianl  star  .ifler  Venus,  revolves  on  its  own 
axis  in  9  hours  and  5fi  minutes,  and  (ler 
forms  Its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  A'.flQ 
days  m  hours  IS  minutes  and  41  secuuda. 


JURISDICTION.  The  power  or  autho- 
rity invested  in  any  individual  or  court,  of 
doing  justice  in  the  causes  brought  before 
them. 

JURISPRUDENCE.  Properly,  a  know 
ledge  of  the  laws,  or  skill  in  interpreting, 
and  applying  them  ;  also  the  laws  tiiem 
selves,  together  with  all  that  relaies  to 
their  administration.  English  jurispru- 
dence comprehends  the  common  and  stat- 
ute law,  together  with  such  parts  of  the 
civil  and  canon  law  as  have  been  admitted 
into  their  courts. 

JURY  (in  I«iw).  A  cert.nin  number  of 
persons  sworn  to  inquire  of,  and  to  declare 
the  truth  upon  the  evidence  otTered  to  them 
relating  to  the  matter  of  fact.  Juries  are 
of  different  kinds,  as  the  grand  jury,  petty 
jury,  special  jury,  common  jury,con>ner's 
jury,  &c.  The  grand  jury,  consisting  of 
twenty-four  persons,  is  ibosen  to  roiiiiider 
all  hillsof  indictment  preferred  to  the  court, 
which  they  return  as  true,  by  writing  upon 
them,  '  billa  vera,'  true  bill,  or  tlirow  out 
by  indorsing  the  word  '  icnoranius.'  The 
petty  jury,  consisting  of  twelve  men,  i» 
chosen  to  try  all  causes  civil  and  criminal : 
in  the  latter  causes  they  give  a  verdict  of 
Guilty,  or  .\'ot  Oiiilty  ;  in  civil  causes,  they 
bring  a  verdict  either  for  the  plaintiff  or 
the  defendant ;  and  in  real  actions,  either 
for  the  demandant  or  tenant.  A  jury  is 
called  special,  when  it  is  returned  for  a 
particular  cause,  and  common  when  it  is 
returned  by  the  sheriff  in  the  same  panel, 
to  tr>'  every  cause  at  the  same  court. 
JURY.MAN.  One  whoissworn  on  ajury 
JURY-MAST.  A  great  yard  used  in 
the  place  of  the  foremast  or  mainmast, 
wben  it  is  broken  down  by  a  storm. 


212 


KAM 


JUNGETlMANNIACEiE.  In  botany,  a 
natural  order  of  Acrogeus,  cons«sting  of 
creeping  nioss-liUe  plants,  of  wliicli 
Juugeriuaunia  is  the  genus  and  type. 

JUNKKKITE.  A  crystaUized  mineral 
of  a  yellow-grey  color,  consisting  of 
protoxide  of  iron,  carbonic  acid,  silica, 
and  manganese:  sp.  gr.  3-8;  H=3*81. 

.insSI.  A  textile  fibre  produced  in 
Manilla,  of  which  dresses,  &c.,  are  made. 

JUTE.  An  annual  plant  common  in 
Bengal,  from  which  a  coarse  kind  of 
doth  is  woven,  and  of -which  the  gunny- 
bags  are  made. 

JUTES.  An  old  Teutonic  or  Scandina- 
vian tribe  from  Jutland,  who  invaded 
Euslaud  in  the  fifth  century. 

K 


KEE 

JUWANZA.  The  name  of  the  camel's 
thorn  (Alhagi  Maurorum),  which  fur- 
nwhes  the  manna  of  the  desert,  and  is 
used  for  making  screens,  &c. 

JUXTAPOSITED.  Placed  near;  "adja- 
cent or  con  tigiious. 

JUXTAPOSITION.  The  state  of  being 
placed  in  nearness  or  contiguity. 

JUZAIL.  A  heavy  rifle  used  by  the 
Affghans. 

JURASSIC.  In  geology,  a  term  applied 
to  the  oolitic  system,  and  so  called  from 
its  occurrence  in  the  Jura  mcuutaius 
of  Switzerland. 

JUREMA  BARK.  An  astringent  bark 
obtained  from  the  Acacia  jurema  of 
BraziL 


K,  the  eleventh  letter  in  the  alphabet,  stmid 
as  a  iiiinieral  for  2-^0,  with  a  Kiriike  over 
it  thus,  R,  for  2.50,000 ;  as  an  ablirt-vialion, 
it  stands  fur  Knight,  as   K.  U.   KiDiilit  of 

e  Csirlrr,  K.  li.  Knight  of  the  Balli. 

K.\I.K.  A  liarily  kind  of  winter  calv- 
•  ice,  with  a  curleil  leaf. 

K.ALEI  DOSt'OI'E.  An  optical  in- 
ktrument  for  exhibitinj;  a  diver>iity  of 
beautiful  fiftures,  invented  by  Dr.  Ilrews- 
ter.  It  is  chietty  Uoed  by  calico-printers, 
potters,  and  car|>et  manufacturers,  who  are 
tints  supplied  with  an  iinuiense  variety  of 
patterns. 

K.M.I  (called  in  Botany  Sai.*ola  Kali). 
A  *'rt  of  marine  plants,  from  which  the 
•Ita.l  iif  couimerr«  is  procured  by  burning. 


KALMUC8.  A  nation  of  Tartars  inha- 
bltiae  parta  of  Russia  in  Asia. 

KA.MSI.N.  A  hot  and  dry  southerly 
wind,  common  in  Rn\'pt  and  the  deserts 
of  Africa,  wliirh  prevails  more  or  less  for 
fi(\y  days.  On  the  appmarli  of  this  wind 
Uic  sky  becomes  dark  and  heavy,  the  air 
gray  and  (hick,  and  filled  with  a  dust  so 
subtle  that  It  penetrates  everi'where.  It 
ts  not  remarkalilv  hut  at  first,  liiit  inrre.tses 
hi  heat  the  longer  il  continue?,  during 
•rbicta  time  U  cauMss  a  difficulty  of  breath- 


ing, and  when  at  its  highest  pitch,  will 
cause  sutfocation  and  sudden  death.  I'd 
prevent  this,  it  is  necessary  to  stop  the 
nose  and  mouth  with  handkerchiefs. 

KAN.  A  magistrate  In  Persia,  answer- 
ing to  a  governor  in  Europe. 

KANGAliOO.  Aniiininalin  Austra- 
lia, which,  when  full  jirown,  is  as  lar^e 
as  a  sheep.  It  leaps  and  eats  like  a  squir- 
rel, it  isfurnislied.  like  the  opossum,  wilh 
a  pouch  in  the  abdomen,  which  is  a  recep- 
tacle for  its  young  during  the  lime  "f 
breeding,  and  is  resorted  to  after  the  birth 
fur  the  sake  of  warmth  and  protection.  It 
is  said  to  leap  ttiiity  yards  at  a  single  bound. 


KAOLIN.  A  sort  of  eartk  which  is 
used  as  one  of  the  two  ingredients  in  porce- 
lain. 

KECKLING  (among  Mariners).  U'ind- 
iiig  or  twining  small  r<>|>es  about  a  ralile  or 
bolt-rope,  to  preserve  them  from  galling. 

KEOGER.     A  small  anchor. 

KEDGI.NG  (among  Manners).  Setting 
up  the  siiils,  and  leitins  a  ship  drive  with 
the  tide,  when  the  wind  is  contrary  to  the 
tide. 

KEEL  The  lowest  piece  of  timber  In 
a  ship,  running  her  whole  length.  Some- 
times a  second  keel,  or  false  keel,  as  it  is 


KET 

called,  iR  put  under  the  first  This  name 
is  also  givttn  tu  a  low  tlat-bottninrd  vessel 
used  in  the  river  1'yuc«  i'>  Kngland,  fur 
brin^ins  c.oals  fniin  Newcastle. 

KKKhKUS  (among  Mariners).  Binall 
tul'S  life  in  ralkin^  ships. 

KEEL-HAULING  (among  Mariners). 
A  pniiislinient  ut'  otl'enders  at  Beit  by  lei 
ting  them  down  with  ropea,  and  drawing 
tliem  under  the  keel  from  one  side  tu  the 
otlier. 

KKELSOiV  (in  Naval  Architecture).  A 
principal  timber  in  a  ship,  laid  withinside 
across  ail  the  timbers. 

KEEP.  A  strong  tower  In  old  castles, 
where  the  besieged  retreated  in  cases  of 
extremity. 

KEEPER  (in  England).  An  officer  of 
different  descriptions,  as  the  Keeper  of  the 
Great  Seal,  a  lord  by  his  office,  and  one 
of  the  Privy  Council,  through  whose  liands 
pass  all  charters,  commissions,  and  grants 
of  the  king  under  the  (Jreat  Seal  ;  Keeper 
of  the  Privy  Seal,  tiiroiigh  whose  hands 
pas8  all  charters,  &c.  before  they  come  to 
tlie  Great  Seal ;  besides  which  there  is  the 
Kee|)er  of  the  Forests,  the  Keeper  of  the 
Tuucli,  an  otficer  of  the  Mint,  &c. 

KEEPING  (among  Painters).  The  ma 
nagemeiit  of  lights  and  shades,  so  as  to 
preserve  the  projier  distances  of  otijects 
according  to  the  rules  of  perspective. 

KE(«.     A  barrel  lor  pickled  tish. 

KELP.  The  ashes  of  the  salsola  soda 
and  other  marine  plants,  which,  when 
burnt  in  pits,  and  stirred  about  for  a  length 
of  time,  form  hard  masses,  that  are  used 
in  making  soap.  In  this  manner  tlie  min- 
eral alkali  called  soda  is  procured. 

KENNEL  (amon::  Sportsmen).  A  place 
in  which  dogs  are  kept ;  also  the  hole  in 
which  a  fox  lies. 

KEK.M  ES.  A  round  body  of  the  size  of 
a  pea,  and  of  a  llrowlli^<ll-red  colour,  which 
contains  a  number  of  soil  granules  tilled 
with  a  red  colour.  It  is  found  in  the 
southern  fuirts  of  Europe  adhering  to  the 
scarlet  oak,  and  was  till  lately  supposed 
to  be  a  vegetable  excrescence,  but  is  now 
known  to  be  the  extended  body  of  an 
animal  filled  with  a  numerous  offspring, 
which  are  the  little  red  granules. 

KER.MEts  MINEKALIS.  A  preparation 
of  antimony,  so  called  from  its  beautiful 
deep  orange  coUiur. 

KESTIIEL.     A  small  kind  of  bank. 

KE'J'CIIUP.  The  liquor  of  mushrooms, 
which  is  much  used  as  a  sauce. 

KETTLE-llllUM.  A  drum,  the  vellum 
bead  of  which  Is  spread  over  a  body  of 
brass. 

KETTON  STONE.   An upa<|ue  compact 


KI  D 


213 


sort  of  marble  found  in  different  parts  of 
Britain. 

KET()n.     A  strongly  built  ship  with 
a  luaiu  and  a  uiizzeii  luajit. 


KEY  (among  Smiths).  An  Instrument 
for  opening  a  lock,  having  cavities  to  cor- 
respond to  the  wards  of  the  lock. 

KEY  (in  Gunnery).  The  firelocks  and 
springlocks  of  gun-carriages. 

KEY  (in  Carpentry).  The  last  board 
that  is  laid. 

KEY  (In  Music).  A  name  for  the  pieces 
of  wood  or  ivory  in  an  organ  or  harpsi- 
chord, which  are  struck  by  the  finger  in 
playing  an  instrument  ;nlso  the  fiindamen 
lal  note,  otherwise  called  the  cleff  or  clitf. 

KEY   (in    Commerce).      The  same  as 

KEY,  or  Gold  Key  (in  Court  Eti- 
quette). In  England,  the  key  which  is 
worn  by  the  Lords  of  the  Beilcliamber. 

KEYS  (in  Naked  Flooring).  Pieces  of 
timber  framed  in  between  every  two  joists. 

KEYS  (in  Joinery).  Pieces  of  timber  let 
in  transverse  to  the  fibres,  into  the  back  of 
a  board. 

KEYS  (in  England).  The  twenty-four 
commoners  in  I  he  Isle  of  Man,  who  are  the 
conservators  of  the  liberties  of  the  people 

KEY-STONE  (among  Architects).  The 
nauie  for  those  stones  which  form  the 
sweep  of  an  arch,  particularly  the  last  or 
middle  stone  placed  on  the  top  of  the  arch 
or  vault. 

KIDNAPPING  (in  Law).  The  forcible 
taking  away  a  man,  woman,  or  child,  in 
order  to  carry  them  abroad.  This  is  an 
offence  at  common  law,  and  punishable  by 
fine,  imprisonment,  and  pillory. 

KIDNEY-BEAN.  A  garden  pulse  hav- 
ing a  papilioiiaceoiis  flower,  the  pistil  of 
which  becomes  a  long  pod,  that  is  eaten 
before  the  seeds  are  fully  formed. 

KIDNEYb.  Glands  sha|>ed  like  a  kid- 
ney-bean, which  separate  tlie  urine  fVom 
the  blood.  There  are  two  kidneys,  one  on 
eacli  luiuttat  mgiuu 


214 


KIN 


KIL-nE?:R  PI.OVEIl.  A  well  known 
bird  lliat  tmiiie-nls  o)i«u  grotiiiUM  ami  ciui- 
Kaiilly  crieii  Kililrer. 

KIMIKUKI.N'.  A  iKimd  measure  con- 
tainiii):  el|;lilfeM  i-:!!!!!!!!). 

KIl.N.  A  liiriiace  in  which  chalk  is 
burnt  for  inakin^  liiut- ;  aUu  a  pi, ice  where 
bricks,  tiles,  anil  iiiall  nrr  bnnil  or  ilrieii. 

KIL.N  l»K\'l.\(;.  'I'lie  process  olilr)  ins 
wetted  barley  uu  a  kiln  t'ur  tlie  purjMHie  uf 
makin<;  matt. 

KliNO  (in  I>aw).  In  their  natural  state, 
as  lithe  in  kiml,  that  is,  in  (he  coinuiiiUi- 
tiea  themselves  ;is  distingiiislieil  froiii  their 
value  III  iiiiiiiey  ;  mi,  in  Military  Atfairs, 
ratios  supplied  in  kind. 

KIXDRI::!)  (in  l,.aw)  Persons  of  the 
■ame  blond  or  descent. 

KIN(J.  The  sovereign  ruler  of  a  state. 
7'he  law  ascribes  to  the  kln>;  of  Kii);Uiid, 
in  his  political  capacity,  iiiiniurtality,  for 
the  kinj;  never  dies;  and  on  his  decease, 
which  is  called  his  demise,  his  regal  dignity 
ia  vested,  witlmiit  any  interregnum  or  in- 
terval, at  once  in  his  heir 

KI.NG  AT  AUMS  (in  Heraldry).  An 
officer  at  arms,  that  has  the  preeminence 
over  the  rest,  and  is  otherwise  culled  Gar- 
ter King  at  Arms. 

KliNG  BlltU.  An  American  variety  of 
the  Uy-catcher,  sometimes  called  the  ty- 
rant Hy-catcher,  from  his  constant  attacks 
upon  oilier  birds. 

KINCIIO.M  (in  l^vr).  Any  country 
governed  by  a  king. 

KI.\:iU().M  (in  Natural  History).  A 
-jenentl  division  of  natural  objects,  as  the 
animal,  the  mineral,  and  the  vegetable 
kingdoms  in  the  Liiiniean  system. 

KING  FISH.  A  Kuroitean  fish  of  re- 
Barfcably  splendid  udours. 

KIMG-FISHEK.    A  bird  that  feeds  on 


KNE 

who  hear  and  delermire,  for  the  most  part, 
all  pleas  wliicii  cuncern  the  king's  crows 
and  dignity. 

KI.NG  I'llX'E,  or  KiKo-Potx  (in  Car- 
pentry), 'i'he  chief  beam  under  Uie  niof. 

Kl.\(;'f;  Bi:.N(;U  ntlSO.V  (m  England) 
A  prison  wlie:ein  debtors,  and  olfeuders 
against  llie  state,  are  coiilined. 

KI.Ni;'?;  ICVIL.  A  scrt>riiliMis  disea.<ie,lB 
which  the  elands  are  iilci;raled,  the  gitl  of 
curing  wliitli,  w;is  fnrnierly  ailnliiiied  to 
the  kings  and  ijueensof  I'.iigland  from  lh« 
lime  of  Kdward  the  Confessor.  The  prac- 
tice of  touching  the  king  or  queen  fur  llie 
evil,  is  now  abolished. 

KI.NG'SSILVh;i{(iii  F.ngl.and).  Money 
due  In  the  king  in  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  for  a  license  there  granted  to  any 
man  for  passing  a  fine. 

KIRK.  The  Scotch  Presbyterian  church. 

KITE.  A  bird  of  prey,  of  the  falcon 
kind,  the  tail  of  which  is  forked,  and  dis 
tinguistaes  it  from  all  oUief  birds  of  prey. 


KITR.  A  playth'.ng  among  schoolboys, 
coMsistiiiKofasllgli:  Wooden  frame  covered 
with  paper,  and  constructed  so  as  lo  rise 


lali,  wbow  piumage  reiietnblea  the  purple 
■oiour  uflbe  king's  robes. 

KING'S  BENCH,  Bmcui  Reoici,  or 
B  R.  The  supreme  court  of  common  law 
in  England,  ronsisting  of  the  Lord  Chief 
lusticc,  aiMt  three  piiuiae or  iuferuir  judges. 


In  the  air.   By  the  help  of  a  long  strinf  It 
may  be  allowed  to  fly  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  person  tiolding  it. 
KNEES  (in  .Naval  Arcbitoiaare).  Pieces 


LAB 

of  tiiiitwr  bowed  like  a  knee,  wliicn  bind 
the  IwHiiiM  uiid  luttockH  loijellier. 

K.NAI'riACK.  A  lealliKrii  bag  in  which 
toldiers  carry  llieir  pruvisioiis,  &c. 

K.NKE.  'I'lial  part  wliich  joiii!>  tlie  leg 
«n<l  tliiuli  louKltier 

KN  Kl-^-l'A.N.  A  little  round  bone  placed 
in  III*-  fiire  pari  of  llif  kii«e. 

K.NKU^.  A  pussiiii*  bell,  anciently  rung 
Rt  tlie  tune  when  a  person  wa::  abuiu  lu 
CI  pi  re. 

KMCMT  (in  F.nsland).  A  title  of  hon- 
our, originally  besuiweil  on  every  man  nf 
rank  or  iiononr,  llial  lie  iinijlit  lie  i|iialified 
to  give  challenges,  and  lu  perforiii  featfi 
uf  arms.  It  is  now  an  order  of  gentlemen 
next  to  baronets,  or  a  mere  honorary  dis- 
tincrion,  which  entitles  the  person  on 
whom  it  Is  Conferred  to  be  styled  Sir  L).  I)., 
and  his  wife  Lady  I).  0.  ,A  knight  is  now 
made  by  the  king  touching  him  with  a 
■word  as  he  kneels,  and  saying, '  Rise  up, 
Sir  I).  I).' 

KN'IGHTS  BACIIKLORS(in  England). 
A  description  of  kiiigiitd  inferior  to  the 
knights  bannerets. 

KMUIirs  l!A.N'.\KRnTS(in  England). 
Knishta  so  called,  that  were  created 
knights  on  tlie  lield  for  some  valiant 
achievement. 

K.MGII  IS  OP  TIIK  SIirUR  (in  Eng- 
land;. Two  kiiighls  or  genilemen  of  es- 
tate, who  are  elecled  by  the  freeholders  of 
every  cuniily,  to  represent  them  in  I'arlia- 
meut     The  qualihcalion  of  a  knight  of 


LAC 


215 


the  shire   1«  to  be  pnssess«><l  of  600J    per 
annum  in  a.  frr«hold  esiut«. 

KNri'Tl.Mi.  The  process  of  weaving 
without  a  loom,  by  the  help  of  a  net-Ule, 
also  the  act  of  l>  ini  together  cerlaiii  ijuan- 
tilies  of  yarn,  and  then  warping  lliem  into 
hanks  to  be  larrert. 

KNOT  (aniiiiiu  Manners).  Any  large 
knob  formed  on  Hie  eMreiiiily  of  a  rope; 
al.so  the  division  of  ttie  lii;i  line,  answering 
to  half  a  minute,  as  a  mile  di>es  tu  an 
hour. 

K.NOT  (in  Ornitholo.'y.)  A  fen-bird,  lh« 
flesh  of  which  IS  very  delicmud. 

KN'Oirr.  A  Russian  punishment,  which 
consi.sts  in  harharons  scourging,  sluting 
tlie  nostrils,  and  maiminga  uf  different 
kinds. 

KORAN  The  book  of  the  Mahometan 
doctrine,  containing  the  revelations  of 
theii  pretended  prophet. 

Koumiss,     a   lemiemed  litpior  made 
by  the  Tartars,  of  mare's  iiiilk.  Soiiiettiiiii; 
similar   is   prepared    in    llie   Orkney   and  . 
Shetland  Isles. 

KRE.M I.I.N.  The  palace  at  Moscow, 
standing  in  a  central  and  elevated  part  of 
the  city,  which  sntfereil  liiii  liule  in  t!ie 
coiitlagralion  that  followed  the  entry  of 
the  Krench  in  l»12.  It  was  built  in  the 
fifleenth  cenlnry. 

KT  (in  England).  An  abbreviation  for 
Knight. 

K.  T  (in  England).  An  abbreviation 
for  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 


L,  the  twelfth  letter  In  the  alphabet,  de- 
noting, as  a  niiiiieral,  50,  and  with  a  line 
»ver  it  llinsT.,  .'>l),IIOII;  as  nn  abbreviation, 
t  stands  for  libra,  pi.iind,  and  liber,  biHik. 

LA  (in  .Mnsic).  The  syllable  by  which 
Guido  denoted  the  hist  sound  uf  each 
hexachord 

Ii.\BEL  (among  Mechanics).  A  thin 
brass  ruler,  witn  sights,  commonly  used 
with  a  circuinferentor,  to  t.ike  heights. 

LABEL  (in  Heraldry).  A  fisinre  sup- 
posed to  represent  ribands,  which  in  coats 
of  arms  distinguished  the  eldest  sun  uf  a 
(kmily. 


ZjTli^n 


LABEL  (In  I>aw).  A  slip  ftL«tened  to 
ieeds  or  writings,  or  any  paper  Joined  by 
way  of  addition  to  a  will. 


LABIAL  LETTERS  L,eners  rpfiuiring 
the  use  of  ihe  li|>s  in  proniiioiaiion. 

LABOKATOKY.  A  cbemisi  s  wor« 
shopi  also  a  workhouse  where hreworken 
and  bombardiers  prepare  Ihvir  stores. 

LABOL'RKR.  One  who  does  day 
labour. 

LABYRI.VTFL  Amaze,  or  place  fill 
of  intricate  windings.  The  labyrinth  oi 
Egypt,  built  by  I'saniinilicus  on  the  hanks 
of  the  river  Nile,  lontained,  within  the 
compass  of  one  continued  wall,  one  thou- 
sand houses  and  twelve  royal  palaces,  all 
covered  with  marble;  it  had  imly  one  en- 
trance, but  innnmeranie  inriiings  and 
windings,  so  that  those  wlm  were  in  could 
not  find  their  way  uul  without  a  guide. 
This  labyrinth  was  leckoned  one  of  the 
seven  wondern  "^f  Ihe  wurld. 

L.At'.  A  siilisi.Tiici-  well  known  In  Riirnpe 
under  the  di.Icreul  names  of  stick- liic,shell- 


216 


LAD 


•c,  and  seed-tac.  !~tick-Iac  Is  the.  lac  In  Its 
natural  M:it«;  seedlac  is  th«  stick-lac  sepa- 
rated fruiii  thet\vi|!s;sliell-tac  is  that  winch 
bail  undergone  the  |iroces8  iifbeing  purified. 
Lac  was  for  some  lime  suppnsed  to  he  a 
gum,  but  improperly  so,  because  it  is  in- 
tlanimable,  and  not  soluble  iti  water.  It 
is  the  product  uf  the  coccus  laccii,  which 
deposits  its  eggs  on  the  branches  of  a  tree 
•in  Thibet,  and  elsewhere  in  India,  where 
lac  is  fa:>hioned  into  rinus,  bead^,  and  other 
trinkets.  t^ealiii»  wax,  viirnishes.and  lake 
for  painters,  are  made  from  it,  and  it  is 
also  much  used  as  a  dye. 

L,\CCICACI[>  (in  Chemistry).  An  acid 
procured  from  iiumlac,  (he  comfHiuent 
parts  of  which  are  supposed  tu  be  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

LACE  (in  Commerce).  A  work  com- 
posed of  many  threads  of  gold,  silver,  or 
silk  interwoven,  and  worked  by  means  of 
spiiidle.o  on  a  pillow,  according  to  tlie 
(lattern  designed. 

LACHttVM.-\L.  An  appellation  given 
to  several  parts  of  the  eye,  from  their 
•erving  to  secrete  or  convey  away  the 
tears,  as  the  lachrymal  ducts,  the  lachrymal 
fland,  the  lachrymalia  puncta,  &.C. 

LACI.N'u  {amnni;  Mariners).  The  rope 
or  line  used  to  confine  the  beads  of  sails 
to  their  yards. 

LACK  (in  Commerce).  The  number  of 
100,000  rupees  in  India. 

LACKER, or  LACat'ER.  A  sort  of  var- 
nish applied  to  tin,  brass,  or  other  metals. 
The  basis  of  lacker  is  a  solution  of  the  re- 
■inous  substance  of  seed-lac  in  spirit  of 
wine.  In  order  to  give  a  golden  colour  to 
the  solution,  two  parts  of  gamlMige  are  ad- 
dtd  to  one  of  anotto.  When  silver  leaf  or 
tin  IS  to  be  lackered  a  larger  quantity  of  the 
colouring  materials  is  requisite  than  when 
the  lacker  is  intended  to  be  laid  un  brass. 

LACTEAL  VES.SELS  (in  Anatomy). 
Tender  transparent  vessels  which  convey 
the  chyle  from  the  mesentery  to  the  tho- 
racic duct. 

LACTIC  ACID.  An  acid  p*^ured  from 
sour  milk  by  precipitating  it  with  linie- 
water  and  separating  the  lime  with  oxalic 
»cid.  It  is  supposed  to  consist  of  acetic 
acid  and  mitriaie  of  potash,  with  a  small 
portion  of  iron  and  an  animal  mailer. 

LAUDER.  A  wooden  f. line  made  with 
•teps  for  niflunting. 

LADDER,  ScALiso  (in  Fortification). 
A  p.irticiilar  kind  of  ladder  made  of  rofies 
or  flat  staves,  with  which  the  men  scale 
the  walls  of  a  place  that  is  to  be  taken  by 
surprise. 

LM>Y-BIRD.  A  small  red  insect  with 
slack  fputfl. 


LAM 

LADVS  SLIPPER.  A  plant  which 
grows  wild,  the  (lower  of  which  U  som* 
thing  in  the  shape  of  a  shoe. 

LADY'S  SMOt'K.  A  plant  that  grows 
wild,  the  flower  of  which  consists  of  four 
leaves  succeeded  by  narrow  (Hids,  which, 
when  ripe,  roll  up  and  ca«l  ftirth  their 
seeds. 

LAIR  (among  S(Hirlsmen).  The  place 
where  deer  harbour  by  day. 

LAIKD.  The  name  of  a  lord  of  a  manor 
in  the  highlanits  of  Scotland. 

LAITV.  The  people,  as  distiiignished 
from  the  flercy. 

L.\KE  (in  Ceognipliy).  A  collection  of 
waters  in  an  inlaml  place  of  great  exieiil 
and  depth,  as  the  Luke  of  Ceneva,  &.c. 

LAKE  (in  Painting).  A  line  crimson 
colour,  between  carmine  and  vermilion. 
It  is  formed  by  precipitation  from  the 
solution  of  the  colouring  matter  with  an 
earth  or  metallic  oxide.  I'recipilules  of 
different  shades  are  obtained  wiUi  alum, 
nitre,  chalk,  &.c. 

LA.M.\  (in  Theology),  or  the  Or»nd 
liAUi.  OF  Thibet.  The  prince  and  high- 
priest  of  the  country,  who  is  suppoKed  to 
be  immortal,  and  on  the  dissolution  of  his 
mortal  frame  his  soul  enters  into  tlie  Imdy 
of  a  new  born  child,  lie  is  worsliip|>ed 
as  a  supernatural  being  by  his  siilijef-ts, 
and  is  never  to  be  seen  but  in  iJie  secret 
recesses  of  his  palace,  where  he  sits  cross- 
legged  <m  a  cushion. 

LAM  B.  The  young  of  sheep  wtiil«  under 
a  year  old. 


LAMINA.    A  thin  plate  of  any  metal 

LAMINiE  (in  Anatomy).  Are  the  two 
thin  plates  or  tables  of  the  skull. 

LA.MMAS  DAY.  The  first  of  Augu.n, 
formerly  a  day  of  thanksgiving. 

LA.MP.  A  light  made  of  oil  and  a  wick- 
also  the  vessel  to  receive  the  oil  and  li.e 
wick. 

LAMPBLACK.  A  colour  procured  from 
the  smoke  uf  burning  oil  mixed  with  gum 
water. 

LAMPERS.  A  disease  in  the  palate  of 
a  horse's  mouth. 

LA.MPREY.  A  sort  offish  which  ad- 
heres firmly  to  rocks  and  other  bodies  by 
<he  luouLh.     It  u  lu  shape  like  an  eel,  and 


LA  N 

U  dlippery.  I.am|)rHy«  arc  e.-»tppitio<1  as  n 
d<*lic:try.  iiiiil  nre.  in  lar-iismi  in  Ilie  iiioiitlis 
of  March.  A|iril.  ami  May. 

LA.M.'K.  An  rifrniMvc  weapon  formerly 
Oiwd  hy  knigliis  in  tl»-ir  tilu  ami  lourna- 
meiits. 

LA.NCKRS  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
Itixly  of  iiieii  III  I'liliiiiil  ariiii-il  with  long 
lanres  antl  iiiuiititcd  mi  swiH  horsttK. 

liA.NCF/l'  (in  Surgery).  An  insiriiinent 
«%d  ill  bleeding,  <i|H-iiiiie  tiiiiii>iirs,  &.c. 

LANIJ  (in  (leograiiliy  1.  One  main  di- 
vision of  the  earth,  a»  itisiiiiifiiiihed  from 
w.ater;  In  Law,  lain!  includes  not  only 
arable  land,  meadow,  p;i.siiire,&c.  hut  a!so, 
ine>;suat!es  and  houses,  for  In  ronveyiiig 
the  land  the  buildings  pass  with  il. 

LAND  FALL  (among  iMariners).  The 
first  land  discovered  after  a  voyage. 

LAM)  FORCKS  (in  .Military  Affairs). 
Troops  employed  only  on  land. 

LAM)G R.AVE.  The  governor  of  a 
district  in  Germany. 

LANDI.N'O.  Going  on  land  out  of  a 
boat  or  yeses!. 

LA.\1)IN(;  (in  Archilectiire).  The  first 
part  of  a  flour  at  Itie  head  of  a  HIght  of 
itaint. 

LANPLOCKRO.  A  sea  term  for  a 
ve.'t.sel  when  she  is  at  anchor  in  a  place 
not  open  to  the  sea. 

LANDLORD  (in  Law).  He  of  whom 
ands  nr  tenements  are  held. 

LA.N'DMA.N.  One  ■■ii  board  a  ship  who 
has  never  been  before  to  sea. 

LA.ND.MARK  tin  lliisliandry ).  A  bonn- 
d.iry  set  between  the  lands  of  different 
person*. 

LANDMARK  (anions  Manners).  Any 
niounlain  or  other  ohjert  winch  may  serve 
lo  make  the  land  dislinyiiisliiible  at  sea. 

L.A.N DtSCAPE  (in  I'aintlng).  A  picture 
representing  any  pan  of  a  country,  wiih 
the  varioilii  objects  of  fields,  trees,  hedges, 
houses.  Sec. 

LAXDSTURM.  In  militniy  affairs, 
a  local  militia  of  I'nissia.  wliit  li  is  never 
called  from  it.s  own  di.stricl  Init  in  case 
of  iictiial  invasion. 

LANGUAGE.  Human  (>piH-ch  in  gene- 
ral, or  an  asseniMaae  of  articulate  sounds 
forming  word?)  and  sisns  fur  ihe  expression 
nf  the  thoughts  of  the  mind. 

I>AN(;UAGK,  IImtort  or.  That  all 
men  at  first  spoke  one  laneuase  we  knfiw 
on  the  aulliorily  of  S<-ripliire,  and  that 
that  language  iinisl  have  l>eeii  the  Hebrew, 
the  Holy  Laiiguaiie,  l\»  it  is  called  by  the 
Jews,  in  which  (oid  w.'is  pleased  to  reveal 
bis  word  lo  man,  is  clearly  dedui  ilile  from 
Scripture  In  giving  the  names  of  .Adam 
•ud  nianj  of  his  posterity,  the  inspired 


LA  IV 


217 


penman  erpressly  declares  them  lo  he  nt 
Hebrew  origin,  for  of  Adam  he  siiys  that 
he  was  expressly  so  called  from  Ihe  He- 
brew Adam,  earth,  because  he  was  made 
out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth,  and  ii.  a 
similar  manner  he  explains  the  naiuej  if 
(.'ain,  .Aliel,  .Ahraiii,  Isaac,  Jaco^  snd 
others.  When  God  thought  proper  to  >:i>u 
found  the  tongues  of  men,  he  reserved  the 
Hebrew  tongue  lor  his  chosen  people,  who, 
in  that  tongue,  were  to  keep  and  ImnJ 
down  his  oracles  lo  future  ages. 

Judging  from  the  deviations  whicu  the 
earliest  languages  underwent,  it  does  not 
appear  that  any  new  language  was  formed 
ill  the  confusion  of  toneiies  at  the  tower  of 
llabel,  nor  in  fact  that  any  other  change 
took  place  than  what  was  needful  to  ar.- 
swer  the  divine  pur|)o,«e  of  causing  the 
dispersion  of  mankind.  The  (  halde.ins 
or  Babylonians  being  one  of  the  first  (leople 
formed  after  the  rtood,  we  find  that  their 
language,  which  has  been  handed  do  vn  lo 
us  unchanged,  differs  the  least  of  any  fr>in 
the  Hebrew.  The  Syriac,  whi-h  was 
spoken  by  the  (,'aiiaaiiites,  w.is  n  its 
primitive  .-late  so  ner.rly  allied  to  the 
Hebrew  that  .Abraham  undersicHiC  tiieir 
speech  ;  and  although  the  Syriac  wl...h  in 
now  extant,  and  which  was  spoker.  by  the 
inhabitants  of  ancient  Syria,  underwent 
many  changes  by  the  intercourse  of  differ- 
ent people,  yetlt.stlll  retains  many  vestiges 
of  its  origin.  In  the  time  of  Joseph,  the 
language  of  the  Egyptians,  which  is  still 
e.xtant  under  the  name  of  Coptic,  was  so 
different  that  the  Israelites  required  an 
interpreter  in  order  to  be  understood,  but 
notwithstanding  they  retained  in  their 
letters  and  In  many  of  their  words  rr.arks 
of  their  affinity  to  the  Hebrew.  Thisgrsat 
diversity  in  the  language  of  the  Egyptians, 
the  de.sceiidants  of  Ham,  tvithin  so  short  a 
(teriod  after  the  ll>M>d,  is  not  surprising 
when  we  consider  ilie  peculiar  character 
of  this  people  for  invention  and  device 

The  Arabian  is  another  language  wh'ct 
from  the  antiipiity  of  the  people  was 
probably  formed  at  or  very  soon  arte,  Ihe 
confusion  of  tongues.  It  is  also  very  uif- 
ferent  from  all  the  other  toiigites  then 
existing,  and  surpassed  them  all  ir  "he 
number  of  its  letters  and  the  harmony  a  .1  i 
richness  of  its  eX|>ression,  but  still  it  cai'ie* 
with  It  innumerable  marks  of  it.s  afliaity 
to  the  Hebrew.  The  jlCthiopiaii  was  iii 
all  probability  a  dialect  of  the  Egyptian, 
at  least  in  the  names  of  us  letlers  it  is 
very  similar  Ui  thai  lai  giiage;  but  Lndulf 
observes  that  il  bearsa  great  altiiiity  *r*»i» 
Hebrew  and  the  Syri.ic,  and  a  still  •wmiKw 
to  the  .Arabic,  from  which  ae  mppo«iet  tt 


218 


i>angua(;e 


to  !i«  d^nved.  In  fart,  he  maintains  that 
coiii|>«(dil  Ktiowlriliit*  (if  tlie  II<-lirew,  iir 
miiy  otlir-r  of  the  oriciilal  laiisim^es,  will 
enable  a  |ienti>ii  td  uiiiterslatiit  very  niiicii 
ofihe  i!lilil<i|iic,  there  lieiii:;  several  llehrew 
roots  and  ^mnitirations  of  Hebrew  word:* 
■  '•  '.U'.»  .t^ri^uage  whicli  are  not  lu  be  fuuiid 
Ic  any  oilier. 

Ai  '.ne  l*lupnician«,  the  descendants  of 
the  \;.tiiauiiites,  inhabited  tlie  niaritliiie 
parts  of  llie  land  of  <'uiiaaii  it  is  not  siir- 
pris  :,i  that  tlie:r  laiiciiage  should  be  siip- 
p<Kit. .  to  have  been  nearly  the  same  as  the 
Ilel  .e\v.  Some  vestiges  of  tills  aliinity 
i.re  to  be  foniid  in  the  |iro|>er  names  of  the 
CaiiliHijinians,  their  descenilants,  ivho 
■poh.  a  dia'ect  of  the  I'lnvnician  called  the 
Punic  language:  this  latter  language  is 
als(  Mild  to  have  had  a  tincture  of  the 
Cl.ildee  and  Syriac,  which  may  be  eiisily 
aicjjnted  for  by  the  iiitertciirse  which 
the!> ,  two  trading  nations  held  with  all 
oltjcr  peopie.  A  writer  in  modern  tunes 
Nif  -.><s«  sliuwn  that  the  Maltese  cuntaina 


a  number  ofPunic  wonls,  from  which  Nii 
Justly  inferred  that  Alalia  w:is  once  in  iht 
possession  of  the  Canhagiiiians. 

The  i'ersian,  as  il  is  now  handed  down 
tons,  is  confessedly  (Kistenor  lo  ihe  Arabic, 
to  which  It  IS  nearly  allied  both  in  iU 
primitive  letters  and  whole  construction, 
bui  II  has  been  sIjuwii  by  writers  tiiai  llie 
Parlhians  or  Persians  were  5-cytliians  who 
mingled  with  the  Llemiles  or  original  in- 
habitants of  Persia,  and  gave  to  the  I'ersian 
language  thai  (-"ellic  tincture  which  biingii 
il  nearer  In  accordance  with  the  northern 
language  jif  Kurope.  In  the  language  of 
India  and  Armenia  there  are  strong  inarki 
<if  resemblance  to  the  I'ersian  ;  but  as  to 
the  ('htiiese  it  was  probably  one  of  the 
earliest  tongues  formed  after  the  tiinid,  as 
It  bears  few  or  no  marks  of  itfinity  to  aiij 
but  the  Hebrew. 

In  proof  of  what  has  been  advanced  oa 
the  oriental  languages  tlie  following  alpha- 
beta  are  given : — 


k<ll!>.EW  AND 

..-■A-.OEB. 

Alep:i 
BttS 
GhlincI 

He 

Viu 

Zxin 

fin* 

T»ih 

Jo.< 

Ch*|>h 

I.kmed 

Jleir 

(rncili 

Vht 

T>aJI 

R»ph 

^at 

jchic 

7Uu 


BTmoriC.      ARABIC. 


Dola;h 

He 

W.«r 

Kain 

llliiita 

Telh 

Y.id 

Cof 

Koinad 

Mim 

N.ID 

Somecth 

F. 

P« 

Hod* 
Kof 
Riah 
Shin 
Taa 


m 

Chi 
V 

Shel 

Fei 

Kher 

Ituri 

J:.u)» 

Sl.ima 

Dhei 

Kyi 


U|Milo 


Air 

Bet 

GemI 

Daiit 

ilaut 

W.w 

Zai 

1 1  harm 

Tail 

Jameo 

Caf 

Lanri 

Mai 

Nahu 

Bast 

Aio 

M 

Tiadal 

K..I 

Reea 

Saul 

Tawl 


Gala 

Dal 
Dtal 


Ye 
Caf 
I.i.m 


Sad 

Ala 

r. 

Kar 


ARMCniAK. 


Jelach 

Sa 

E 

Jeih 

Thua 

Je 

J 

I.aim 

Chlia 


Kiea 

Hue 

Dm 

lihat 

Tee 

Mien 

111 


If  he 

Fa 

0 


AS  the  ahovementioned  languages  were 
•t>-:keii  by  the  most  ancient  people,  it  is 
Hot  surprising  to  find  that  thi-y  retained  so 
r!.<;ny  marks  of  their  origin,  but  it  is 
Worthy  of  observation  that  those  languages 
*hich  sprung  out  of  them  underwent 
e:eat?r  changes  in  their  e.xternal  fomi,  so 
»*  if  give  iheni  an  air  of  originality  which 
»0'-8  not  in  reality  belong  to  them.  Thus 
..  IS  that  the  Oreek,  from  the  inventive 
gea  js  ol  the  people,  acquired  a  peculiar 
rtrintiire  and  a  richness  of  expression 
vnich  made  it  pass  for  a  primitive  tongue, 
wl  en  in  truth  it  is  as  much  a  derivative 
Un/imge  as  those  which  have  since  been 
formed.  That  it  was  indebted  to  the 
Egyp.  sti:  for  the  names  of  its  letters  will 
le  obv'ioii.s  l<>  any  one  who  should  cum- 
vare  i1m>  Ureek  alphabet  with  the  Coptic, 


given  above  ;  and  antiquarians  have  made 
it  clear  thai  the  roots  of  the  Greek  are  to 
be  traced  either  to  the  Ei;yi>lian,  the 
Phffinician,  or  the  Pelasgian,  which  was 
spoken  by  the  Pelasgi,  a  Celtic  (leople, 
who  first  took  pos.session  of  Greece,  or  the 
Isles  of  Klisha  as  it  is  called  in  Scripture. 
It  has  also  been  clearly  shown  that  this 
Pelasgian  had  a  common  original  with 
the  Irish  and  Welsh,  the  primitive  lan- 
guages irf  Ireland  and  lirltain,  which  were 
peopled  by  two  kindred  tribes,  the  do- 
scendants  of  .Magog  and  Uoiiier,  the  son* 
of  Japliet,  who  at  a  very  early  periiKl  pro- 
ceeded from  Scytliia  to  Kuro|»e,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  all  the  modern  European 
languages.  Those  people  which  inhabited 
the  countries  of  Kiiro(ie,  except  Greece, 
were  alXerwards    called    by   Uie    Uteeki 


UVNOUAnE. 


lit 


Relte  OT  GallntiE,  and  by  the  Ruinatis 
Cell)  M  Calli,  (>lt«  or  Caiila. 

The  1^1  111  wd*  niit  loriiied  until  a 
eolfiiiy  ul  tlie  Pc l;i«<^i  or  (!reeks  iiilriiilt-d 
llirm.-x-lves  ii|h)ii  ilie  L'nibn  iir  (^oiiit-rii, 
ttif  iitMiriuiiiesiif  Italy,  niiil  «>  far  |>reviiil«<d 
over  tlirir  laiiKHiiiit-  llial  liit^y  liKHlellrtI  llitr 
miMiire  ol"  llie  two  upim  tin-  pliiu  ol'  llie 
Cret-k  in  the  liiriiialuni  uf  (ascD,  iiiimkIs, 
and  teiisrs,  In  which  »v»»rf  aflerwiirdsadili-d 
many  wiirds  o(  l^gyptiaii  nr  riiu;niciaii 
extrartioii,  from  the  interroiirse  whirli 
Cook  |ila(-e  liet«eeii  the  Romans,  t'arllia- 
ghiiand,  and  Ejoiiliaiiii.  As  to  the  (>er- 
inan,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  other  northern 
lani^uaees,  they  all  hear  evident  marks  of 
their  attinity  not  only  to  each  other,  but  to 
that  of  the  I^itin,  with  which  they  had  a 
common  Cellit  orisinal.  At  Ihesametime 
their  anresiors  bi  fore  their  second  irrii|i- 
tion  into  Kur^pe  under  the  name  ofCjoths, 
Vandals,  Huns,  &.c.  had  iiilrmliiced  such 
ehanses  in  the  pronunriation  and  letters 
of  tlieir  several  lanpiaues  ;is  gave  them  an 
ap|H-arance  of  ori^rinatity  and  |ieciiliarity. 
Besides,  it  appears  that  the  Hiin^rian, 
Sclavonic, l)almatian,:uid  Russian  assumed 
a  Greek  ctiararier  by  a  niixtiirt;  uf  Uie 
Greek  and  its  seversU  dialects. 

The  French  retains  many  vestiges  of  its 
Celtic  orijiinal.  but  in  consttipience  of  the 
Roman  congiiest  the  additions  of  the  L.aUn 
prevailed.  ii>  all  which  Ihe  [leople  gave  it 
a  peculiarity  both  in  its  pronunciation, 
orttjopr.iphy,  and  stnicture.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  the  t'panish,  which  also 
nnilerwent  some  additional  changes  from 
the  incursionti  of  the  MtM>rs,  who  ingraAed 
upon  it  many  words  of  Arabian  and  Phte- 
nician  origin.  The  luilinii  Is  obviously  a 
diilect  of  the  Latin,  modified  by  and 
assimilated  to  the  French  and  Spanish, 
doubtless  during  the  period  when  Fnince, 


Spam,  and  Italy  were  governed  by  tiM 
eiii|ierors  of  the  west. 

'I'lie  i'.nulish,  the  last  formed  language 
in  Ihe  u  iirld,  IS  also  reiiiark.<lile  for  being 
c<im|M>iiiided  of  a  sireatei  diversity  of  lan- 
giiaues  than  any  other.  'I'lie  groiindwora 
of  the  Kiiiilish  is  the  Saxon,  but  there  is 
not  a  lanuuaiie  in  Europe  which  has  not 
Conlribiiteil  mote  or  Ir^ss  to  Its  I'ormatmn. 
.Many  words  were  retaiiieil  or  borrowed 
by  Ihe  Saxons  from  the  I:iii<.'iiai2e  of  the 
original  iiaiives,nHiiiely  Ihe  Wvish, which, 
as  before  observed,  was  one  of  the  ancient 
Celtic  dialects,  of  the  same  oripn  as  the 
Saxon  it-seif,  but  existed  long  prior  to  it. 
On  the  invasion  and  settlement  of  the 
Danes  some  changes  as  well  as  adilltlons 
were  made  in  the  lan!>:iage,  which  under- 
went still  greater  change.s  at  the  Norman 
conquest,  by  the  admission  of  Norman  as 
well  as  French  words,  and  the  iiiiHlellinE 
of  the  iangiinge  itself  into  a  form  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  French.  From  this 
source  are  derived  a  vast  number  of  the 
Latin  words  and  some  few  words  of  Creek 
origin,  but  the  most  nnmeroiu:  additions 
from  these  resources  have  since  l)een  made 
by  the  English  themselves,  who  have  also 
gradually  given  it  a  di.stinct  form  and  pro- 
nunciation that  entitle  it  as  much  to  the 
name  of  original  as  any  of  the  other  Euro- 
jieaii  languages  that  are  of  more  aucieirt 
date.  To  this  diversity  in  the  origin  of  the 
English,  and  its  aptitude  to  naturalize 
every  foreign  term,  il  is  indebted  for  a 
variety  and  richness  of  expression  which 
is  not  equalled  by  any  other  language  in 
the  world. 

'J'he  following  list  of  the  names  of  -he 
ten  first  numbers  among  the  Eiirop^ia 
nations,  taken  from  Parson's  Remains  •</ 
Japhet,  will  siirtice  to  show  the  alhnit.  •>! 
the  languages  altovemeiitioned. 


IRISH. 

1.  Aon 

2.  Uo 

3.  Tri 

4.  Ceathaii. 

5.  Cnig 

6  She 

7  Shragd 

8  Ochl 
a  Nyi 

10.  Deie 


WELSH. 

Ln 

Diiy 

Tri 

Pedwar 

Pymp 

Chuech 

Saith 

L'lth 

Haw 

Deg 


CREEK 

eU 

TJivit 

'Et 

^Ettt'o 

'Oxxat 

Eiria 

/ttxa 


LATIN 

Unus 

Duo 

Tret 

Uuatuor 

Cluinque 

Sex 

Septem 

Octo 

Novem 

Decern 


ITALIAIt. 

Uno 

Due 

Tre 

Qiiatro 

Cinque 

Sei  • 

Sette 

Otto 

Nove 

Diei-J 


tPAMSH 

lino 

Dos 

Tres 

Qiiatro 

Cineo 

Seyj 

Siete 

Ocho 

Niieve 

Diez 


FREncM 

L'n 

Deux 

Trois 

Onati* 

CiiK] 

Sit 

Sept 

Unit 

Nkii( 

Dix 


OtrmaK.  Dutch.  Svedith.  Damtk.  Sax»n.      Englitl .  Potlii.  IhutimH    Hm^v^m 

'.  Ein  Een  En  F.en  if.ne,  an     One  Jeden  Yediia      Eg 

2.  7.wei  Twee  Twa  Toe  Twa,l\vy  Two  Dwa  Twa  Kelt© 

3.  Drei  I>rii  Tre  Tre  Drie  Three  Trizi  Tree  liarun 

4.  Vier  Vier  Fvra  Fire  Feower       Four  C/.terr.tl  Shatim     Negy 
k  Kiinf  Vyf  Faein  Fem  Fife            Five  Uioc«  Pel  "Cl 


220 

6.  Seehs  y.ei 

7.  Jijehen  /.even 

8.  A.lil  Arilt 


LA  K 

S'irrrfJsA. 

Aotla 


9,   Neiin     ^«-giien  Nut 
.0.  Zetieo   Turn        Tio 


Syv 
otte 
.Nie 


!?«!<ifen 
Ealit 


LAT 


BnflUh.  Poli$h, 

Seven   Sieden 
ElgUt     l«ni 


AiKfion.  liu 
Client        H:tt 
Sel  llel 

\V<issim  Niolez 


Nine      Dziewree   Drvit         Kilenez 


Tyn,  tien    Ten       Dzea/.iec    UiaatiX       Tin 


liANNER.  A  Sdrt  of  hawK,  formeriy 
miu'h  esteemed  in  Inlcoiiry.  tl  lo  ue\l  to 
tlie  buzzard  in  cize. 

LANTKK.N  FLY.  A  reinarkalile  in- 
tect  of  Sou  111  America,  thai  emits  an 
extraordinary  light  from  the  litillow  of  its 
head. 

LA.VYARnS  (among  Mariners).  Short 
pieces  of  rope  fastened  to  !«everal  parts  of 
ac^hip. 

LAPIDARY  (in  Commerce).  One  who 
polishes  and  engnives  stones. 

I.AIMS  IXFER.NALIS.  A  sort  of 
caustic  comptisitlon. 

I. APIS  LAZULI  (In  Painting).  A 
stone  of  an  azure  or  hlue  colour,  of  which 
tlie  paint  called  ultramarine  is  made.  It 
is  a  cop(>er  ore,  very  compact  and  hard, 
and  is  found  in  lumps  of  a  beautiful  blue 
colour,  richly  variepited  with  clouds  of 
white  and  veins  of  sliining  ^old  colour. 

LAPSE  (in  Law).  An  omission  on  the 
part  of  the  patron  to  present  to  a  bent- fice 
within  six  months  after  it  is  vacant,  upon 
which  default  the  ordinary  has  a  right  to 
collate  to  the  said  benefice. 

LAPSED  LEGACY.  I'allen  or  Uat  hy 
a  lapse,  as  where  the  legatee  dies  before 
the  testator,  &.C. 

LAPWING.     See  Pebwit. 

LARBltARD.  A  sea  term  for  the  left 
hand  side  of  a  ship,  when  looking:  inwards 
the  stem  or  head. 

LA  RCENY.  The  felonious  and  fraudu- 
lent taking  away  the  personal  soods  of 
another,  which  in  England,  is  petly  larceny 
if  the  thmp  lie  of  the  value  of  twelve  pence 
or  under,  and  i^rand  larceny  if  above  that 
value. 

LARCH.  A  lofty  tree  of  the  pine  kind, 
beariMg  leaves  like  those  of  ihe  pine,  and 
a  sort  ot  inuslirouifi  for  the  fruit.  The  B'lm 
of  this  tree  is  called  Venice  tur(>eii»tiie. 
The  leaves  fall  off  in  wiiiler.  The  timber, 
which  is  remarkably  durable,  ts  used  in 
buildin<!  ships. 

LARDER.  The  room  where  meat  is 
kept  and  .-lalted. 

LARES.  The  domestic  or  household 
|ods  amoiic  the  Romiins,  placed  in  some 
5Mivaie  part  of  (hi  house,  which  the  family 
boooured  as  their  protector. 

L>AR(<E  (in  Music).  The  ereatest  mea- 
mre  of  musical  ipianlitiea  ;  on«  'args  con- 
laining  two  longa. 


LARGE.  A  sea  phrase  for  the  wind, 
when  il  crosses  Ihe  line  of  a  ship's  course 
in  a  favourable  direction. 

L.VRGESS  (in  Husb.indry).  A  gitl  to 
the  labourers  in  the  harvest  sea-son. 

LARGU  (ill  M^isic).  A  slow  muve- 
menl. 

LARK.  A  well  known  singing  bird,  the 
most  remarkable  species  of  which  is  the 
skylark,  that  slii<!s  so  beautifully  as  it  is 
soaring  in  the  air.  This  bird  is  not  found 
in  America.  Our  meadow  lark  bears  s(une 
resenibliince  to  it,  bill  is  nearly  twice  as 
lartse. 

LARKSPUR.  A  plant  cultivated  in 
gardens,  the  flower  of  which  consists  of 
many  dissimilar  petals  or  leaves,  some  of 
which  end  in  a  tail  or  spur. 

LARVA.  The  grub  or  caterpillar  stato 
of  some  in.sects  so  called  by  Linnaeus,  but 
by  others  the  eruca  or  caterpillar. 

LA  RUM.  A  sort  of  clock  that  makes  a 
noi.se  or  alarm  at  a  certain  hour. 

LARYNX  (in  Anatomy).  The  top  of 
the  windpijie.  below  the  root  of  the  tongue 

L.'VSSO.  A  rope  with  a  noo«e,  u«ed  in 
Suiitli  America  (ur  catciliug  wild  caUle 


LAST.  A  meamire  or  weight,  ••  a  last 
of  corn,  &c.  etpial  to  ten  quarters,  and  a 
la.it  of  cod  tish,  tec.  equal  to  from  twelve 
to  twenty- four  barrels. 

L.ATH  (in  Carpentry).  A  long,  thin, 
piece  of  wix>d,  nailed  to  the  rafters  of  a 
wall  or  rool  to  receive  the  plaster  or 
covering.  Laths  are  distinguished  accord- 
ing to  the  wood  of  which  they  are  made, 
inti>  hearts  of  oak,  sap  latha,  and  deal 
laths. 

LATHE  (in  Turnery).  The  engine  used 
in  turning  wood,  &c. 

LATIN.  The  language  spoken  by  th« 
ancient  Romans,  or  the  inhabitants  aC 
Latiiini,  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

LATIT.\T  (in  Bngland).    A  wni  oaed 


LAY 

•■  penonal  actions,  wher**  thp  pnrty  In  to 
Da  arrested  id  any  other  cniiiily  tliaii  Mid- 
dleMX. 

LATITUriK  (In  Cengraphy).  The  dis- 
tance of  a  plact!  friiiti  the  rqiiatnr,  which 
is  ritlier  nurthcrii  or  southern,  accurdnig 
a-i  Ihr  piare  is  iKirth  or  «>iith.  The  lati- 
luile  cannot  ex<-t-«-<l  IK)  ilesrei's,the  distance 
of  the  et|uator  from  Ihe  nortb  or  miith 
ptile. 

I.ATTEN.  Iron  plates  tinned  over,  of 
which  tea  canisters  are  made. 

LAVA.  The  mineral  substance  which 
(lows  from  Mount  Kfna,  Vesuvius,  and 
other  volciinoes,  is  of  a  grayish  colour, 
light,  moderately  hard,  and  brittle,  ajJiJ, 
easily  frangit)le  :  it  generally  attmrts.'tne 
mag:netic  needle,  and  is  easily  fusible  into 
C(m)pact  glass. 

L.AI'D.A.NK'.M.  A S4>p<.nfic tincture, con- 
taining the  liner  and  purer  parts  of  opium, 
dnwn  in  water  and  -ipirils  of  wine,  and 
then  reduced  to  its  due  consistence. 

LAVE.N'DER.  A  plant  with  a  shrubby 
■tern,  much  branched  with  numerous 
boary  leaves.  The  tlowers  are  produced 
in  tenninuting  spikes  from  the  young  sluMits 
on  long  peduncles.  The  leaves,  stalk,  and 
flower  yield  a  fnigrant  perfume,  and  from 
the  latter  are  prepared  an  essential  oil,  a 
simple  spirit,  and  a  coiii|Hiiind  tincture 

LAIJNCE  FISH,  or  S a. to  Lalucb.  A 
sen  tish  which  buries  itself  <hi  the  recess 
of  the  tide  a  f<Mit  deep  in  the  sand.  It  is 
genrntlly  used  for.ljaits. 

LAUNCH.  A  particular  kind  of  boat, 
used  in  underniniiiiig  the  cables  nf  differ- 
ent shi|M,  that  are  fa-itened  across  each 
otiier. 

LAUNCH  I. \«.  Putting  a  ship  out  of 
tlock,  and  conveying  her  into  the  water. 

I^AUNDKE:$S.  One  «vhoM)  business  It 
Is  to  wash  and  get  up  linen. 

LAl'RE.ATE,  or  P«kt  LtuaiATB  (In 
England).   A  title  given  to  the  king's  poet. 

LAL'KEL.  An  everirreen  tree,  havins 
broad,  thick,  shining  leaves.  The  tiower 
consists  of  five  petals  or  leaves,  which  ex- 
pand in  the  form  of  a  rose. 

I.A  URls^TI.NUS.     The  wild  bay  tree. 

L.WV.  In  Its  most  extensive  sense,  the 
rule  of  conduct  prescribed  by  the  supreme 
power  of  a  state.  The  laws  nf  England 
e<imprehend  the  Common  l.aw  and  the 
Statute  l.aw,  together  with  certain  por- 
tions of  the  Civil  Imw  and  the  Canon  Law. 

I..A\V.\.  A  plain  or  level  space  covered 
with  grnst,  in  a  pleasure  ground. 

L.\Y  (in  Ecrlesiastical  l.aw).  An  epi- 
thet or  whatever  belongs  to  the  people  at 
Inrco.  in  distinction  from  limae  who  are  in 
lM*lv  urilers 

»• 


LEA 


» 


LAV  (with  PoeU).  A  kind  of  ancieo 
poetry,  consisting  of  short  ver>>es. 

LAY  (in  Husbandry).  O'nmnd  that  lies 
follow  or  untilled. 

LAY  BK<»THEnS.  In  the  Rorolsh 
church,  such  as  performed  the  secular  and 
servile  offices  in  a  convent. 

LAY   CDRPtiRATIoN   (in    England). 
A  lay  investiture  of  bishops,  ice. 
.  .LAYER   (in    llortuiiliurei.      A   young 
sprout  lient  down  and  covered  with  nioiild 
for  raising  fresh  planis 

LAYER  (anion:  Ki^liermen).  A  ehan 
nel  or  bed  in  a  creek.  »  here  suiall  oysters 
are  thrtiwn  for  breeiling. 
.^LAYVeE  (in  Euilaiid).  Lands  held 
in  (i»e  of  a  l.iy  lord,  as  distinpiislied  from 
those  lands  which  l>eliiiig  to  Ihe  church. 

LAY  I.MPROPRIATION  (in  England). 
TTie  lnipro|iriating  or  pinplnyiiig  the  reve- 
nues of  the  chiirctvto  llie  use  of  a  layman. 

LAYMAN  (in  Ecclesmstical  Ijiw).  Itiic 
who  has  not  taken  holy  orders. 
•    LAV.MA.N  (in   Painiing).     A  statue  of 
wood,  whose  joints  are   so  made   that   it 
may  be  put  into  any  |iosture. 

LAZARETTO.  An  hospital  for  lazara 
or  leprous  persons. 

LAZl'LI.    See  Lapis. 

LAZI'LITE.  A  mineral  of  the  silleioui 
order,  of  which  lapis  la/.uli  is  the  principal 
species.  Its  principal  constituents  are 
silica,  aliiniines,  carlHUiale  of  lime.  Mil- 
phate  nf  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  Slc. 

LEACH  (among  Miners).  A  tern  signi- 
fying hard  work. 

LE.M)  (in  .Mineralogy).  A  bliiisl  while 
metal,  very  si>l\  and  tlexible,  and  easily 
beaten  into  thin  plates  by  the  hs  nnier 
In  a  strong  heat  it  boils  and  emits  names, 
and  if  during  that  tune  it  ise\|Mised  to  the 
air.  Its  oxidation  proceeds  very  npidly. 
It  is  very  brittle  at  the  time  of  congelation. 
Most  of  tlie  acids  attack  lead,  but  it  unites 
with  most  of  the  nieials,  particularly  tin. 
which  in  union  with  le.-id  I'lirms  the  solder 
used  by  plumber^.  Thecarb«inateof  lead, 
which  is  a  p«iwder,  isj>etter  known  by  tlie 
name  of  white  lead  ;  the  red  oxide  of  lead 
is  otherwise  ralleil  led  le.-id. 

LEAD,  or  SoixniMi  Lbad.  A  seaterio 
for  an  instriiineitl  which  tidised  to  disC4i« 
er  the  depth  of  water  at  sea. 

LEAF  (in  Botany).  A  mpmbran*ceoi# 
and  sonieliines  succulent  part  nf  a  plant, 
which  arises  from  the  stem.  lieares  ap- 
pear to  assist  the  pncess  of  vegetation  l>y 
c<imniunlcating  the  air  to  the  whole  of  the 
plant,  which  on  that  account  is  found  tn 
tie  exceedingly  tender  of  its  leares,  and 
tn  siitfer  niiirii  from  any  rough  tivktnMBi 
which  Umy  way  receive. 


222 


LED 


liKAF.  A  KTiii  aj)|)!if(t  in  other  ohjectR 
rnufiiiblin!!  a  leaf  n.  siKiik.-  nr  iiiuke,  nn  tiie 
le:if  of  a  boiiK  ;  also  leuf  niM  or  gilvcr, 
((old  or  Oliver  beaten  iiilu  plutes  of  exceed- 
ing thinnfss. 

l-EAC;rK  (in  Oeosraphy).  A  meaxure 
of  leniftli,  contaiiiiiig  a  rrrlaiii  niiiiilier  of 
Eeograpliic.-il  pares,  arroriliiic  to  tlie  iisiige 
or  compulation  of  iliirrrr'nl  toiiiilriei'.  A 
icague  at  Sf-a,  wliere  it  i»  mostly  iis«-d  by 
us,  is  eijiial  to  lliree  united,  ur  tliree  thou- 
sand piMMiielriral  paces:  llie  leaiiue  in 
Kraiice  toiilains  three  thousand  live  hun- 
dred pace*.  'I'he  iJulili  or  Cjernian  league 
four  geogrnphicjii  miles.  Seventeen  Spa- 
nish lea;:ues  are  eipial  toa  degree,  or  sixty- 
nine  and  a  half  !>talute  iiiilea. 

LEACI/K    (in    rolltics).     A   treaty  of 

^liance  between  dillerent  states  or  parlies. 

IJ-'.AK.    .\ny  hole  or  chink   in  a  vessel 

vvbir.b  adiiiits  the  water,  particularly  ap- 

plip<»  To  a  ship  at  lea. 

LEAKa<<E  ; in  Commerce).  An  allow- 
ance made  to  iiierchaiiUi  for  the  leaking;  or 
running  oi  vessels. 

LF^.AP  (in  Cuminerce).  A  measure  equal 
to  half  a  bushel. 

LEAP  VEAR  (tn  Chmnoln-fy).  Any 
year  in  whicli  a  day  ia  added  more  than 
ordinary. 

LEASE  (In  I.aw).  A  conveyance  of 
lands,  cenenilly  in  considemtion  of  rent 
or  other  annual  recompense,  for  term  of 
years,  for  life,  or  al  will,  provided  it  be 
for  a  shorter  term  than  the  lessor  has  in 
'iie  premises. 

I.E.ASII  (amnn!»  Sportsmen).  The  num- 
ber of  three  applied  tu  partridges  or  other 
game  which  are  killed. 

LEASINtj.  The  same  as  pleanine,  or 
picking  u|i  the  ears  of  coin  after  the  field 
is  cleared. 

LEATII ER.  The  skin  or  hide  of  a  beast 
tanned  and  dressed. 

LEATHER -DRESSER.  One  who 
diesiies  leather. 

LEATHER  SELLER.  One  who  deals 
n  leather.  The  company  of  leather-sellers 
III  London,  was  incorporated  in  iri)^. 

LEAVEN.  A  piece  of  sourdough  put  tn 
fernienl  a  mass  of  breail. 

LECTURER  (in  E(rlesiastica:i  Law).  In 
England,  a  miuisiler  uho  preaches  in  the  af- 
ternoon, and  is  usually  paid  liy  the  people. 
LEIKIE  (in  Geograpby).    A  long  ridge 
*f  nicks  near  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

LEI>c;ER.  The  chief  lifM.k  used  in  mer- 
chants accounts,  wherein  every  man's  par- 
ticular account  is  ke|K  ;  and  also  all  the 
fr<Hls  noil!.'!!!  anit  sold  are  distinctly  placed 
WT  by  Jitiiisdves,  as  <lebtor  on  the  left 


LEM 

hand    page,   and    creditor    on    tht    tight 
hand. 

LEE.  A  sea  term  for  that  part  whici 
llie  wind  blows  upon,  or  that  is  opposite 
to  the  wind,  as  the  lee  shore. 

LEIX'H.  A  well  known  insect  that  lives 
in  the  water,  and  is  commonly  u.-<ed  In 
bleeding.  The  two  principal  sjiedes  ai« 
the  medicinal  leech,  which  Is  employed  to 
dniw  blood  where  the  lancet  Is  Ir.-s  safe  ; 
and  the  horse  leech,  which  is  larger,  and 
applied  to  horses  for  the  same  purpose 

LEECHES.  A  sea  term  for  the  edges 
of  a  sail. 

LEEK.   A  potherb  having  long  cylindri- 
cal and  coaled  riMits.      It  has  Miniethiiig  of 
the  flavour  of  the  onion. 
LEES.  The  dregs  of  wine. 
LEET.  In  England, a  little  court  within 
a  manor,  having  a  criminal  jiiri.idirtion. 

LEO  (in  An.-ilomy).  A  limb,  and  that 
part  of  the  aniinal  body  which  serves  for 
walking. 

LE(!  (among  Artificern)  Whatever 
serves  for  the  supjiurt  of  a  thing,  as  the 
leg  of  a  sto<d.  Sec. 

LEO  (in  Mathematics).  The  two  sides 
of  a  triangle  are  called  the  legs. 

LEfJ.  A  sea  term  for  rojies  put  through 
the  boll  ropes  of  the  main  and  foresail. 

LE(;ACY  (in  I»TW).  A  beipiest  or  gift 
by  testament  of  any  |>ersonal  effects:  Ihe 
person  heipieathiug  is  called  the  lestaior, 
and  he  to  whom  it  is  bequeathed  the 
legatee. 

LEGATE.  A  cardinal  or  bishop  sent  by 
the  pope  as  his  ambassador  to  sovereign 
princes. 

LEGEND.  A  book  used  in  the  ancient 
Roman  churches,  containing  the  lessons 
that  were  to  be  read  ;  also  a  chr(uilcle  oi 
register  of  the  lives  of  saints. 

LE(<ENU  (among  Antiquarians).  The 
inscription  on  the  edge  of  a  medal  or 
coin. 

LEGERDEMAIN,  orSurjHT  or  H*^d 
Tricks  which,  from  the  dexterity  of  the 
performer,  are  made  to  deceive  the  ob- 
server. 

LE<:fON  (in  the  Roman  army)  A 
body  of  6000  fmit  and  3(10  horse,  or  less 
LEGITMEN.  All  manner  of  pulse. 
LE(;i;.MEN  (in  Uotany).  That  species 
of  seed  vessel  vulgarly  termed  a  (mhI,  as 
the  seed  vessel  of  the  pea,  vetch  lupi  le, 
&.C.  '^ 

LEMMA.  A  proposition  in  Mathematics, 
which  serves  to  prepare  the  way  (or  Itim 
demoiistnirion  of  son  e  theorem. 

LE.M.MI.N'G.  A  sfM^cies  of  animals  of  the 
rat  Xindj  the  Lapland  leniming  inigratea. 


LEN 

•t  the  npuroacli  of  winter,  and  rather  than 
4cviiiir  Irnin  Ins  xtrai^lil  cuur:$e  he  will 
perir'li  III  iilteiiipliii^  to  •urmuuiit  olMluclea 
that  lie  III  Ins  way. 

LEAH  i.NADK.   A  drink  made  of  water, 
leiiioiiM,  anil  sii^ur 

LEilOIsr.    A  n  acid  fruit  of  the  lemon 

tree,  l>eloii<!;iii<i  to  iho  geiiim  citrus.  It 
j;i<iwsin  Florida  and  Louibiuiia,auUalso 
111  tlie  south  of  JiuroiKj, 


LET 


za 


LEMUR.  A  gcnns  of  quadrupeds  soma- 
nrhat  refwinbling  the  monkey  in  the  I'orin 
of  the  feel,  but  widely  (liirereiit  from  thai 
aiiiinai  in  its  manners  ami  temper.  Two 
of  these  aniniiils  liroiiciit  from  India  lately, 
iiid  exhihited  in  iloston,  would  walk  back- 
ward and  forward  on  a  wmall  tigltt  cord, 
tuuig  Uteir  tiild  for  balance  pules. 


■^^~ 


LENS.  A  piere  of  gttias  or  other  trans- 
parpnt  •iibstanre  of  the  fimire  of  a  lentil, 
which  either  rollfctg  the  rays  of  light  it.tii 
a  point.  In  their  passage  through  it,  or  dis- 
perses them  according  to  their  form  and 
the  laws  of  refraction.  The  convex  lens 
converges  lUe  riys  of  light,  and  the  con- 
cave dis|>erse»  the  rays.  If  only  one  side 
is  convex  and  the  fither  plane,  It  Is  called 
a  piano  cj  III  vex  lens,  such  as  A  in  the  fol- 
low ing  llgiire  ;  if  convex  on  both  sides.  It 
l»  a  double  convex  lens,  as  H.  The  con- 
cave lenses  are  also  ;liviiled  into  llie  plano- 
concave, as  O,  coiicavo  concave,  as  U.  and 


the  meniscus,  which  is  concave  on  oaa 
side  and  convex  un  Ui«  other,  a*  K. 


LENT.  A  timeof  faxtlngandabftlneoec 
for  forty  ilajs  before  Easter. 

LEN'I'I  !>?.  A  sort  of  pulse. 

LEU  (ill  Astronomy).  A  constellatioo 
and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiaa 
marked  lliiis  ^. 

LEOPAUD.  An  African  animal  of  the 
cat  kind  covered  with  black  spots  upon  a 
yellow  ground,  so  di8|Vieed,  as  to  resemble 
the  print  of  its  fiHil.  It  Is  one  of  tlte  nios 
beautiful  of  all  quadrupeds. 


LEPTDOPTERA.  An  order  of  taiweta 
In  the  Linna'an  system,  which  have  their 
wings  imbricated  with  Kales,  as  the  but- 
terfly, moth,  &.C. 

LEI'KUSY  (in  Medicine).  A  foul  cuta- 
neous disea.se,  appearing  in  dry,  white, 
thin,  scurfy  scabs. 

LEri?S  (in  Astronomy).  The  flare,  a 
constellation  in  the  southern  hemispheie, 

LE  ROV  LE  VEUT.i.e.  The  king  wills 
It.  In  England  the  form  of  words  by  which 
the  king  signides  his  assent  to  the  bills 
that  have  passed  the  two  ho.iBes,  aOer 
which  they  acquire  the  force  of  laws. 

LE  ROY  S'AVISERA,  i.  e.  The  king 
will  coni^ider  of  it.  The  form  of  words  by 
which  he  refuses  his  assent  to  any  bills 
that  are  presented  to  him. 

LETHARGY.  A  disease  arising  from 
cold,  phlegmatic  humours  which  oppresa 
the  brain,  and  cause  an  incessant  drowsi- 
ness. 

LETHE.  A  river  in  hell,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  poets,  caused  all  whs  drunk  of 
it  to  forwt  the  past. 

LETTER  (in  Crammar).  A  charactet 
in  the  alplialwt,  used  to  express  the  simple 
sounds  of  the  voice  which  in  every  Ian 
guage  are  collected  mlo  a  series  called  ths 


124 


LRV 


ftiptiahet.  Letter*  are  Cdmposert  of  vowels 
•B<1  eoniionants,  and  form  wcrds. 

LETTER  (in  Printing).  The  type  or 
character  u'liich  is  used  in  coiniiosing. 

LETTER  (in  Coniinerce).  Any  writing 
sent  from  one  person  to  another. 

LETTER  OF  ADVICE.  A  letter  written 
by  a  merchant  to  his  correspondent,  ad- 
visinj;  or  piving  him  notice  of  what  bills 
he  lias  drawn  upon  hnn. 

LETTER  OF  ATTORNEY  (In  Law). 
A  writing  wlierehy  a  person  constitutes 
another  to  do  a  lawful  act  in  his  siteud,  as 
to  receive  delits,  &.C 

LETTER  OF  CREDIT  (among  Mer- 
chants). A  writing  by  one  niertliant  to 
another,  desiring  him  to  credit  tlie  bearer 
with  a  certain  sum  of  nK>ney. 

LETTER  OF  MAKQUE.  A  coniinis 
•ion  jriveii  to  priviito  Hliijis.  \)y  :\  govern 
iiieiit.  to  make  reprisals  on  llie  ships  ol 
another  state. 

LEUCHTEXBERGITE.  A  iniii.iHl 
of  a  yellow  color  iuid  penrly  lii.stre.  lt.-< 
constitiionls  are  Kilica,  aliiniitin,  niaij 
(hisia.  peroxide  of  iron,  lime,  and  water. 

LEUCITE.  A  stone  of  the  garnet  kind. 

LEVEL.  An  instmment  used  to  maka 
a  line  parallel  to  the  horizon.  The  plumb 
level  is  that  which  shows  the  horizontal 
line  by  means  of  another  line  perpendicu- 
lar to  that  described  hy  a  plummet  or 
pendulum,  which  instrument  consists  of 
two  legs  or  branches,  joined  together  at 
riirlil  angles,  whereof  that  which  carries 
the  thread  and  plummet  is  about  a  foot 
and  a  half  long,  the  thread  is  hung  towards 
the  top  of  the  branch.  A  telescope  is 
placed  on  the  horizontal  branch  of  the  in- 
strument, havitvga  hair  placed  hori'/.onfally 
arriiss  the  focus  of  the  object  glass,  wh.i<h 
determines  the  point  of  the  level.  The 
telescope  is  fastened  by  a  ball  and  socket. 


LEVER  Tn  England,  a  company  of  the 
vnbility,  fentry,  &c.  who  assemble  to  pay 
their  respects  to  the  king.  Ft  consists  of 
t>ntl«inen  only,  by   which  it  Is    distir- 


LET 

giiished  from  a  drawingroom,  where  ladiM 
as  well  as  gentlemen  attend.  The  tena 
is  also  applied  to  the  evening  assembliei 
at  the  president's  house  in  Washington. 

LEVELLING.  The  art  of  finding  a  line 
parallel  to  the  horizon  at  one  or  m<rt 
stations,  in  order  to  determine  the  ht  i«hl 
of  one  place  in  respect  to  another.  The 
subjoined  figure  showsthe  manner  of  tind- 
lug  the  ilitference  of  the  level  of  a  place, 
where  there  is  a  level  line  and  two  sights 
level  witJi  each  other,  whereby  the  per- 
penilicular  distance  between  the  surface  oi 
the  ground  and  any  point  in  ti'e  level  line 
may  he  discovered.  The  art  of  levelling 
is  particularly  applied  to  the  laying  out 
grounds  even,  regulating  descents,  drain- 
ing iiiora.sses,  conducting  water,  ttc 


LEVELLING  (in  Fortification).  Th* 
.educing  an  uneven  surface  to  that  of  a 
plane,  so  that  the  works  may  be  of  a  cor- 
responding height  and  figure. 

LEVER.  One  of  the  si.x  powers,  which 
may  consist  of  any  Instrument,  as  a  straight 
bar  of  iron  or  w<n.d,  as  A  B,  supported 
upon  a  fulcrum  or  ()rop,  C,  having  a 
weight,  W,  at  (me  end,  a  power,  I*,  at  the 
other.  Then  A  C  and  II  C  are  the  arms 
of  the  lever.  Of  this  kind  are  balances, 
scales,  pincers,  &c. 


LEVER  ET.  A  jronn«  hare. 

LEVIGATION.  The  mechanical  pro- 
cess  of  trinding  the  parts  of  bodies  to  a 
fine  paste,  by  rultbing  the  flat  face  of  a 
stone  called  a  muller,  upon  another  stone 
called  the  table  or  slab. 

LEVITE.  One  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  of 
belonging  to  the  priestly  office. 

LEXICOtiRAPHY.  The  art  of  writing 
dictionaries. 

LEYUEN     PHIAL,    or    L>tde!<    Jab 


LIB 

80  called  from  M.  Vankleigh,  a'  Leyileii, 
who  ftrsl  observed  its  projjerlies.  A  glass 
jar,  having  ihe  ouuide  and  the  inside 
coated  with  tin  foil,  ajid  a  brass  wire,  the 
upfier  part  of  wliicli  terminates  in  a  ball 
of  the  game  metal,  and  the  lower  part 
in  a  chain  that  communicates  with  the  in- 
side. This  jar  arimiu  of  being  charged  so 
as  to  prodnce  the  electrical  shock  and 
various  other  exjierinienls  illuslruUve  of 
the  power  of  electricity. 


Lia 


229 


LIBATION.  A  sacrifice  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  which  consisted  iii 
oflering  up  Borne  liquid  to  the  gods. 

LIBEL  (in  Law).  An  injurious  reproach 
or  accusation  written  or  published  aiiaiiist 
the  government,  a  magistrate,  or  a  private 
person. 

LIBEL  (in  the  Civil  Law).  The  decla- 
ration or  charge  drawn  up  in  writing,  as 
is  used  in  tiie  ecclesiastical  courts. 

LIBERAL  ARTS.  Such  as  are  fit  for 
gentlemen  and  scholars. 

LIBERTY  (in  Law).  A  privilege  by 
which  men  enjoy  some  favour  or  benefit, 
keyond  the  ordinary  subject. 

LIBERTY  OF  CO.NSCIENCE.  The 
iberty  of  following  any  profession  of  reli- 
gion, which  one  pleases,  without  any  con- 
trol from  government. 

LIBERTY  (in  the  Manege).  A  void 
•pace  in  the  middle  of  a  bitl  of  a  bridle,  to 
give  place  to  the  tongue  of  a  horse. 

LIBRA  (in  Astronomy).  A  constellation, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
marked  thus  (-Cz). 

LIBRARIAN.  One  who  has  charge  of 
a  library 

LIBRARY.  A  large  collection  of  books, 
also  the  place  which  contains  them.  The 
first  library  spoken  of  in  history  was  that 
formed  by  Pisistratiis,  tyrant  of  Athens. 
Eumenes,  kin?  of  Perganins,  also  formed 
a  lilirao'  of  200,000  volnnies;  but  the  li- 
brary of  Alei.indria,  formed  by  Ptolemy 
PhiladelihUis,  coiilained  700,000.  Anion!! 
iie  libraries  of  the  modems,  tliat  of  the 


Biblistheque  Imperial,  of  Paris,  ia 
the  most  oelebruted.  It  was  begua 
in  the  middle  of  the  14th  Century  with 
ten  volumes,  but  has  been  augmented, 
till  it  now  contains  l.iOO.OM  printed 
Vjlumes  and  84,000  manuscript  volumes. 

LIBliATION.  In  astronoiny,  an  ap- 
parent irregularity  of  the  moon's  mo- 
tion, by  which  she  appears  to  librate 
about  Uer  axis. 

LIBBETTO.  A  little  book  containing 
the  words  of  an  opera. 

LICHEN.  In  botany,  an  orJcr  of 
plauts  ol  very  low  organization,  wliich 
grow  on  the  bark  of  trees,  ou  rock.s,  and 
on  the  ground.  In  pathology,  au  erup- 
tion of  the  skin;  acutaueou.s  distemper. 

LICTOR.  A  Eoman  officer,  who  bore 
an  axe  aud  fasces  or  rods,  as  ensigns  of 
his  oifice. 

LIEBEKKUHN.  A  metallic  mirror  at- 
tached to  the  object-glass  end  of  a  mi- 
croscope lor  the  purpo.-^e  of  throwing 
down  light  on  opaque  objects:  a  reflector 

LIEUrENANT.  In  tlie  army  or  uavy, 
one  who  supplies  the  place  awl  dis- 
cliarges  the  duty  of  his  immediate  sa- 
perior  in  bis  absence. 

LIEUXEN.\NT  GENERAL.  In  the 
United  States,  an  officer  next  in  rank 
below  the  Governor  of  a  State  aud  du- 
ring the  absence  of  the  Governor  per- 
forms his  duties. 

LIEN.  A  legal  claim;  the  right  by 
which  the  possessor  of  property  holds 
it  against  tl)e  owner  in  satifilactiou  of  a 
demand. 

LIEVBITE.  A  brownish-black  miner- 
al, occurring  iu  long,  vertically  striated, 
prismatic  crystals, 

LIGAN.  In  luw,  goods  sunk  in  the 
sea,  but  tied  to  a  cork  or  buoy,  in  order 
t->  be  found  again. 

LIGAMENT.  In  anatomy,  a  strong 
elastic  membrane  or  substance  connec- 
ting the  extremities  of  the  movable 
boues.  In  conchology,  an  external  sub- 
stance, gt'uerally  of  a  compact  tibi-ous 
texture,  by  which  the  two  valves  ot 
bivalvulnr  .shells  are  united. 

LIGNINE.  The  proximate  chemical 
principle  of  wood;  the  fibre  of  wood, 
forming  about  95  per  cent,  of  barked 
wood,  and  the  chief  ingredient  of  cot- 
ton, lineu,  aud  paper. 

LIGNITE.  Fossil  wood  carbonized, 
and  converted  into  a  kind  of  coal. 

LIGNUM  VIT^.  A  very  hard  and 
close-grained  wood,  of  the  plant  Guaiac- 
um  officinale,  remarkable  tor  the  dii-ec- 
tion  of  its  fibres,  each  layer  of  which 
crosses  the  preceding  diagonally.  A 
native  of  S.  America  and  the  W.  Indies. 

LIGUL.\.  Ia  botany,  a  membranous 
appendage  at  the  apex  of  the  sheathing 
petiole  of  grasses.  In  Entomology,  the 
lower  lip  ot  insects;  also,  the  name  of  a 
gennsof  Eutozoa.  forming  the  family 
Cestoidea.  Ligulated  flowers,  in  botany, 
are  such  a.s  have  a  monopotalous  slit  on 
one  side,  and  open  flat,  as  in  the  Dan* 
delion. 


226 


LIM 


LU;ATt'KE(inPurf:eryVThediRpos>Dg 
itf  banrtages  for  closing  wniiiidd 

M'JATI'RB  (amimg  Priritsrs).  Ty?f 
eonsMtiiig  ol'  two  letters  tn  one  piece,  as 
ff,  4^c. 

J^IGHT  (In  Optics).  The  eensation 
whuJi  arises  I'roiii  lielioldliig  any  olyecl,  or 
theraiiseoftliatseiisatuin.  The  nature  and 
properties  of  liplil,  and  the  changes  which 
if  undergoes  in  passing  through  bodies, 
form  a  principal  part  of  the  science  of  o(>- 
tics. 

LIGHT  (in  Palming).  That  part  of  a 
piece  which  is  illuinined. 

LIGHT  (in  Architecture).  Lightsaretlie 
apertures  in  a  house. 

LIGHT  (in  Military  Affairs).  An  epithet 
for  sohliers  liglitly  armed,  as  lightborse,  or 
liglilinfautry. 

LIGHTER.  A  large  vessel  for  carrying 
goods. 

LIGHTERAGE.  .Money  paid  for  the 
carrying  goods  in  a  lighter. 

LIGHTERMAN.  One  who  conducts  a 
lighter. 

LIGHTHOUSE.  A  tower  or  lofty  build- 
in  gun  the  seacoast,  having  a  light  in  it, 
for  the  guidance  of  mariners  at  night. 

lilGHTNIXG.  In  physies,  tho  flash 
that  precedes  thumler;  au  electric 
pUenomeiion  produced  by  the  passage 
of  elfiotricity  betweeu  one  cloud  and 
another,  or  betweeu  a  cloud  aud  tho 
<«.vth. 

ipiLASrSTE.  A  chemical  principle  dis- 
covered in  lilac. 

LILIACE^.  A  natural  order  of  Endo- 
gons.  containing  many  of  the  most 
beiutiful  floral  plants  of  that  class  of 
tha  vegetable  kingdom,  of  which  the 
Lilium,  or  Lily,  is  the  tvpe, 

LILY  ENCKINITE.  lu  geology,  the 
fossil  zoophyte,  one  of  tho  most  beauti- 
ful of  the  Crinoidean  family,  lound  in 
the  Muschelkalk;  so  termed  from  the 
rosemblauce  it  bears  to  tho  head  of  a 
lily  when  tho  arms  are  folded. 

LIM.\CIANS.  A  name  comprehending 
the  genera  of  Slugs. 

LIMB.  In  astronomy,  a  term  applied 
to  the  edge  of  a  planet. 

LIMBERS.  In  the  artillery  service, 
two-wheel  carriages  having  boxes  for 
ammunition. 

LIMB  AT.  A  name  in  the  island  of 
Cyprus  applied  to  a  cooling  wind,  blow- 
ing from  8  A.  M.  till  mid-day  or  later; 
the  local  sea-breeze. 

LLVIBO,  or  LIMBUS.  A  region  border- 
ing on  hell;  purgatory.  Ariosto  makea 
it  the  place  of  all  lost  things;  Milton 
the  paradise  of  fools;  and  Shakspeare 
hell  itself. 

LLME  (in  Mineralogy).  An  earthy  siib- 
Rtance,  which  is  found  purest  in  limestone, 
marble,  and  chalk,  and  is  prorifrcd  by 
burning  in  a  while  heat.     It  is  of  a  white 


LIN 

colour,  and  easily  reduced  to  a  p.>w<ler. 
If  water  be  poured  on  newly  burnt  lime, 
it  swells  and  falls  to  a  powder,  tn  which 
state  It  IS  called  slacked  lime. 

LIME  (ill  llotany).     A  tree oftbeorang* 
kind,  that  grows  in  wami  climates. 


"^LIMEKILNS.  Furnaces  in  which  lime- 
stone is  converted  iiilo  lime  by  burning. 

LLMEST'iNi;.  'i'lie  native  carbonate 
of  lime,  which  is  generally  rather  blue, 
from  the  pre.-ipiice  of  iron 

LIMIT  (in  Malheniatics).  A  determi- 
nate onanrity,  to  which  a  variable  one 
continually  a|iproaches. 

Ll.MITA'I'lUiN  (in  Law).  A  certainiiine 
prescri)>ed  by  statiile,  within  which  an 
action  must  be  brought 

LIRLMNG  The  art  of  painting  in  vva- 
ter  colours. 

Ll.NCIlPIN,  or  LINSriN.  An  iron  pii» 
that  keeps  the  wheel  on  the  axle-lree. 

LINE  (in  Geometry).  A  qiiantity  ex 
tended  in  length  only  Lines  are  either 
curves  or  right  lines. 

LINE  (in  Fortification).  Whatever  in 
drawn  on  the  ground  of  the  field,  as  a 
trench,  or  a  row  of  gabions,  &c. 

LI.\E  (in  Military  Affairs).  Repilar 
troops,  in  distinction  from  the  militia, 
volunteers,  &.C. 

Li.VE,  or  a  Shif  of  the  Line  (in  Naval 
Affairs).  Is  any  vessel  of  war  larg* 
enouirh  tn  be  dmwn  up  in  the  line  of  hatile. 

LI.VE  (in  (Jeography).  Another  nanM. 
for  the  equator,  or  enuinoctial  line. 

LINE  OF  KATTLE.  The  disjiositM* 
of  an  army  for  battle. 

LIN  E.N.     A  kind  of  cloth  made  of  fla* 

LING.     Asort  ofcod  fish. 

L1NN^;AN  SVSTK.M.  a  system  of 
nntnral  history,  so  called  from  Linineus, 
the  Swedish  naturalist.  It  comprehends  a 
scieiitiAc  arrnngeinrnt  of  all  natural  ob- 
jects, as  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  into 
three  kincdoiiis,  sulidlviiled  into  classes, 
orders,  genera,  Si>ecies,  and  varieties,  with 


LIS 

t  dRBCiiptin  I  or  llieir  i^neric  anU  specific 
cliarHriera. 

LI.WRT.  A  tfiiiati  giueliis  bird,  i>('  the 
ftnr.h  kiQtl  The  bird  in  Anitrioa  «:itlled 
Indigo  bird  li  •  vmiiaty  ofiiie  Imiiei 


LIV 


iXi 


^ 


.IVPEET).  Tbe  seed  of  h*mp  or  flax, 
rriiiii  which  an  oil  is  extnirted. 

I.IXT.  l^iiien  8rr«[>«-il  iiiiu  asofl,  n-ool- 
ly  HiilMlance,  tit  for  :i|>plyiiig  lo  wtiuiids. 

LINTEL,  'i'hr  u\>pei  part  of  a  door  or 
wiiiilovv  fmine. 

LION.  The  fterresi  and  noblest  of  all 
wild  iK'it.'Jtg,  whii'li  i!<  iiiHile  1(1  he  llie  cm- 
bicMi  of  streiiipli  and  viiloiir,  ami  is  on  tli:il 
arcoiiiil  the  iinisi  l'rei]M»-iilly  lioriie  in  conis 
of  arms.  It  in  a  native  of  Africa  and  In- 
dia, and  twin)!  nearly  allied  lo  tlie  cat 
tribe,  is  cliiwed  by  Liniiasiu  under  tbe 
•ame  geniu. 


LiaUTI>S(lnCh'>mi«»ry).  Fluids  which 
are  not  elastic,  nor  diTiiini-ih  seni^ibly  in 
bulk,  in  di^tinclion  from  gasett  or  elastic 
fluids. 

LIUIJIDS  (in  fJrainniar).  The  letters 
I,  III,  n,  r,  so  called  from  tlieir  soft  and 
nisllins  sound. 

l.Kll.'OR.  Any  lliin:;  !l<iiiid  that  may 
be  drank,  (larticiilarly  what  is  of  a  spiritu- 
oiis  iialure. 

IJHIORICE.  A  shrub,  the  root  of 
which  IS  full  of  a  sickly  sweet  juice. 

1.1.>*T.     A  roll  or  r.iialo:;iie  of  names. 

LI."<T,  Ci»iu  tin  England).  The  whole 
eTthe  kiiia's  revenue. 

MsSTiaiiioni!  .Mariners).  An  oclination 
lit  our  Mile,  a|i|ilird   lo  a  ship. 

»,li-'J  .aiiii-ng  flolhierai.  A  border  or 
•d(e  of  ckHh. 


LIST,  or  LISTEI.l.  .In  Architecture). 
A  Kuiall  baud  t>r  square  muuJdiiig,  •erving 
lu  crown  larser  moiiidins;.*. 

LI."<TS.  A  place  encU>«ed  with  mils, 
w  Ithin  which  lournaineiils  or  fe.it!>  of  drma 
were  e.xhiliited. 

LITA.N'Y.  A  cmral  siippliration  or 
pnyer  siiiig  or  saiil  in  >  liiirches,  esjiecially 
that  III  the  Book  of  (.'oiiinntn  I'rayer. 

LITEKAKV  rKDl-KKTV.  The  nsht 
w.'iich  authors  have  in  their  works. 

Ln'IIAIt<;i:.  'J'he  .srum  or  dross  ihal 
•rises  in  purifying  silver  with  lead.  It  i* 
an  oxiile  of  lead. 

IJTIIU;  ACM).  All  acid  exlracleil  from 
the  urinary  call  iili. 

LITIKn;KArillt;.  Anepithet  for  wli.tl 
pertains  to  eniiraviiig  on  stone,  as  litlio- 
graphic  iiupressums,  those  which  are  takm 
on  |a|>er  from  engravings  on  stone. 

LITIIOtJKAIMIV.  The  art  of  cutting 
or  ensravinu  on  sione,  from  which  impres- 
sions are  taken  on  (taper. 

MTHOM  AR(;E.  An  earth  of  the  clay 
kind,  which  is  known  by  the  niiine  of 
fuller's  earili  and  (Killer's  clay. 

LITIIdTO.MY  (in  Surgery).  The  ope- 
ration of  removing  a  calculus  or  atone  from 
the  bladder. 

LIT.ML'S  (in  Chemistry).  A  substance 
fnim  which  is  formed  a  tincture  that  serves 
as  a  test  of  the  presence  of  an  acid  nr  an 
alkali.  Alt  acids  and  salts  change  ine 
natural  vfolet  of  the  litmus  into  red,  and 
all  alkalies  restore  it  tu  its  natural  ctdoui 
the  \"iolet. 

LITUKCY.  A  set  form  of  pt»yer,  or  a 
formulary  of  piihlic  devotion. 

LITTORAL.  In  geology,  applied  to 
operations  and  tleposit.s  which  take 
place  near  the  shore.iii  coutradistinction 
to  those  of  a  deep-water  character,  tu 
botany,  growing  on  the  sea-shore  or  on 
the  banks  of  a  river;  Littoral  Zone,  that 
zone  of  marine  life  which  lies  between 
high  and  low  water  mark,  varying  in 
extent  according  to  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  tide,  and  shillowness  of  the  shore. 

LITURGY.  The  established  formulas 
for  public  worship. 

LIVER.  In  anatomy,  a  large  abdom- 
inal organ,  of  a  deep  red  color,  lying 
under  the  false  ribs  on  the  right  side; 
its  principal  use  is  to  secrete  the  bila. 

LIVERY.ME.N  (of  Ixmdon).  .\  certain 
number  of  pers'^*  rhusen  from  among  the 
freemen  if  e.arli  c..«npany  in  the  i  ity.  Out 
of  this  boily  are  rhosni  the  coniim  n  coun- 
cil, sherilf,  ami  ><lier  superior  otticer*  of 
the  city,  and  Ihey  alone  haveihe  privileg* 
of  vol  lug  at  the  election  of  nieinbera  ul 
parliament. 

MVERV  STABLES.  Public  lU'iM. 
where  horses  are  let  ool  lo  hjr». 


S28  LOA 

1<I  VRE.  A  moiiKV  of  arcoiint  formerly 
DM-il  in  P'nKirp,  equal  lo  twenty  suuB,  or 
twenty  cents 

J.IXI  VIUAL     A  lye  ni.ide  of  ashes. 

LIZARD.  An  extensive  tril>e  of  ani- 
mals, classed  by  Lintiieus  iirirlertlie  genus 
lacestii,  comprehending  the  crucudile,  bas- 
ilisk, chameleon,  and  salamander.  The 
lizard,  properly  so  called,  is  a  little  reptile 
of  a  green  colour,  and  is  frequently  to  be 
met  with  in  gardens  oi  under  dungtilUa,&c. 


LLAMA  (in  Natural  History).  An  Bnt- 
mal  of  the  camel  kind  in  Peru  and  Chili, 
which  has  a  bunch  on  the  breast,  long, 
soft  tiaif ,  and  defends  itself  by  ejecting  its 
•aliva. 


a^vjsg©" 


LLANDELLO  FOKMATION.  In  geol- 
ogy, the  lowest  series  of  the  Bilurian 
system. 

IXANOS.  A  term  applied  to  extensive 
treeless  plains  which  extend  along  the 
banks  of  the  river  Orinoco.in  S.  America. 

LLOYD'S.  A  part  of  the  Royal  Ex- 
change in  London,  appropriated  to  the 
use  of  underwriters  and  insurance 
brokers;  so  called  from  Lloyd's  coffee- 
house having  been  the  original  place  of 
meeting. 

LOADSTONE.  A  sort  of  ore  dug  out 
of  iron  mines,  on  which  the  needle  of  the 
manner's  compass  is  touched,  to  give  it  a 
dir*?ctiun  nurl/i  or  south  it  is  a  peculiarly 
rifli  ore  of  iron,  found  in  large  masses  in 
England,  and  most  other  places  where 
there  sue  mines  of  that  metal.  It  is  of  a 
d«rp  iron  m'ay,  ami  wher.  fresh  broken,  it 
is  oiVen  tinged  witti  a  Itrc  A'liish  or  reddish 
colour. 

f/^AP.  A  lump  ol  bread  of  a  certain 
veigilt,  worlled  by  tlie  baker  into  a  par- 


LOC 

LOASACE.E.  In  botany,  the  ChiU- 
nettle  lamUy,  an  order  of  plants,  alh- 
ance  Cactales.  The  Loasat:e<B  are  all 
natives  of  North  and  South  America. 

LO.-XF  (among  f'ugitt  l)alversj.  A  lump 
of  sugar  of  a  conical  fiirni. 

LOAM,  or  LOME.  A  particular  kind 
offal,  unctuous,  aiid  tenacious  earth,  thai 
is  used  much  by  gardeners  in  making  cuiii- 
post. 

LOAN.  In  general,  any  tiling  iulrusled 
to  another  to  be  returned  again  ;  purticu- 
Krly  iiHiiiey. 

Loan  (in  Pulitical  Economy).  Sums 
of  money  borrowed  from  individuals  or 
public  bodies  for  the  service  of  the  stale. 
This  practice  of  borrowing  money  to  defray 
the  extraordinary  expenses  in  time  of  war 
which  has  been  adopted  in  Great  Britain 
during  several  of  her  late  wars,  has  given 
rise  to  the  national  debt.  All  loans  on  the 
part  of  government  in  England,  are  con- 
tracted for  hy  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exche- 
quer, and  afterwards  cotilirmed  by  parlia- 
ment. Loans  used  formerly  to  be  granted 
by  public  bodies  to  the  king  in  considera- 
tion of  certain  privileges  thai  were  secured 
lo  them,  but  now  money  is  cummoni) 
advanced  by  individuals,  in  consideration 
of  receiving  interest. 

LOBBY  (in  Architecture).  A  kind  of 
passage,  room,  or  gallery,  as  the  lobby  in 
a  theatre 

LOBBY  (in  Naval  Architecture).  A 
small  room  near  the  bread-room  in  a 
vessel  of  war,  appropriated  to  the  use  o' 
tke  surgeon. 

LOBE  (in  Anatcmiy).  A  division  in  any 
Iwdy,  as  the  lun^s  or  liver 

LOBE  (in  Botany)  A  division  in  seeds, 
such  as  beans,  peas,  &c. 

LOBSTER  A  small  cnistaceous  fish, 
having  a  cylii  Irical  body,  with  a  long  tail 
and  long  anten.  a;,  l^ibsters  are  found  on 
most  of  the  rocky  coasts  of  England,  and 
are  abundant  in  this  country 


LOCAL  (in  Law).  Tied  or  Joined  to  a 
place ;  thus  real  actions  are  local,  because 
they  must  by  trought  in  the  country  wh<re 
the  lands,  trc.  lie. 

LOCAL  COLOURS  (in  Painting).  Rnci 
as  are  natural  and  proper  for  eactl  par- 
ticular objecl  111  a  picture 


LOG 

l^OCAL  PROBLEiM  (m  Matheniatica). 
That  whicli  admits  of  iiiiiuitiomble  imiIu- 
tions 

LOCK  (among  Smiths)  A  piece  of  iron 
wt'rK,  whii:h  i.i  looked  upon  a:;  a  ma^ter- 
pie<e  In  srathery,  as  much  an  and  nicety 
is  rei|Uire<l  in  contriviii-;  and  varying  tile 
):prln!;a,  holta,  and  difterent  jiartg  to  tlie 
uses  for  whi-jh  tliey  are  intended.  Locks 
inienaed  for  outer  doors  are  called  stock- 
locks,  those  on  cliamber  doors  spring-locks, 
besides  whish  there  are  padlocks,  trunk- 
locks,  &.C.  The  principle  on  which  all 
'ocks  depend  is  the  application  of  a  lever, 
;het  is  the  key,  to  an  interior  boll,  by 
means  of  a  couimuiiicalion  from  without; 
and  the  securi'y  of  locks  depends  upon 
the  impediments  which  may  be  interposed 
between  this  lever  and  the  bolt.  These 
impediments  have  commonly  been  pro- 
duced by  means  of  the  wards  of  the  key 
so  artfully  contrived  as  to  preclude  the 
access  of  all  othei  instruments  besides  the 
key  In  the  bolt.  As  these  contrivances 
Iiavtf  ni-l,  however,  been  always  an  etfec- 
luat  bar,  Mr.  Bramah  has  constructed  a 
lock  en  such  a  principle  thai  the  otiice 
wii:ch  in  "tner  locks  is  performed  by  tlie 
•>.\tr<  n<e  pt.mt  of  the  key  is  here  assigned 
lo  ;i  :<'vpr,  «  hich  cannot  approach  the  bolt 
iniil  every  ;>art  of  the  lock  has  undergone 
a  r.^inge  '-l  ihisition. 

).ncK,"r  vV'eir  (in Inland  Navigation) 
A  nirtie  fo'  -ill  works  of  wood  or  stone 
wl '  ,h  arf  made  to  confine  or  raise  the 
K'fifcr  of  .1  river  or  canal.  In  artificial 
navigations  the  lock  consists  of  two  gates, 
t.*fc  upper  one  called  the  sluice  gale,  and 
the  inder  one  the  flood  gate. 

I<)CK(among  Cuus—iths).  That  part 
c'  a  niusKet  by  which  tiie  is  produced  fur 
the  discharge  of  the  piece. 

LOCKED  JAW.  A  spasmodic  affec- 
tion which  prevents  the  nioiion  of  the 
Jaws. 

L0(;KER  (among  Mariners).  A  box  or 
chest  m  whicli  things  are  stowed. 

LOCHABEK-AXE.  A  formidable  weap- 
on of  war,  lornieriy  n.soil  by  the  High- 
landers of  Scotland,  consisting  of  a 
Bhort  pole  with  a  sharp  axe  at  one  end. 

LOCHIA.  Ill  niediiinc,  the  discharge 
that  flows  from  the  uterus  and  vagina 
alter  child  birtli  while  the  mucous 
membrane  is  returning  to  its  former 
condition . 

LOCULAMENT.  In  botany,  the  cell 
in  the  pericarp  of  a  plant,  in  which  the 
seed  is  lodged. 

LOCUS,  in  geometery,  a  line  or  sur- 
face over  which  a  point  may  travel  so 
as  always  to  be  In  a  position  which  sat- 
isfies some  given  condition;  the  line 
generated  by  a  point,  moving  according 
to  a  fixed  law. 


LOG 


229 


LOCUST.  A  voracious  insect,  like  the 
gra:9Shopper,  which  in  sunir  parts.  |iarticu- 
larly  in  Africa  and  Asia  Minor,  fall  like  a 
cloud  upon  the  country,  and  lay  waste  all 
before  them.  They  are  no  less  terrible 
dead  than  alive,  for  their  piitrified  carcas- 
ses cause  a  pestilence  where  ll  <i)  ^lapjuo 
to  alight 


:^ 


LODE.  In  mining,  a  metalli;  vein,  or 
any  regular  vein  or  course;  a  cut  or 
reach  of  water. 

LODUMEN T.  The  act  of  lodging,  or 
the  .state  ot  being  lodged;  accumulation 
ordcoUectioii  of  sjmethiiig  deposited  or 
remaining  at  rost.  In  militaiy  affairs, 
an  encampment  made  by  an  army;  a 
work  cast  up  by  besiegers  during  their 
approaches,  in  some  dangerous  post. 

LOGAN.  In  geology,  a  large  rock  so 
balanced  as  to  be  easily  moved;  a  large 
rocking  stone. 

LOGANIACE^.  In  botany,  a  natural 
order  of  dichlamydeous  Exogene,  of 
which  Logaiiia  is  the  type. 

LOG  (among  Mariners).  A  flat  piece  of 
>iood,  with  lead  at  one  end  an  i  a  line  at 
the  other,  for  measuring  the  rat<  >f  a  ship's 
sailing. 

LOGARITHMS.  .Numbers  »<<  contrived 
and  adapted  lo  other  niiiiibns,  that  the 
sums  and  differences  of  the  firmer  shall 
corres|Hind  to  and  show  thf  pniducts  and 
(|uotieiils  of  the  latter,  or  mjre  properly  a 
series  of  numbers  in  arithn.elical  procres- 
sion  answering  to  another  aeries  in  geo 
metrical  progression,  thus, 
0,  1,2,  3,  4,  .">,  &.C.  Indices  or  Logarithm!. 
1 , 2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  &.C.  Gr.omet.  Progressio» 
Or, 

0,  I,  2,    3,  4,    5,  &c.  Indices  or  Logs. 

1,  3,  9,  27,  81,  243,  &c.  Geoinet.  I'rog. 
Or, 

0,  I,    2,      3,        4,     &c.   Indices  or  Log 

1,  10,  100,  1000,  10,000.  &.C.  Stom.  I'rog. 
Where  it  isevidenl  thai  the  same  numbers 
in  arithmetical  proeiessicm,  which  are  the 
logarithms  or  indices,  serve  e(|iially  for  any 
geometrical  series,  consequently  there  may 
be  an  endless  variety  of  systems  of  loga- 
rithms to  the  »i.n:-  common  numbers,  by 
only  changing  the  seconJ  term,  2,  3,  10, 
tc.  of  the  geometrical  series.  ifcTtylwo 
indices  be  added  together  their  sum  wiil 
be  equal  lo  I  lie  product  ul  the  two  terms  la 


280 


LCii 


feometrlcal  pnigressioti  with  whirh  those 
indices  corr«!«|M>iid,  thus,  '2  uiid  ;<  added 
liiC^ther  are  riinal  to  5,  and  the  iiii:iiber:i 
4  mid  8  «(irri-«|i(indiiig  with  thuse  iiidicfS 
being  niiilti|ilif-d  Idgcll  er  are  equul  tu  312, 
which  is  the  niiinber  Hfiswt-riiii;  to  the 
itidez  5.  Su  if  aii>  index  be  subtracted 
from  anolher,  the  dillerence  will  he  the 
Indei  u(  tha:  miiiiber,  wIik  li  is  eqiiil  to 
Che  quotient  ut°  the  twu  terms  to  which 
those  indices  belong,  thus  the  index 
6 — 4=-2,  thenGt  divided  by  16,  ihe  tei.ns 
corresponding  tolhe.^e  twu  indices  leaves 
the  quotient  A,  which  answers  to  the  Index 
a.  Logailthins  being  the  eX|)oiicnts  of 
ratios  are  on  that  accuunt  called  indices, 
thus  the  logarithm  2  is  the  exponent  or 
Index  of  the  several  nnniliers  In  the  geo- 
metrical series  over  wtiicli  it  stands,  as  2-i 
or  the  square  of  12  equal  to  4  in  the  first 
series,  S'i  or  square  of  3,  that  is  9,  in  the 
second  series,  and  10- or  the  si|iiare  of  lU, 
that  is  lUO,  in  the  tiiird  series;  so  likewise 
3  is  the  index  or  exponent  for  the  cube 
numbers  8,  -27,  1000,  &.c.  over  whicli  it 
stands. 

LOG-BOA KP.  A  table  on  which  an 
account  of  the  ship's  way  is  marked. 

LOG-BOi)K.  The  book  In  which  the 
tccouiit  of  the  log  IS  transcribed. 

lAKJIC.  The  art  whicli  teaches  the  right 
use  of  reascii,  and  treats  of  the  several 
operalions  of  the  mind  which  are  em- 
ployed In  argumentation  or  reasoning. 

Lot;  LINK.  The  line  fastened  to  the 
log,  which  is  divided  into  certain  spaces 
fifty  feet  In  length,  by  knots  or  pieces  of 
kiK'tted  twine,  iinreeved  between  the 
strands  of  the  line,  which  show,  by  means 
of  a  half-minute  glass,  how  many  of  these 
spaces  or  knots  are  run  out  in  half  a 
Diinule,  and  as  the  distance  of  the  knots 
bears  the  same  proportion  to  a  mile  that 
half  a  niiniile  does  to  an  hour,  whatever 
number  of  knots  the  ship  runs  In  half  a 
minute,  the  same  nunitter  of  miles  she  runs 
in  an  hour. 

LOGdORAPMY.  A  method  of  printing 
in  which  the  types  form  whole  words  in- 
stead of  letters.  Hy  ihis  inethi'd  the  iiie- 
niory  of  the  comp.isitor  in  less  burdened, 
and  the  business  proceeds  witli  more  ex- 
pedition and  less  liability  toerr.  It  isalso 
■aid  that  the  logograpliic  method  is  not 
more  expensive  than  I  he  cooiinon  method. 

I-OGVVIMH).  i»  sort  of  wood  used  by 
dyers,  called  also  I'amiteihe  wond,  be- 
cause it  was  origin.illy  bn'iiglit  from  (\im- 
pectiy.  in  .New  ."^pain.  I.i-jwood  is  very 
dense  and  firm  in  Its  leTture,  exreedincly 
tieavy.  so  as  to  sink  into  water,  <if  a  deep 
n'd  colour,  andailuiiLs  of  a   fine   polish 


LOO 

It  yields  its  colour  both  to  spirltuooa  and 
watery  menstrua,  but  alcohol  extract!  il 
more  readily  than  water.  Acids  turn  iu 
dye  to  a  yellow,  alkalies  deepen  its  culour, 
and  give  it  a  purple  or  violet  hue. 

L(JMK.NTACfc;.(f:  (in  Botany).  Thtt 
name  of  the  thirty-third  natural  orilT  in 
I.iniixiis's  Fragments,  consisting  o*"  i  lasts 
many  of  which  furnish  beautiful  rfye».  an'i 
the  pericarpium  of  which  is  always  a  tioO 
containing  seeds  that  are  carinrx'nus,  ni 
meally,  like  those  of  the  bean,art.*ie'W!ci-a, 
tiie  wild  senna,  logwood,  niiaiosa,  or  Ihs 
sensitive  plant,  &.c. 

LONDON  PRIDE.  A  p'ant  bc-ri.'g  a 
small  flower. 

LO.VG  fin  Music).  A  note  eqval  ".c  •.'"o 
breves. 

LONG  BOAT  (among  M.i-i'v?)  Tht 
strongest  and  longest  boat  be!' r.g'.ig  fa 
vessel  of  war. 

LO.N'G  BOW  An  ancent  tov/  thst  ww 
once  much  used. 

LO.NGIMKTRY.  The  n-.ea<<.;ri-'»  of 
lengths  or  distances,  both  atc«bsi^i>  '^nt' 
inaccessible. 

LONGITUDE  (in  Astronomy^.  Ar  Mi 
of  the  ecliptic  intercepted  V 'tween  tlv 
beginning  of  Arius  and  the  ;rir.:  ■!<  la* 
ecliptic  cut  by  4i*e  circle  of  long'.tuce  >•- 
longing  to  any  star. 

LONGITUDE  (in  Geogru'itiy  Tt'.  «:• 
tent  of  the  earth  from  east  jo  v/e?< 

LONGITUDE  OF  A  PLACE  Ar  wc 
of  the  equator  intercepted  be.we«.i,  gone 
grven  point  called  the  first  merid  ij.  ii.i! 
the  meridian  passing  through  tne  (.re osect 
place.  This  may  be  either  east  o.  »evi, 
according  as  it  is  reckoned  on  th^  et*  o- 
west  side  of  the  first  meridiai^. 

L<  )OF.  A  sea  term  for  the  arte*  j*r.  of 
a  ship's  bow. 

LOOKING-GLASS.  A  plain  g!a.s9 
mirror,  which  being  impervious  to  i.ii 
I  sht,  reflects  the  images  of  things  placed 
before  it. 

L<)f)M  (among  Weavers)  A  frame  by 
which  the  process  of  weaving  is  pir- 
formed. 

Lotl.M.  A  sea  terra  for  a  ship  wn:«t 
when  seen  at  distance,  appears  big. 

LOOP  (in  Gunnery).  A  small  iron  r'j:{, 
in  the  barrel  of  a  gun. 

LOOP  (in  the  Iron  Works).  A  r'"'.  •" 
a  sow  or  block  of  cast  iron,  bioken  oi 
melted  off  from  the  rest. 

LOOP.  A  sea  term  for  the  noos*  In  8  "or  a. 

LOOPIIOLKS  (among  Martnerc"  Hc!«i» 
in  the  coamings  of  the  hatches  of  a  th^tk 
for  firing  muskets  through. 

LOOPHOLES  (in  Fortification).  .Mttl« 
hole.s  in  the  walls  of  a  cutis  or  fbrtittn*- 


LOU 

iinii,    through    wliicli    arrows    were   dis- 
churgpil. 

LDKl).     In   England,  any    p«er  of  llie 


LTIS 


231 


LOXA  BARK.  In  hotany,  a  pale  Pera- 
Tiau  bark,  the  product  of  Oinchonacou- 
i  damiucPt. 

I     LOXODROinCS.  Tho  art  of  obliqna 
i-e^iluii   alto  a  tiilf   of  hunniir  sonietiniK*    g^^j^ng  by   tlie    rhomb,   which    always 


fWKii  til  peroiins  by  virtue  nf  their  ortire, 
ii- llie  Lord  riianrellur,  the  l>ifd  i  bief 
Jiisixe,  the  Lord   Mayor. 

I.OKIIOF  A  .MANOR  !in  Kneland).  A 
I'.erxDU  that  had  a  fee,  and  ii.u«rquenlly 
the  hoiiin^t-  ol  the  lenanls  within  hi»  ma- 
nor, anil  al.-io  the  privilege  of  boidiiip  a 
court  harnn.  l.ordK  of  the  manor  still  re- 
tain some  of  thi-  old  nmnorial  nahls. 

L(lK\'.      A  hird  of  the  parrol  kind. 

LOTETRi^K.  .\  kind  of  tree  which 
from  its  jagged  leaves  wa.s  called  the  nettle 
tree. 

LOTIO.N.  The  washing  or  cleansing  of 
any  medicine  with  watery  also  a  wash  for 
the  skia. 

liOitvJii.V,  Ali^U:  c  )astiajj  vessel  used 
in  Chiua,  au-1  lao  ijii.s,.cra  bjas,  Uaviug 
the  hull  buUc  ■■.111  uEurupuauiuodel, but 
riggoi  liUo  a  Chxuese  juuii. 

LOXii- I'ltKK.  The  Airican  shrub  Zizy- 
phusljtus,  theloms  oi'the  Lotophagi, 
orliOtus-eaters.  The  fruit  is  used  as 
foci  lor  cattle,  and  cou verted  into  bread 
by  the  natives. 

IiOrUS.  A  genus  of  leguminous 
plants,  the  name  of  which  was  applied 
to  an  Egyptian  plant  (the  Water-lily  of 
the  NUl;),  and  to  the  several  species  of 
the  geaus  lotus, 

LU.V  JPXIES6URE.  A  term  applied  to 


makes  an  equal  angle  with  every  meri- 
diau. 

i,UG«5KR.  A  Kniall  vessel  carrying  ^ithef 
two  or  three  tnastn,  with  a  runiiinj  bow- 
sprit, upoD  which  lucsails  are  set,  and 
sometjmea  lopaails  adapted  to  them 


«l'll|i 


■J 


LUMB.AGO.  A  rheumatic  affection  of 
the  muscles  about  the  loins. 

LUN.'\cy.  A  kind  of  madness,  so  called 
because  supposed  to  be  iuflueiiced  by  the 
moon. 

LfN.\R.  Belonging  to  the  moon,  as  a 
lunar  ecliiwe,  innnlh,  year,  &.C. 

LUNATICS.    Are  properly  such  as  have 

diseased  imacinations,  which  deprive  them 
ljUt\   ifKiiJioUiiin.  A  term  appuea  lo  ,  ,    •  •      c      i,.,  „  „,• 

a  Bteam-eusme,   the    luotive    lorce    of   of  the  use  of  their  rea.soning  faculty,  some- 
times altogether  and  sometimes  only  on 
particular  subjects. 
LUN.ATIO.N,  otherwise  called  the  8t 


vrliich  in  produced  bj-  forming  a  vacu- 
um wituiu  the  cylinder  by  drawing  ctf 
the  steam  into  another  vessel  called  the 
condenser,  and  there  condensing  it. 

LOZE.NGE  (in  Heraldry).  A  fifiire 
which  is  used  to  contain  the  coats  of  arms 
of  all  maidens  and  widows. 


LOZE.VGR  Mn  Ceometry).  A  quadri 
Il.teral  timire.  Itavini:  iwn  angles  acute  and 
t'ae  twti  (ipposile  (Hies  obtuse. 

LOZKNUK  (in  Pharmacy).  A  medicine 
made  tn  be  held  in  the  month,  wlijch  was 
originally  in  the  fnr.ii  of  a  lo/.enge. 

I,.  S.  An  alilireviation  for  hicus  sigilU, 
Uie  place  of  the  seal. 

1,1  >i  IS.  St.,  fiBPFn  or.  An  tirder  of 
kiiigiiihiMxlinsiitiiird  l(>9:<,by  I^Hiis'XIV 


NODICAL  AioriTH.  A  revoliiiion  of  the 
iniHin,  or  the  time  between  one  new  moon 
and  another. 

M'.NE  (in  M.ithematics).  A  aeonietrii  ai 
figure  in  form  of  a  crescent. 

Ll'.NtlS  iin  Anatomy).  A  viscus  in  the 
animal  liody,  coinpoted  of  iwo  lobes  or 
divisions,  which  are  spongy  bodies,  situ- 
ated in  the  chest,  and  serving  the  purpoe« 
of  respiration. 

LUPINE.  \  sort  of  pulse,  which  bean 
a  papilionaceous  flower.  There  aie  several 
species  of  liii^ines  cultivated  in  gardens,  as 
the  wliite  lupine,  the  small  blue  lupine, 
and  the  great  blue  lupine,  &c.  which  are 
all  aiiniinls  except  one  species,  called  by 
distinction  the  perennial  lupine. 

LI.'PCS.  The  Wolf  in  Astronomy,  a 
constellation  in  thesouiliern  hemisphere. 

LI'Rin/E  (in  Botaii\  ,.  A  n;iturdl  ornei 
of  planu  in  the  l.inniran  system,  whitiJ 
are  poisonouR,  as  the  nigliUibade,  digitalis, 

&.C. 

LUSTRATION  The  reri-mony  of  ptirl 
fication  peifomieil  by  the  aucu^ul  Itomana 


232 


MAC 


every  five  years;  whence  that  space  was 
called  a  lustrum. 

LUSTRE  (iu  Mineralogy).  One  chirac- 
tcr  of  mineral  bodies,  which  in  that  reaped 
are  distinguished  into  splendent,  shining, 
glistening,  glimmering,  and  dull. 

LUTE.  A  striniicd  instrnineiit,  contain- 
ing at  first  only  five  rows  of  strings,  to 
which  were  afterwards  added  six  more. 
It  was  formerly  much  used. 

LUTE  (in  Cht  inisiiy).  A  compound 
paste  made  of  pdltei's  clay,  sand,  and 
other  materials,  for  lln-  purpose  of  closing 
up  the  necks  of  retort:*,  receivers,  &.C.  in 
different  chemical  experiments. 

LUTHERANISM.  The  doctrines  of 
Martin  Luther,  the  German  reformer, 
which  form  the  creed  of  all  the  protesiants 
in  (Jermany  who  are  not  Calviuisis. 

LYCUPODIUM.  or  Cluf  Moss.  A 
fcort  of  moss,  the  seeds  of  which  when 
Ignited  hurn  off  like  a  flash  of  lightning. 
It  is  used  in  the  London  theatres. 

LYUIAN  STOXE  A,  stone  of  a  gray- 
ish black  colour,  which  is  found  in  Bohe- 
mia «nd  other  parts  of  Germany,  and  also 
in  Scotland.  When  polislied,  it  is  used  as 
a  tesi  sione  for  deterininina  the  purity  of 
gold  and  silver.  It  was  used  for  that  pur- 
pose among  the  ancients,  hy  whom  it 
received  this  name,  because  it  was  found 
only  in  the  Tmolus,  a  river  of  Lydia 


MAC 

LYK.  A  composition  of  aahe«  aiid  w» 
ter  for  washing  or  scouring. 

LV.Viril  (in  Anatomy).  Aclearlympid 
humour,  secreteil  from  the  hliKMl,  which 
is  carried  by  the  lymphatic  vessels  into  tne 
thoracic  duct,  where  it  mixes  with  tlie 
cliyle. 

LYMPHATICS.  The  lyn  phatic  ve« 
sels. 

LYNX.  A  wild  beast, of  atawny  brown 
col<<ur,  with  black  sfiuts,  and  very  quick 
sighted,  which  in  its  habits  resembles  tne 
wild  cat. 


LYRA.  The  lyre,  a  constellatioa  In  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

LYRE.  A  musical  stringed  instrument, 
much  used  by,  the  ancients. 

LYRIC.  Pertaining  to  the  harp,  as  lyric 
verse,  poetry  made  for  or  set  to  the  liarp 


M,  the  thirteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
which  as  a  numeral  stands  for  inille,  a 
thousand,  aiid  with  a  stroke  over  it,  thus 
M,  it  stood  for  l.(IUI),llUO.  As  an  abbre- 
viation M.  A.  stands  for  Master  <if  Arts, 
M.  I).  Doctor  of  Medicine.  1).  Mus.  Doctor 
of  Music,  MS.  Manuscript,  MriS.  Manu- 
scripts. 

MACADAMIZING.  A  method  of  mak- 
ing roads,  introduced  by  Mr.  Mac  Adam, 
which  consists  in  breaking  the  stones  so 
small  thai  they  may  bind  with  the  earth 
iiilo  a  solid  smooth  mass. 

MACARONIC  PUEM.  A  sort  of  bur- 
Ie8(pie  [loetry. 

MACAROON.  A  sweetmeat  made  of 
almonds. 

MACCAW.    A  kind  of  parrot. 

MACE  (in  Botany).  A  sort  of  spice,  the 
second  coat  of  the  kernel  of  the  nutmeg, 
a  thin  membrana:eous  substance,  of  an 
oleaginous  nature,  a  yellow  colour,  an 
extremely  fragrant  aromatic  perfume,  and 
K  pleasant  but  acrid  and  oleaginous  taste. 

M  ACE  (in  State  Etit{uette).  In  England, 


an  ornamented  sfafT,  borne  as  an  ensign 
of  iKuiour  before  a  magistrate. 

MACERATION  (in  Pharmacy).  An 
infusion  of  ingredients  in  any  liquid,  la 
order  to  sofl^n  them. 

MACHINE.  An  engine  composed  of 
several  parts,  put  touether  by  mechanical 
art  and  contrivance,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  bodies,  assisting,  regulating,  or 
stopping  their  motions,  &c.  Simple  ma- 
chines comprehend  the  six  mechanical 
powers.  Compound  machines  are  com- 
posed of  the  simple.  Machines  are  like- 
wise distinguished  according  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  used  into  the 
architectural  machine,  electrical  machine, 
hydraulic  machine,  &c. 

MACHINE  INFERNAL.  A  machine 
used  in  modern  warfare,  for  the  purpose 
of  blowing  up  bridges,  &c. 

MACKEREL.  A  well  known  fish,  that 
visits  the  shores  of  the  ocean  in  th»  sum- 
mer season  in  vast  shoals. 

.MACKEREL-GALE  A  strong  breezs 
that  is  very  favourable  for  mackerel  fiahiug 


MAG 

MACTJI^ifinn  /  «lrnniiniy)  Dark  spots 
ipp«aring  ofi  tlip  liiuiinuuii  xiirfHres  of  the 
■iin  snd  moon,  and  evrn  lonie  nf  tbe 
planets. 

MACULE  rin  Medicine).  Diseolom- 
tions  III!  the  snrf.ice  of  tlir  b<idy. 

MA  DOER.  A  subsianre  used  in  dying, 
which  i«  eitmcied  from  the  root  of  a 
plant  hrttanir.-illy  disiin^iiished  hy  the 
name  of  ruhia.  The  madder  root  grows 
In  France  and  other  counirifi  of  Europe, 
that  of  Zealand  is  the  Iteat  uf  European 
growth,  but  that  which  comes  from  the 
Levant  Is  still  more  esteemed. 

MADEIRA  A  rich  wine  made  in  the 
island  of  Madeira. 

MADRIGAL.     A  short  amnroua  poem 

MAGAZINE  (in  Commerce).  A  ware- 
house for  all  sorts  of  merchandise. 

MAtJAZINE  (in  Military  AtTairs).  A 
storehouse  for  arms,  tc. 

.MAG.\Zl.\E(in  Literature).  A  periodi- 
cal work  coiitainini;  miscellaneous  matter. 

MAGGOT.    The  larva  of  flies,  bees,  &c. 

MAGL  Astriiloeers  and  priests  among 
the  Persians  and  Asiatics. 

MAGIC.  The  black  art,  or  the  pre- 
tended art  of  producing  supernatural  ef- 
fects, derived  from  the  Persian  inagt. 

MAGIC  SQUARE  (In  Arithmetic).  Fi- 
gures ao  disposed  into  parallel  and  eqnal 


4    9    2 

3    5|7 

8    I  |6 

ranks  as  that  the  sums  of  each  row,  as  well 
diagonally  aa  laterally,  shall  he  equal. 

MAGIC  LANTER.N.  An  optical  'ma- 
chine, by  means  of  which  are  represented 
nn  an  opposite  wall  in  a  dark  room,  mcm- 
■troua  figures,  magnified   to  any  size  at 


m.    This  etmtft  7«ne*  consists  of  a 
common  lantern  with  a  candle  in  it,  aa  in 


MAO  2SS 

the  subjoined  fiipire,  to  which  Is  added  • 
tube,  ami  a  len*  that  throws  the  light  on 
the  oliject,  and  another  lens  which  macnl 
ties  the  image  on  the  wall.  Then  by  cun 
tracting  the  tube,  and  brtncing  tbe  glass 
nearer  to  the  object,  the  iniaf>e  will  be 
enlarged. 

MAG.NA  CIIARTA  (In  England).  Or 
the  great  charter  of  liberties  tirst  granted 
by  King  John  in  the  seventeenth  year  of 
his  reign,  A.  d.  !315.  1'Iiis  w.osattrrwards 
renewed,  with  some  alterations,  by  his 
son  and  successor  lleiiry  1 1 1,  and  repeated- 
ly confirmed  both  by  this  king  ami  King 
Edward  I.  The  Magna  Charta  which  is 
the  first  statute  given  in  the  statute  btHiks, 
is  the  same  as  that  granted  by  llejiry  IIL 
In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign. 

MAGNESIA.  A  white, soft  powder.and 
one  of  the  primitive  earths,  having  a  me- 
tallic basis  called  magnesium.  It  is  niiRitly 
extracted  from  talc,  asbeslna,  boracite,  and 
other  stones. 

MAGNESIUM.    See  M4Ho»!»b»b. 
MAGNET.     See  LoADr>To!.E. 
MAGNETIC  or  MAGNETICAL.     Per- 
taining to  tbe   magnet  or    loadstone,  as 
magnetic  attraction,  magnetic  needle,  &.t 
MAGNETICAL  .MERIDIAN.     A  great 
circle  In  the  heavens,  which  Intersects  tbe 
horizon  in  the  points  to  which  the  mag 
nelical  needle,  when  at  rest,  directs  itself 
MAGNE'lIC  NEEDLE,     s^ee  Nekdlb 
MAGNETISM.    The  property  of  attract- 
ing and  repelling  iron,  as  tbe  loadstone 
does,  which  was  partially  known  to  the 
ancients,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  they 
knew  any  thing    of  its  directive  power, 
which  has  been   so  usefully  employed  by 
the  motlems.     The  natural  magnet  has  the 
power  of  ciimniiinicatliig  Iin  pn>|ierties  to 
iron  or  steel,  which  then  becomes  a  magnet 
itself,  and  Is  employed  as  such  on  most 
occasions. 

MAGNETISM,  A^imau.  A  pretended 
science,  which  pnifessed  to  cure  diseases, 
particularly  nervous  disorders,  by  commu- 
nicating a  sort  of  magnetical  fluid  or  Tirtue 
from  one  body  to  another. 

MAGNIFYING  (in  Philosophy).  The 
making  objects  appear  larger  by  t.e means 
of  glasses  than  they  do  to  the  naked  eye  5 
convex  glasses,  which  have  this  power, 
are  called  magnifying  glasses,  of  whic|| 
mirmscfipes  are  made. 

SIAG.MTUDE.  The  extension  of  may 
thing,  whether  it  be  in  one  direction,  as  • 
line;  in  two  directions,  as  a  surface ;  or 
in  three  ilirections,  as  a  solid. 

MAGNOLIA.  A  plant,  of  which  th« 
magnolia  rmndlflora,  or  the  great  mag- 
nolia,  is  tile  prmcipal  species.     It  is  a 


2M 


MAL 


Bstive  of  Florida,  and  bears  a  beauiiftil 
milkwhite  fltuver. 

MA«;i'IE.  A  ciinnini!,  vnrip»nt.«d  bird 
coiniiioM  in  KHro|H«  anJ  fnuiid  in  Uie  wea- 
'ern  rrEinm  nf  llie  I'niled  Siatt^s. 

IVIAHiiCANY  (in  Bolany).  A  bi*amiJ\il 
woriil,  liel(ini>ln^'  Id  a  tree  tliHl  grows  In 
America  ajiil  tli«>  Wenl  Indies,  known  by 
the  botanicnl  name  ot  Ihe  ewelenea  ma- 
tio^nl,  or  llif  fnaliocany  tree. 

MAHo.Min'ANf*.  lielievers  In  the  doc- 
trines and  divine  uii»sion  of  the  linpostof 
Mahomet 

MAIDKN  HAIR.  A  plant,  native  of  the 
south  of  Friinre. 

MAJKS'I'Y.  A  title  piven  ronirnnnly  to 
kingH.  It  was  first  used  in  Eiitfliind  In 
tlie  reign  ol"  Henry  VIII.  instead  of  high- 
ness. 

MAIHEM,  or  MAVURM.  A  coriioral 
Wound  or  hurt,  hy  whifli  a  man  Ic^sesi  tti« 
use  of  any  menil>er.  It  orlL'iMaMy  a|ipiied 
to  such  corporal  injuries  as  rendered  a 
man  le."*  tit  for  war. 

MAIL,  or  .Mail  B»o.  A  leathern  bag 
for  the  conveyance  of  letters. 

MAII.-<'<»ACH.  A  roach  of  a  particular 
conctruction  for  expeditions  travelling, 
several  of  which  are  ernploved  by  govern- 
ment for  the  conveyance  of  letters  to  all 
parts  of  England.  Mail  coaches  were  first 
brought  into  use  in  1784.  In  the  I'nited 
Plates  the  coaches  belong  t<i  proprietors 
with  whom  (he  government  contracts  to 
carry  the  mail. 

.MAINPKI'/R  (in  \.:i\v).  Receiving  a 
person  into  friendly  custody  who  might 
otherwise  be  coniinittrd  to  prison,  on  secu- 
rity given  for  his  forthcoming  on  a  day 
appointed  ;  a  sort  of  liail. 

MAI.\TF.NA.\('K(in  Law).  The  wrong- 
ful uphoMing  another  in  a  cause. 

MA.I(iR  fin  .Military  Atlairs).  An  officer 
above  a  cr.ptain. 

M.A.I<)R-<;F..\RRAL.  fie  who  receives 
the  general's  order. 

MA.I01!   IIP  A   BRIOAHE.  The  officer 
who  receives  the  orders  from  the  major- 
general. 
'      MAJOR  OF  A  REGIMENT.  The  offi- 
cer ne\t  the  fieiitenant-colonel. 

MA.U)R,  Town.  The  third  officer  of  a 
garrison. 

MALACIIITF,.  A  minernl,  the  green 
carbonate  tif  copper,  found  frpqiieiitly 
erj'stallir.ed  in  long  slender  needles.  It 
consists  of  »  ■pper,  carhonic  acid,  oxygen, 
and  water. 

MALACJOMTE.  A  minernl  found  in  the 
•liver  mines  in  Swelen,  niid  also  in  .Nor- 
way, consivttng  of  s  Mca,  lime,  magnesia, 
tlumina,  oxide  of  iron,  &c. 


MA.L 

MAJUSCTJL.S.  Capital  letters.in  which 
Latin  mauuscnpts,  beioro  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, were  written. 

M.VLrii.\.  A  terai  applied  to  slagpjy 
miuoral  pitch,  as  ilistmct  from  fluid 
)oUvleUiii,  ami  from  koIuI  asplialt. 

M.VLl\iaSI.\N.  Pc;tainiug  to  Mal- 
hu.'f,  wlio  taui^ht  that  jiipulation  in- 
u'casel  more  rapidly  thiu  tlio  means  of 
;iibsistence  could  be  made  to  iiicreiiflc, 
'.ud  cousequeutly  the  undue  increase 
>r  population  siiouLl  bo  checked,  aud 
jarly  marriages  discouraged. 

MAMALCJKK.  A  term  applied  to  a 
military  lone  in  Egypt,  which  was 
destr.)yed  by  MeUemet".\liiu  1811. 

MA.VIMEA.  Tne  Mammee  apple,  the 
produce  of  a  fruit-tree  of  tropical  Am- 
erica. 

MALLEOLI.  In  military  science, 
buu.Uea  of  wood,  made  oi  combustible 
materiiils,  for  setting  on  fire  at  night,  to 
discover  the  pu.sition  ot  an  enemy. 

M.\Li'HA.  in  mineralogy,  a  solt  glut- 
inous substance  which  smella  hke 
pitch;  mineral  pitch. 

MiVLV.\CE.ffi.  In  botany,  a  natural 
order  oi' exogenous  plants,  of  which  the 
Malva,  or  Mallow  tree,  is  the  genus. 

MAMIIALIA.  In  zoology,  the  first 
grand  division  of  vertebrated  animals 
which  suckle  their  young.  Mammalogy 
is  the  science  of  luammiterous  animals. 

MAM.MOTH.  A  fossil  elephant  of  im- 
mense size,  the  bones  of  one  of  which 
were  discovered  buried  in  ice  in  the 
nort'i  ot  Kussia. 

M.VX.  In  zoology  and  natural  history, 
the  great  epitome  of  all  8cien<:e  and  ai-t; 
the  sole  specific  exainxilc  of  tho  only 
genus  Homo,  as  contaiuel  in  Cuvier's 
order  Bimaua.  The  groat  iiaturahst, 
Blumenbach,  divides  this  spe(ries  into 
five  varieties.  1.  The  Caucasian  va- 
riety, which  includes  all  the  ancient 
and  modern  Europeans,  ex('cpt  the 
Fins;  the  former  and  present  inhabi- 
tants of  Western  Asia,  as  far  as  the 
River  Oby,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the 
Ganges  (that  is,  the  Assyrians,  Medes, 
I  and  Chaldeans;  the  Sarmatiaiis,  Scyth- 
'ians,  and  Parthians;  the  Philistines, 
I  Phoenicians,  Jews,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Syria,  generally;  the  Tartars,  prop- 
erly so  called;  the  tribes  actually  occu- 
pying the  chain  of  the  Caucasus;  the 
Georgians,  Circassians,  Mitigrehans,  and 
Armenians;  the  Turks,  Persians,  Ara- 
bians, Afghanns,  and  Hindoos  of  high 
castes),  and  the  Northern  Airicans,  the 
Egyptians,  Abyssiuians,  and  Guanches. 
2.  Tne  Mjugoliau  Vi'.rn'ty  which  in- 
clules  the  tribes  of  Cell  trsd  and  North- 
ern Asia;  as  the  Mongolians,  Calmucks, 
and  Buiiats;  the  Mantchoos,  Da-urians, 
Tuugooses,  and  Coreans;  the  Samoides, 
Yukagers,  Koriacs,  Ts.^huktschi,  and 
Kamtschadaljs,  the  Cjine'^e  and  Japan- 
ese, the  inhabitants  oi  Tibet  and  Bootan, 
of  Ton(iuia,  Cochir.-China,  Ava,  Pegu, 
Cambo.li'v,  Laos,  and  Siara;  tho  Finnish 
racesofNu'lhurn  Europe,  as  the  Lap- 


MAN 

landers  and  the  tribes  of  Esquimaux. 
3.  rUe  Kthiojjian  variety,  coinprcUeud- 
ijg  all  tiie  nations  of  Africa  not  included 
ki  the  fli-?t  variety.  4.  The  American 
variety,  including  all  the  native  Ameri- 
cans except  the  Esquimaux.  6.  The 
Malay  variety,  which  includes  the  in- 
habitants of  Malacca,  Suiuau'a,  Jav.i, 
Borneo,  Celebes,  an!  the  adjacent 
Asiatic  Islands;  of  the  M  <lucca.  La- 
drone,  Philippine,  Mariun,  and  Carohne 
groups:  of  New  Holland,  Van  Diemen's 
Laud,  New  Guinea,  New  Zealand,  and 
ot  all  the  Islands  of  the  South  Sea. 
Cuvier's  airangement,  however,  differs 
from  th-it  ot  Bluinenbach;  he  distin- 
guishes only  three  principal  divisions — 
the  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  and  tho 
Ethiopian:  leaving  the  Milay  and  Am- 
erican virieties  as  doubthil. 

M.^NCHOO.  or  MANTCHOO.  The  lan- 
guage sp  lUen  in  Mauchooria,  and  at  the 
court  of  China. 

MANITOU.  The  name  given  by  the 
American  Indians  to  their  spirits  or  gods. 


MA.N'nAMl'S  (in  TviwV  A  writ  oripnal- 
ly  eraiii«-d  l>y  the  kuic,  so  called  fnnn  the 
first  word,  Maiidaiiiiig,  we  cniiimniiil.mrii- 
niaiiilmg  roriMiratiims  and  inferior  ronrts, 
orothrr  [lersoiis,  to  do  some  particular 
thiiiK,  US  to  admit  any  one  to  an  oflice  and 
the  like. 

MANOARIN.  A  Chinese  mainstrate. 
MA.N'ltATB.    A  judicial  command  of 
the  king. 

MA.\"!»!IM.R.  The  jaw  of  brutes;  in 
Oriiitholosry,  the  liill  of  hirds. 

.MA.MiUAKE.  A  plant,  whose  divided 
root  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  legs 
and  tliicli^  of  a  man. 

.MA.MiKII,.  or  MANPKRIt..  A  wooden 
pulley,  pari  "fa  liiriierN  l:ilhe. 

M.ANKCK.  A  riding  school;  also  the 
art  of  Imrsem.Tnship,  or  the  management 
of  both  ilie  lior-e  and  the  rider. 

MA.NF-til'I.N  (in  the  Fine  Arts).  A 
little  statue  or  model,  usually  made  of 
wckmI  or  wax,  and  so  contrived  as  to  be 
put  into  (xistiire  at  pleasure. 

M.A.VtJA.VESE.  A  mineral  which,  when 
pure,  is  of  a  prayish  white  colour,  .and 
considerable  brilliancy  ;  It  has  neither 
taste  nor  smell,  is  of  the  hardness  of  iron, 
and  very  brittle,  when  rediireil  to  powder 
it  is  ntlrarled  by  the  niat'iift.  The  ore  of 
mansatieiie  is  remarkable  for  its  s|><inta- 
neons  iiidainmation  with  oil.  It  is  much 
jsed  by  2la<sinakers  and  (Mitters,  and  is 
*omellmes  called  s<«ip  of  ulass. 

M.A.V(;E.  a  rutaneoiis  disease  incident 
to  horses,  dogs,  and  other  domestic  aiii- 
a^aU .  It  IS  attended  with  eruptions  and 
<•••  of  hair 


MAN 


235 


MANfJEI,  VVl'R/.F.I..  A  rop  ofliirrip 
that  is  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  carrot,  but 
niiirli  larger  ;  it  is  rerkoiieil  a  itood  winter 
fmlder  for  rows,  and  h:Ls  been  si.nietiines 
used  in  Ceriiiany  as  Hie  IimmI  of  man  in 
times  of  scarcity,  whence  it  derives  lis 
name,  sinnifving  literally  rool  of  scarcity. 

.MANCKR.  A  iroiiL'li  out  of  whicb 
horses  eat  their  corn  or  dry  food. 

MANt^KR  'among  .Manners).  A  place 
on  the  deck  of  a  vessel  for  receiving  the 
sea  water. 

MA.\i;l!OVK  TRKE.  A  tree  of  Suri- 
nam, which,  like  the  baniiiin  tree,  send* 
forth  nwmerons  branches,  that  take  root  in 
the  earth  and  form  fresh  trees,  so  as  tr 
make  a  wood  out  of  one  main  stock. 

M  A  .\  It'll  K  K.^.  The  lol  lowers  of  a  Per- 
sian impostor  in  the  third  century,  whc 
taiiplit  that  there  were  two  inilependent 
principles  or  gods,  one  g<K>d  and  one  evil. 

.M  A  .M  K  E .<  T  (in  Commerce).  The 
draught  of  the  cargo  of  a  ship. 

MA.MFESTO.  A  public  declaration 
made  by  a  prince,  explaining  his  rea.'ont 
for  going  ti.  war  or  adopting  any  hostile 
measure  towards  aiii>tlier  countr>'. 

MA.MI.I.E.  A  large  brass  ring,  like  a 
bracelet,  which  was  given  by  the  Eiiro- 
(wans  in  their  iratlic  for  slaves  on  the 
African  cikisi. 

MA.MS.  .An  Indian  animal  having  no 
leelh,  a  body  covered  above  with  scilcs, 
and  a  round  extensile  tongue,  wilh  whick 
it  catchos  insecU 


MANN.^.  The  food  sent  from  heave* 
for  the  supiHjrt  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness. 

MA.N'.NAfin  Botany).  A  sweet  juice  ot 
eum  which  flows  from  many  trees  and 
plants  in  Syria,  and  also  in  Calabria, 
where  it  exudes  from  two  species  of  the 
a-=li.  lis  smell  IS  strong,  its  ta«te  rafhT 
nauseously  sweet,  if  ex|M>sed  in  hot  coals 
ll  swells  lip.  l.Tkes  fire,  and  leaves  a  light 
coJil.  which  atfofds  a  fixed  alkali.  It  is 
disMilved  by  water,  and  affords  by  distilla^ 
tnin  water,  arid,  oil,  ami  amrnonia. 

MA.NOMETER,  or  .M»':tu>.  ..fe.  Ab 
iastrnmeiit  for  slunviu-  the  iilterations  ta 
the  rarity  and  density  of  the  air.  lidi.Ters 
fniin  the  Imn.iiieler.  in  as  miirh  as  the  latlef 
,  iinlv  msTVea  to  measure  lUe  weight  of  the 


236 


MAP 


ntmospherp,  \iiit  the  fdrmer  the  density  of 
the  iiir  ill  which  it  is  fnunil. 

MANOR  (in  [.awj.  In  Kticlniid,  a  nolile 
iort  of  fee  anciently  cr:iiite<l  liy  the  kinc;  to 
■onie  baron  in  dwell  upon,  anil  toexercise 
n  jurisdiction  greater  or'less  vvllliiii  ilial  cir- 
cuit: tins  was  III  part  let  out  to  ttie  lord's 
tenants,  and  jiart  \\;u  reserved  for  the  use 
of  Ins  f:iiiilly,  wliii'.ti  iatU;r  was  calleil  terra 
doiniiiicalis,  or  demesne.  Some  pari  was 
leCl  uncultivated,  which  was  called  the 
lord's  Wiiste. 

MANSION  (in  Law)  The  lord  of  the 
manor's  chief  dwelling  house  wilhin  his 
fee. 

MANSLAUGHTKa  (in  I,aw).  The 
killing  a  man  by  misadventure  without 
malice  pre|)ense. 

MANTKLr::TS  (in  Fortification).  A 
kind  of  moveable  panpet*  used  ma  siege. 

MAN'l'IS.  A  sort  of  insects,  of  winch 
there  are  numerous  species,  disiinjjuislieil 
h>  the  difference  and  smeularit)  of  their 
nhape.  The  chief  species  in  Knmpe  is  the 
camel  cricket,  or  praying  mantis,  so  cafled 
liecause  when  sitting  it  holds  up  its  two 
fore  legs  as  if  in  the  attitude  of  prayer. 
1°his  is  a  rapacious  insecl,  that  attacks 
other  Insects  with  great  (ierceiiess. 

.MA.NUAL.  I'ertaining  to  the  hand,  as 
loaiiual  operation,  an  nperatiun  performed 
by  the  hand. 

iMANU,\L.Pio:c  (in  Law).  Thesigning 
of  a  deed  or  writing,  under  hainl  ami  seal. 

MANUAL  (in  Literature).  Any  book 
omall  enough  to  be  carried  in  the  hand, 
wliicli  contains  a  compendium  of  science. 

.M  \Nt'F.\i:TIKE.  Any  commodity 
made  by  the  hand,  or  any  thing  formed 
from  the  raw  materials  or  natural  pro- 
diii-tions  of  a  country,  as  cloths  from  woid, 
anil  cotton  or  silk  goods  from  the  cotton 
anil  silk,  &c. 

MANirFACTIJRRR.  One  who  employs 
his  capital  in  manufactiirinE  goods 

M  ANIJ.MISSION  (in  Law).  The  act  of 
eiifi-anchising,  or  setting  a  slave  or  bond- 
man free. 

.M  A.\  I  'R  R.  Whatever  serves  to  enrich 
the  eroiind  and  fit  it  for  husbandry  pur- 
poses, as  dung,  loam,  soap  ashes,  &,c 

MVNUSCIilPT,  aldireviated  MS.  or  in 
the  plural  MSS.  A  book  or  copy  written 
with  the  hand,  in  opposition  to  a  printed 
copy. 

MAP.  A  plane  ftgnre  representing  the 
mirfar*  of  the  earth,  or  any  part  thereof, 
logetner  with  theseveral  divisions  of  land 
and  water,  and  the  several  comitriea. 
towns,  and  the  like.  It  Is  called  a  iiniver- 
lal  map  when  it  represents  the  whole -Jiir- 
face  uf  tlia  earth,  ur  the  two  hemis|ihe.es. 


MAR 

and  a  particular  map  when  it  otk  y  repre 
sents  particular  regions  or  countries  A 
map  is  properly  a  representation  of  land, 
as  distinguished  from  a  chart,  which  <m|v 
represents  the  sea  or  seacoast. 

.M.\ri.E(in  liotany/.  A  tree  of  w hid 
there  are  numerous  species,  classed  b> 
Liniia-iis  under  the  scienlihc  name  acer. 
The  acer  sacliariiiiim,  or  sugar  maple,  in 
.North  .America,  is  one  of  tlie  most  reinaik. 
able  species,  from  which,  by  tapping  the 
trees  early  in  the  spring  is  procured  a  viust 
((iiantity  of  sugar,  a  tree  of  an  ordinary 
si/.e  yielding  in  a  good  season  from  twenty 
to  thirty  gallons  of  sap. 

MARABUXS,  or  MARABOOTS.  Among 
the  North  Alricaiis,  a  km. I  oi  saints  o/ 
sorcerers  held  iii  hiya  e.-;imiation;  mar- 
aboot  feathers,  or  marabou,  hue  delicate 
feathers,  the  white  kind  being  very  val- 
nable,  much  used  in  the  dress  of  ladies, 
obtained  from  a  larye  crane  of  Asia  and 
Africa. 

MaUACAN.  a  species  of  parrot  in 
Brazil. 

MARAI.  In  the  Pacific  Islands,  a  sacred 
enclosure  or  temple. 

MARAJAH,  or  MAHARAJAH.  A  Hin- 
doo sovereign  prince. 

MARASOHIiSO.  A  spirit  or  liquor 
made  from  the  marasca  cherry  of  i)al- 
matia. 

MARBLE.  A  calcareous  stone  or  min- 
eral, of  compact  texture,  and  suscepti- 
ble of  a  beautiful  polish;  a  little  ball  of 
marble.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
marble,  the  finest  ol  which  are  the  Car- 
rara and  Parian,  as  used  by  the  ancient 
Greeks. 

MARC.  The  refuse  matter  of  grapes 
or  other  truit  from  which  the  juice  has 
been  expressed. 

MARCASITE.  Iron  pyrites,  occurring 
crystallised  in  modified  rhombic  prisms, 
in  stalactite  ciu.sts,  &c..  nearly  tin- 
white,  and  more  strongly  metallic  in 
lustre  than  oriUnary  pyrites,  used  m 
the  manufacture  of  sulphur  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  also  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. 

MAREMME.  An  Italian  term  for  those 
unwholesome  sea-marshes  which  dif- 
fuse with  more  or  less  virulence  pestil- 
ential exhalations  along  the  whole  west 
coast  ot  Italy. 

M.iRCELINE.  A  mineral  of  a  green- 
ish-black color  and  vitreous  lustre,  con- 
sisting of  silica,  oxide  of  manganese, 
oxide  of  iron,  and  alumina. 

MARGARAMIDE.  A  substance  ob- 
tained from  ammonialsoap. 

MARGARATE.  A  salt  lormed  of  mar- 
garic  acid  and  a  ba-^^e. 

MARGARIC,  MAKGARITIC.  In  ( hem- 
istry.  noting  a  fatty  acid  prepared  Ivom 
kog's  lard  and  putaaJbu 


MAR 

MARINER.  One  accustomed  to  a  sea 
life. 

M  ARFNTS.  Soldiers  who  serve  on  board 
ft  Bhip,  and  trained  to  fight  either  by  sea 
or  on  land. 

MAKITI.Mt;.  Bounded  by  the  sea,  as  a 
maritime  province  or  county,  that  is,  one 
bouniifd  by  tlie  se!i;»i>  tikewioe  maritime 
conirnes.  such  a;*  Encland  or  Holland. 

MAKGARITE.    In   mineralogy,  pearl 
mica,  a  tliinly-laminateJ   mineral  of 
greyish,    redilish,    or    yellowish-white 
color:   sp.gr.  3  0;   H=3-5 — 1-5. 

MARG.AKOX.  lu  chemistry,  a  solid 
fatty  matter,  obtained  by  distilling 
mar<;aric  acid  with  excess  of  lime. 

M.AliGINATE,  MAUGINATED.  In 
conchology,  denoting  a  prominent  mar 
gin  or  border.  In  entomology,  an 
epithet  used  when  the  sharp  edge  is 
marginated  on  the  outside,  and  sur- 
rounds the  surface  with  aaarrow  border 

M.AKL.  A  sort  of  fat  eanh,  consisting 
of  clay  and  the  carbonate  of  lime,  in  which 
the  latter  prevails.  Alarles  are  particularly 
useful  ;i.s  manures  in  harren  lands. 

.MAKI.I.NS.  A  *ea  term  for  lines  of 
untwisted  hemp  well  tarred,  to  keep  the 
ends  of  the  ropes,  &c.  from  unravelling. 

MAR.MOTTE.  An  animal  between  a 
rabbit  and  a  mouse,  which  abounds  in  the 
Alps.  The  animal  common  in  the  United 
Stales  called  woodchuck.  Is  a  species  of 
marmotte;  the  prairie  dog,  found  in  the 
plains  of  Missouri  is  another  species  of 
marmotte. 


M.\R 


2» 


MARaUIS  (In  England).  A  title  of 
honour  next  to  a  duke,  first  given  to  those 
who  governed  the  Marches  of  Wales,  who 
were  called  Lords  Marchers.  The  title  of 
Marquis  was  first  given  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  The  coronet  of  a  marquis  bas 
flowers  and  pyramids  with  pearls  on  them 
in  erralxed. 


MARdtTB.    8m  LKTTBBt  or  MA>«nK. 

MARai.'ETRY.  A  curious  kind  of  in- 
laid work,  composed  of  several  fine,  hard 
»iece»  of  wo««l.  iifvariou"  colours  fastened  1 


in  thin  slices  on  the  jrround,  and  some- 
times enriched  with  silver,  ivory  and 
other  matters. 

M.\RRO\V.  A  fat  and  oleaginous  sub- 
stance in  the  bones  of  animals. 

M  ARS  ( in  Astronomy ).  <  )ne  of  the  <>even 
primary  planets,  distinguished  by  ine  red 
colour  of  his  light,  and  iisnalty  marked  by 
this  character  ^  .  He  |ierforn:s  his  revcv- 
lution  in  his  orbit  in  (>«id;<ys  'Z?  Hours 
30  minutes  and  39  .seconds,  and  Ins  revo- 
lution on  his  a.\is  in  -24  Imiirs  40  minutes. 

MARS  (in  the  lleaihen  .Mytlioio,!y ) 
The  son  of  Jupiter  f.tid  Juno,  anil  iiie  nod 
of  war,  whose  common  attribulea  are  ."lis 
helmet,  spear,  and  sword 


MARTEN.  A  species  of  swallow,  thai 
builds  under  the  eaves  of  houres,  but  nut 
in  chimneys. 

MARTEN,  or  Martlet.  A  large  kind 
of  weasel  found  fn  .Northern  countries 
It  has  a  small  head,  an  agile  body,  an(> 
lively  eyes.  The  fur  of  the  marten  is  val- 
uable. There  are  two  kinds  in  America, 
the  Pine  marten,  and  Pennants  marten, 
called  Fisher 


"^"^f^i^^M 


MARSHAL  (In  England^  The  eh.ef 
officer  of  arms,  as  the  Earl  Marshal  a  great 
officer  of  the  crown,  who  takes  cognizance 
of  all  matters  of  the  law  of  arms;  the  name 
also  of  other  officers, as  the  Knight  .Marshal 
or  Marshal  uf  the  King's  House,  Marsha> 
of  the  King's  Bench,  who  has  thecusioily 
of  the  King's  Bench  prisfin,  and  Marshal 
of  the  E.xchequer,  to  whom  the  king's 
debtors  are  committed.  In  this  country, 
the  term  is  applied  to  the  executive  officer, 
attendant  ujinn  the  United  States  Courts. 


S38 


MAS 


MARPIIAI,.  or  KiELD  Maii«hal  (in 
Mililary  Atfairsl.  In  Kiij:l:in<l,  llie  liighesl 
olhcer  in  ilie  army. 

MAKSHAl.LING  (in  llemldry).  The 
di!i|tiisiii!<  ol  tile  .-ievf^ral  oiaL'j  of  arms  be- 
Iiiij!iIii$!  lit  disdiii'l  liiiiiilles  iii  iiiie  anil  llie 
».liiieestiilclieoii,  lncellit-r  Willi  llicir  iiriia- 
mfiilsj  one  braiicli  of  llie  science  of  heral- 
dry. 

.MARSHALSF.A  (in  F.n>»laiid1.  A  court 
originally  iiistiluled  lo  hear  ami  deleniiine 
causes  between  the  servant*  of  the  king's 
mnueliold  and  others  within  the  verge  of 
itie  court,  that  is  wltliin  twelve  miles 
round  Whitehall,  in  London. 

MARTIAL  LAW  {in  Knsland).  The 
law  thai  has  to  do  only  with  soldiers  and 
seamen  where  the  kind's  army  is  on  foot. 
This  law  differs  from  the  romnion  law,  in 
as  much  as  it  depends  ii|iiin  the  pleasure 
of  the  king,  in  cases  of  riots  and  rebel- 
lions. Martial  Law  is  sometimes  |iroclaimed 
when  the  civil  power  is  not  strong  enough 
to  preserve  the  peace. 

MARTINGALE  (in  the  Manege).  A 
thong  of  leather  l:islened  al  one  end  of  the 
girts  under  the  belly  of  the  horse. 

MARTINGALE.  A  sea  leriii  fora  rope, 
extending  from  the  jib  boom  to  the  end 
of  the  buinkin. 

M  Xt^CULLVE  GE.\DER.  The  gender 
of  nouns  that  denote  the  male  sex. 

MASH.  Bran  scalded  in  hot  water  and 
jiven  to  a  horse  or  cow,  &.c 

MASHES  OF  A  NET.  Holes  formed 
by  the  strings  of  a  net. 

MASHING.  The  mixing  the  malt  and 
k  )t  water  together  in  brewing. 

MA.SK      A  covering  forthe  face. 

MASONRY.  Theart  of  hewing,  cutting, 
Ol  aquarutc  stones,  and  tilting  them  forthe 
use  of  buildings;  aUo  of  joining  them  to- 
gether with  mortar. 

MASONS,  or  Workers  ik  Stone. 
Were  incorporated  in  London  about  the 
year  1419. 

MASONS,  Free,  or  Accepted  Masons. 
A  fraternity  of  great  antiquity,  so  called 
because  the  first  founders  of  that  society 
were  persons  of  that  profession.  They 
are  bound  by  an  oath  of  secrecy  not  to 
reveal  any  thing  that  passes  within  the 
•ociety,  and  the  members  throughout  the 
whole  world  are  known  to  each  other,  by 
certain  secret  signs. 

MASORITF.S.  The  rabb=es  who,  under 
Esdras  the  scribe,  are  supposed  to  have 
purged  the  Hebrew  Bible  of  the  errors 
that  crept  into  it  during  the  Babylonish 
captivity.  They  divided  the  canonical 
books  ill  to  twenty-two,  and  these  twenty- 


MAS 

two  looks  into  chapters,  and  the  chajiten 
into  verses. 

M  XSai'E  (in  Architecture).  Certain 
[lieces  of  siulplure  representing  hideoiK 
forms,  which  serveto  till  iipvacantspaces. 

MAS(iLrERAI)E.  An  exhibition  in 
which  persons,  having  m:isks  or  vi/.ard«, 
meet  together  and  represent  different  cba- 
rarlers. 

MASS  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs).  The 
ritual  or  service  of  the  Romish  church; 
when  the  prayers  are  simply  rehearsed, 
with  111  singing,  it  is  called  Low  Mass: 
but  when  the  prayers  are  sung  by  eliotis- 
lers,  and  the  servire  is  performed  by  a 
deacon  and  subdeacon,  it  is  called  High 
or  (irand  Mass. 

.MASSr,S  lin  Painting).  The  parLs  of  a 
picture  contaiiiing  great  lights  and  shad- 
ows. 

MASSICOT.    A  yellow  oxide  of  lead. 

MASS-PRIEST.  The  name  for  priests 
who  are  kept  in  chantries  or  at  particular 
altars,  to  say  so  many  masses  for  tliesouls 
of Ihe  deceased. 

MAST.  The  upright  beam  or  post  on 
Ihe  deck  of  a  vessel,  lo  which  the  yards 
sails,  &.C.  are  fixed.  The  maininast  is  the 
largest  msist  in  the  ship;  the  foremast  is 
the  next  in  size,  standing  near  the  stem  of 
theship;  the  mizenmast,  the  smallest  of 
(lie  three,  stands  between  the  mainmast 
and  the  slern. 

MASTER  (in  Englind'.  The  name  of 
several  officers  who  preside  in  their  severa 
departmeiris,  as  Master  of  the  Assay 
Master  of  the  Ceremonies,  Master  of  the 
King's  Household,  &c. 

MASTER  OK  THE  FACt'LTTES  (in 
Enaland).  An  officer  iimler  the  Archbish- 
op of  Canterbury,  who  grants  licenses  and 
dispensations. 

MASTER  OF  THE  HOUSE  (In  Eng- 
land). A  great  officer  of  the  crown,  whf! 
orders  all  matters  relating  to  the  king's 
stables. 

MASTER  OF  THE  ORDNANCE  (in 
England).  A  gre.at  officer  who  Ii;ls  charge 
of  all  the  kings  ordnance  and  stores. 

MASTER  OF  THE  ROLLS  (in  Eng- 
land). The  chief  assistant  of  the  lord 
chancellor  and  lord  keeper.  He  liax  lh« 
keeping  of  all  the  rolls  and  grants,  &.c. 

MASTER  Oy  A  SHIP.  An  officer  in 
a  public  ship  who  inspects  the  provision*, 
stores,  &c. 

MASTER  AT  ARMS.  Inashipof  war, 
he  who  has  charge  of  the  small  arms,  and 
exercises  the  petty  officers,  &c. 

MASTER  OF  ARTS.  The  second  de- 
gree taken  up  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford  la 


MAS 

Bn^nn<1.  tn  nrhich  candidates  are  not  ad- 
Biittt-d  until  they  are  parsed  seven  years 
Standing.  In  tlie  Scotch,  and  other  uni- 
versitK^,  this  is  the  first  degree. 

MASTERS  IN  CIIA.NCEKY.  In  Eng- 
Asswt^iiits  to  the  Lord  Chancellor,  ol 
11  hit  ti  there  are  twelve  ordinary  masters, 
xvUn  sit  in  ciiiirt  every  day  durinjitenn,  ta- 
king alhihivits  and  acknowledgments  of 
deeds,  ice.  To  them  are  referred  alt  inter- 
locutory orders  and  com|iiitiiig  damaijes, 
&.C.  There  are  also  Masters  Extraurdiiiary 
appointed  to  act  in  every  ctiunty  beyond 
ten  miles  distant  from  London. 

MASTICATORY.  A  medicine  that  re- 
quires to  tie  chewed,  to  promote  the  saliva. 

MASTICK,  or  MASTIC.  A  resinous 
Biihstaiice  in  the  form  of  tears,  of  a  very 
pale  yellow  colour,  and  farinaceous  ap- 
pearance, liaving  tittle  smell  and  a  bitter 
astrin;rent  taste.  It  exudes  m(«tly  from  a 
tree  of  the  turpentine  l(ind,  called  in  liotany 
pistacia  lentiscus,  which  grows  in  Turltey . 

MASTICOT  (in  Painting).  A  yeUow 
coloar,  prepared  from  tin. 

MASTIFF.  A  kind  of  dog  with  pendu- 
kMM  lips  aad  a  robust  body 


MAT 


xai 


MASTODON,  or  MAMMOTH.  This 
animal,  which  must  have  been  many  times 
lar<!er  than  the  elephant,  is  now  extinct, 
and  all  that  remains  to  attest  its  former 
existence,  are  the  bones  which  a"*  f't.nd 
d«eply  imbedded  in  the  earth  These 
bones  have  Iteen  discovered  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States,  hut  as  yet  only  one 
nearly  entire  skeleton  has  been  obtained. 
This  was  dug  up  near  .Newburg,  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  is  now  in  llie 
museum  at  Philadelphia. 

It  is  iiiip<isBilile  to  determine  to  what  race 
this  huge  annual  belonged,  except  th.it  its 
formation  and  modes  of  living  were  anal(>- 
goua  to  those  of  the  elephant.  Tb<tt  he 
was  not  of  the  same  species,  is  probable  ; 
that  he  was  nearly  allied  to  the  rhinoceros 
and  hip|iopotanius,  is  also  probable 

The  bones  of  prodiciously  large  animals 
•f  the  elephant  kind  have  been  found  in 
Siberia,  and  those  af  th4  mastodon  have 


been  found  in  varimis  parts  of  Europe 
The  following  striking  observation*  on 
this  Kiihject,  are  by  Dr.  Codinin. 

'The  emotions  e.vj)erieiited,  when  foi 
the  first  time  we  behold  the  giant  relics  of 
this  great  animal,  are  those  of  unminfle4 
awe.  We  cannot  avoid  reflecting  on  the 
time  when  this  huge  frame  was  clothed 
with  its  peculiar  integuments,  and  moved 
by  appropriate  muscles  ;  when  the  iniality 
heart  dashed  forih  lis  torrents  of  blood 
through  vessels  of  enormous  caliber,  and 
the  mastodon  strnde  along  ii  supreme  do- 
minion over  every  other  tenant  of  the 
widerness. 

'However  we  examine  what  is  left  to 
us,  we  cjinnot  help  feeling  that  this  animal 
must  have  been  eniJowed  wiUi  a  strength 
exceeding  that  of  other  quadrupeds,  as 
much  as  it  e.vceeded  them  in  size ;  and, 
looking  at  its  ponderous  jaws,  armed  with 
teeth  (teculiarly  formed  for  the  most  ettec- 
tiial  crushing  of  the  liniiest  siilisiaiices,  we 
are  assured  that  its  life  could  oi<'y  be  sup- 
ported by  tlie  destruction  of  vast  quanuttea 
of  food. 

'  Enormous  as  were  these  creatures  dur- 
ing life,  and  endowed  with  faculties 
proportioned  to  the  bulk  of  their  frames, 
the  whole  race  has  been  extinct  for  ages. 
No  tradition  nor  human  record  of  their  ex- 
istence has  been  saved,  and  but  for  the 
accidental  preservation  of  a  comparatively 
few  bones,  we  sliould  never  have  dreamed 
that  a  creature  of  such  vast  sixe  and 
strength  once  existed,  nor  could  we  have 
believed  that  such  a  race  had  l>een  extin- 
guished tiirever  Such,  howev-er,  is  the 
fact ;  ages  alter  ages  have  rolled  away, 
empires  and  nations  have  arisen,  flourish- 
ed, and  sunk  into  irretrievable  oblivion, 
while  the  bones  of  the  mastodon,  which 
perished  long  before  the  periods  of  their 
origin,  have  lieen  discoveaed,  scarcely 
changed  in  colour,  and  exhib^ing  all  the 
marks  of  perfection  and  durability 

'That  a  race  of  animals  so  lar?e,  and 
consisting  of  so  many  species,  should  be- 
Home  entirely  and  universally  extinct,  is  a 
circumstance  of  high  interest ;  for  it  is  not 
with  the  mastodon  as  with  the  elephant, 
which  still  continues  to  be  a  living  genus, 
although  many  of  its  species  have  become 
extinct ;  the  entire  race  of  the  ma^todoo 
has  been  utterly  destroyed,  leavine  noth- 
ing but  ;he  "  mishty  wreck"  of  their  skel 
etons,  to  testify  that  they  once  were  amcn| 
the  livins  occupants  of  this  land.' 

MATCH  (in  Gunnery).  A  rope  slightly 
twisted  aud  prepared  with  intlammabis 
ingredients,  which  will  burn  for  a  length 
of  time  without  going  out. 


240 


MAT 


MATCHLOCK.  A  kind  of  hanjuebuss, 
which  was  firi:d  with  a  malch. 

MATE.  All  assistant  othcer  on  board  a 
vesoel. 

MATER.  Sec  Alma  Mateb 

MATERI.\LIST.  One  who  maintains 
that  tOc  soul  is  material 

MATERIA  MEDICA.  All  that  Is  used 
in  the  art  of  medicine  for  the  prevention 
vt  cure  of  diseases,  whether  prepared  from 
vegetables,  minerals,  or  animals. 

MATHEMATICS.  The  science  which 
teaches  or  treats  of  whatever  is  capable  of 
beins;  numbered  or  measured,  and  is  di- 
yidt^d  into  arithmetic,  or  that  branch  which 
has  numbers  for  its  object,  and  geometry, 
which  treats  of  magnitude.  It  is  also  dis- 
tiii<:uished  into  Pure  Mathematics,  which 
consider  quantities  abstractedly,  and  with- 
out any  relation  to  matter,  and  Mixed 
Mathematics,  which  treat  of  the  properties 
of  quantity,  ma  applied  to  material  or  sen- 
sible objects,  and  interwoven  with  physi- 
cal considerations,  as  astronomy,  geojrra- 
phy,  navigation,  mechanics,  surveying, 
architecture,  &.C. 

The  following  list  of  the  writers  who 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  ibe  diffe- 
rent branches  of  the  mathematical  science 
will  furnish  the  best  historical  view  of 
matheniatica  in  general. 


7¥i  Confucius,  the  Chinese  philmopher. 

6IK)  Tliales,  a  Gr»?rti  astronomer.  Anaxi- 
inander,  an  inventor  of  globes. 

50;i  Cleostratus,  an  astronomer.  Aiiaza- 
goras,  a  philosopher  Ana.xinilnes,  a 
diallist.  Pythagoras,  an  astronomer  and 
geometrician. 

400  Plato,  a  geometrician.  Euctemon,  an 
astronomer.  Meton,  the  inventor  of  the 
Melonic  cycle  Hippocrates,  a  geome- 
trician. Oenopides,  a  geometrician.  Zen- 
o<lorus,  a  geometrician. 

300  Aristotle,  a  philosopher.  Calippus,  an 
astronomer,  and  inventor  of  the  Calyppic 
period.  Diiiocrates,  an  architect.  Tlieo- 
phrastus,  a  philosopher.  Xenocrates,  a 
philneopher.  Eudoxus,  an  astronomer 
and  geometrician.  Pytheas,  an  astrono- 
mer. Archytas,  a  philosopher.  .\rist*u3, 
a  geometrician.  Denostratus,  a  geome- 
trician.    Menechmus,  a  geometrician. 

200  Apollonius,  a  geometrician,  author  of 
the  Conic  Sections.  Archimedes,  a  ge- 
ometrician, and  inventor  of  machines. 
Arisiarchiis,  an  astronomer.  Eratosthe- 
nes, a  mathematician.  Euclid,  a  geom- 
etrician, author  of  the  Elements.  Aratiis, 
an  astronomer  and  poet.  Aristillus,  an 
astronomer.  Nicomedes,  a  geometri- 
cian, the  inventor  of  the  conchoid 

100  Hipparchus,  !in  astronomer,  numbered 
the  stars.  Ctesihius  invented  water 
pumps  Hero  invented  the  clepsydra 
•tid  a  fountain 


MAT 


Cleomedes,  a  Roman  astronomer.   G«n»- 
III us,  an  astrtmomer  of  Rhodes.     Manil- 
ius,  astronomer  and  poet.     Manlius,  aa 
astronomer.      Vitruviiis,    an    architect. 
Julius  Ca-s-ar,  the  reformer  of  the  calen- 
dar. Sosigeiies,  an  Eg}'ptian  astronomer. 
Menelaus,   a   writer  on  spherical    irmo- 
nometry.  Possid(mius,a  iii.itheiiiatician 
ThetMlosius,  a  writer  on  sfiheres.     Jam 
blichiis,  a  iSyrian  philosopher. 
IIHI  Nicnmachus,  a  Greek   mathematician. 
Sextus   Kri>ntinus,  an  encineer.     I'lole- 
my,  an  Esiypliaii  astronomer  and  senfra- 
pher,  author  of  the  Aliiiaglst.    Hy  psiclcs. 
a  (Jreek  mathematician. 
200  Diopliaiitiis,  a  Greek  algebraist. 
300  Jamhilcliiis,    a    Syrian     philosopher. 
Pappus,  a  Greek  commentator  on  .Apol- 
lonius, &.c.    'J'heon,  a  Greek  coiiimeiila- 
tor  on  Ptolemy,  &.c 
400  Hypaiia,  daughter  of  Theon,  a  com- 
mentator   on    Diophantiis.      Proclus,   a 
Greek  commentator  on  Euclid.   DIocles, 
a  Greek  geometrician,  discoverer  of  tlie 
cissoid.    Sereiius,  a  (ireek  geoiiieirician. 
500  .Vlarinus,   a   geometrician   of  Naples 
.'\ritheiniiis,  an  architect.     Eiitocius,  a 
Greek  geometric uui.     Isudorus,  an   ar- 
chitect. 
60O  The  Venerable  llede,  an  English  monk 

and  philosopher. 
700  Almansor  the  Victorious,  an  astrono- 
mer.    Hero  the  Younger,  a  Greek  geom- 
etrician. 
800  Al  .Maimon  the  Caliph,  an  astronomer 
Al  Ra-schid,  a  Persian  astronomer.     Al- 
frasaii,  an  Arabian  astronomer.     Aiba- 
tegiii,  an  Arabian  astronomer. 
900  Pope  Silvester,  II.  a  niiithematician 
1000  Ibii   lunis,  an    Arabian  astronomer. 
Geber  Ren  .Alpha,  an  .Arabian  couimen 
tator  on  Ptolemy's  Almaiiest. 
1100  Alha/.en.  an    Arabian  optician  and 

astronoiiirr. 
1203  Leonard  de  Pisa,  an  Italian,  and  the 
first  Eiiri>|)eaii  algebraist.  Nassir  Kitdin, 
a  Persian  a.stroiioiiier.  .Alpbonsus,  king 
of  Ca.stile,  an  astriuiomer,  and  author  of 
the  Alphonsine  tables.  John  Halifax, 
or  Sacroboeco,  an  English  maihemarici' 
an.  Jordanus  Neniorariiis,  an  ariiliiiie- 
tician  Roger  R.icon,  an  English  philits- 
opher  Campanus,  an  astronomer.  Vi- 
tellio,  an  optician. 
1300  .Atbano,  an  It.ilian  mathematici.tn. 
Ascoli,  an  Italian  mntheinaiician.  Joiia 
of  Saxony,  an  astronomer. 
1400  Bianchini,  an  Italian  astronimier 
Moschopulus,  a  modern  Greek  arithme- 
tician. Purbach,  an  a-stronomer.  Iti-gi- 
omontaniis,  or  Miiller,  an  astronomer  of 
Vienna.  Cardinal  Cusa,  an  astronoiuer. 
Henry,  son  of  John  king  of  Portiiaal,  the 
inventor  of  chart*.  Uliig  Beg,  a  Persian 
astronomer.  Lucas  de  Rurgo,  or  Pacci- 
oli,  a  German  algebraist.  Bernard,  an 
Italian  a.strr>nonier.  Dominic  Novera, 
an  Italian  astronomer. 
1500  Copernicus,  a  German  astronomer, 
and  the  reviver  of  the  siilar  system.  Peter 
Apinii,  or  .\ppian,  a  German  astronomer 
Cardan,  an  Italian  algebraist. 


MAT 


M  A  r 


241 


1600  Cnnimaniline.nn  lt.'ili;inrfitn  •••  niaior 
on  Kur.lii)  ami  nilier  aiicn-ni  iiiailwinntin- 
ans.  Kerreus,  ;in  Italian  inailieiiialirmn 
Maiirolycus,  an  llullan  iiiatliematician. 
Nuinus,  a  P(irtii-.Mic8«  niHtlieiiiaticiaii. 
Sturiiiiiis,  aGeriiiaii  aritlimatician.  Tar- 
taclia,  an  Italian  algebraist.  Vieta.  a 
rr-Mcli  algetiriist.  Ferniri.  an  Italian 
alpebraist.  ^^tevinus,  a  Fleniisli  matlie- 
Bialician.  Mertator,  a  Cernian  gfiiira- 
ptifr.  Kamiis,  a  Krtncli  inatlieiiiatician. 
Eecorde,  an  Cn;!lisli  alpebraiKt.  t^titeli- 
us,  a  (:«rnianHl<;el)raist.  Ubalili  (liiido, 
an  Italian  niathmiatinan.  I'vrho  Bra- 
be,  a  Danish  astroniiiiier.  Lord  liacun, 
an  Eii^lisli  pliilosiiplier.  (Galileo,  an 
Italian  (iliiloKoplier.  Uonibelli,  an  italiar. 
alfiebraist.  Castelli,  an  Italian  mathe- 
matician.  Claving,  a  German  geometri- 
cian.    Digiit-s,  an  Ku-ilioh  philoguplier. 

1600  l<rie!!s,  an  Knelish  aaithmeticiaii,  the 
inveiili.r  of  loaaritlims.  Des  Cartes,  a 
French  geometrician  and  algebraist, 
discovered  ilie  equation  of  curve  lines. 
Kepler,  atiermaii  astronomer,  ex  plained 
the  laws  of  celestial  motion.  Napier,  a 
H<-oi(h  arltliinetician,  improved  the  sys- 
tem of  lo|;arlthms.  'l'orricelli,an  Italian 
phiiu.-^opher  and  discoverer  of  the  barom- 
eter. I'.ayer  a  German  astronoiiirr. 
Gacsendi,  a  French  astronomer.  Longo- 
montanus,  a  Iianisii  mathematician. 
Harriot,  an  English  algebraist.  Ilorrox, 
an  Kngli.sh  asironoiiier.  Kircher,  a 
German  philosopher.  Oughtred,  an  En- 
glish geometrician  and  arithmetician. 
Porta  iiaptista,  the  inventor  of  the  cam- 
era olisciira.  Cavalerius,  a  .Milanese  al- 
gehniisl.  Brouncker,  an  Irish  mathe- 
matician. Permat,  a  French  arithmeti- 
cian, wrote  on  the  theory  of  numbers. 
Pa.scat,  a  French  philosopher,  intr<Htiiced 
the  doctrine  of  chances.  VVallis,  an 
Kn^liKb  iitathematician,  first  treated  on 
tlie  aritliinetic  of  infinite  quantities. 
Bulialdiis,  a  French  astronomer.  I)es- 
cliales,  a  French  geometrician.  Girard, 
a  French  alpelirai.it.  J.  and  1).  Gregory, 
a  Scotch  family  of  mathematiiiaiis,  the 
first  of  whom  invented  a  telesco(ie,  Stc. 
the  second  edited  Euclid.  Hevelius,  a 
Prussian  ;islronoiiier.  Horrebow,  a  Da- 
nish astronomer.  .Mersenne,  a  French 
geometrician.  Riceioli,  an  Italian  as- 
tronomer, geometrician  and  chnmolo- 
pist.  Roberval,  a  French  «eonietrician. 
Tac<|uel,  a  French  matliematirian.  t^eth 
Ward,  an  F.uglisJi  geometrician  and 
arithmetician.  John  de  Witt,  a  Hutch 
Iiiatliematician  James  Rernoulii,  a 
Swiss  matliematiriaii.  Harrow,  an  En- 
glish matttetnaiician.  IliMike,  an  En- 
glish philosopher,  made  many  disci  ve- 
ries  In  mechanics.  Iluygeiis.  a  geome- 
trician, <liallist.and  hi-rolngist,  discover 
ed  the  evolnie  of  curves.  I^ilinilz,  a 
German  gentueincian  and  arithmeti- 
cian, wrote  im  the  ditTi-reiitial  calculus. 
L'Honital.  a  French  iiiathematician. 
Flamstead,  an  English  astronomer.  t)l- 
denhureh,  an  English  mathematician 
uid  astruuu:ier.  lioyle,  an  English 
31 


philosopher.  Ozanam.  a  Fi-enrli  inatt» 
eiii.'i(ii'i:i«.  Pel',  an  Kiic'isn  aeeliraist 
i^ciu>olen,  a  Dutch  maihemalician 
U'ren,  an  English  architect. 
1700  Newton,  author  of  a  new  system  ol 
plillosophy.  John  Bernoulli,  a  Swim 
mathematician.  Bradley,  an  Eiiglub 
asironomer,  discovered  the  uberrctiiin  ol 
the  stars.  Cutes,  an  English  geometri 
cian.  Taylor,  an  English  Rrllhnieliclan 
and  optician.  Casslni,  i>.  and  J.,  Freiicti 
astronomers.  Gravesande,  a  Dutch 
matheinatii'ian.  Ke  II,  ats:otch  nsirun- 
omer.  La  Hire, a  French  geometrician 
and  astronomer.  c>aunderson,  an  En- 
glish mathematician,  i^aurin,  a  French 
mathematician.  Woltius,  a  German 
mathematician.  C'lairaiit,  a  Frenih 
mathematician.  Maclaurin,  a  Scotch 
algebraist.  De  Moivre,  a  French  aritii 
metician.  Simpson,  an  English  mathe- 
matician, liellidor,  a  .»"'rench  engineer. 
Bernoulli,  N.  and  D.,  Swiss  philosrv 
ph»rs.  l>a  Caille,  a  French  astronomer 
Collins,  an  English  luallieniaticiaii 
Dolland,  an  optician.  Maupertiiis,  a 
French  astronomer  and  geometrician. 
Meyer,  a  German  astronomer,  and 
author  of  some  tables.  Robins,  an 
English  mathematician  and  engineer. 
Sintson,  a  Scotch  geometrician,  trans 
lator  and  editor  of  Euclid's  Elenienta 
U'Alembert,  a  Fren  n  niiithematician 
Euler,  a  tlerman  geometrician  and  alue- 
braist.  I>anden,  an  English  algebraist, 
author  of  the  liesidual  Analysis,  t.a- 
laiide.  a  French  astronomer.  .Miu-ke- 
lyne,an  English  astronomer.  Waring, 
an  English  aril  metician.  Bailly,  the 
F'rench  historia  of  astronomy.  Berke- 
ley, an  Englista  philosopher.  Boscovitch 
an  Italian  ni  ibematiciaii  and  pliil<>si>- 
pher.  Eme  son,  an  English  arithiiiefi- 
ciaii  and  algebraist.  Monlucla,  a  Freiu  h 
mathematician,  and  the  histori.iii  of 
niathemaiica.  Horsley,  an  Eiiglum 
matliem  tician. 
1800.  During  the  preBent  Century, 
works  ou  Mathomaticfl,  have  been 
numerous.  We  cau  only  mention  a 
few  of  the  writers.  Chastles,  Brus- 
seles,  1837:  Plueker,  1828-31-  Pouceld. 
Paris,  1822;  Steiuer.  Berlin,  in3a: 
Benjamin  Pierce,  Boston,  18.58;  Charlea 
Davis,  New  York,  1855;  Mulcahy,  1864. 
M.VrEllIA  MEDICA.  In  medical 
science,  that  branch  which  treat-s  of 
the  articles  employed  in  the  practice  of 
medicine,  and  explains  the  nature  and 
mode  of  action  of  those  substances 
which  are  had  recourse  to  for  the  res- 
toration of  health. 

MATICO.  The  leaves  of  a  Peruvian 
lilant,  used  as  a  powerful  styptic. 

MATRICE,  or  MAtRIX.  The  womb; 
the  cavity  in  which  anything  is  formed, 
and  which  gives  it  shape;  the  mould 
or  form  in  which  printers'  types  are 
ca.-jt.  In  mineralogy,  the  place  where 
anything  is  deposited  or  formed.  lu 
dyeing,  a  term  applied  to  the  fire  sinipla 
colors. 


•42  M  E  A 

MATJVE.  A  pnrple  dyo  obtained  from 
aniline  and  benzol,  two  of  the  constitu- 
ents ot  coal-tar. 


M  A'I'UON  (in  Law).  A  married  woman 
sf  experience,  whii  is  in  certain  cases  em- 
iHiiiielled  upon  juries 

MA'I'T.  Rope  yarn,  junk,  &.C.  beaten 
fl;tl  and  interwoven  to  save  the  yards,  &.C. 
froiii  culling. 

M  \  TTE  Peruvian  tea,  much  used  in 
Sositli  America. 

HJ  ATTKR.  That  which  is  the  object  of 
oiir  senses,  and  appears  under  the  diverse 
forins  of  s<ilids,  Hiilds,  and  gases. 

MAL'NDV  'IHI'RSDAY  (in  Eng- 
land). The  Thursday  befcreOood  Friday, 
in  which  the  king  Is  accusitomed  to  give 
al'jts  to  the  poor. 

MAU^oLRIIM.  A  stately  sepulchre 
built  by  Artemisia,  queen  t)fCaria,  fo/her 
husband  Mausolus  ;  also  any  pompous 
(epiilchMl  monument. 

.MAXI.MU'M  (in  Mathematics).  The 
grealesl  (pjaiility  attainahle  in  any  case. 

M.'VY.     The  fifth  month  in  the  year. 

iMLAU.  An  agreeable  drink,  made  of 
honey  and  water  boiled  and  fermented. 

MK.ADoW.  Ground  covered  with  grass, 
which  is  commonly  left  for  hay. 

Mr.AUOVV  SWEET.  A  herb  with 
crumpled  leaves,  something  like  those  of 
the  elm,  growing  in  meadows.  Its  flower 
expands  in  the  form  of  a  rose 

MEAL.  The  edible  part  of  com,  par- 
ticularly of  barley. 

MEAN  (in  .Mathein.itics).  The  middle 
between  two  extreintt«,  as  a  mean  motion, 
mean  distance,  arithmetical  mean,  geomet- 
rical mean,  &c. 

MEAN  ARITIf.METICAL.  Half  the 
mm  of  the  extremes. 

MEAN  GEO.METRICAL.  or  A  Mean 
Pbupohtiohai..  The  sipiare  root  of  the 
product  of  the  two  extremes. 

MEAN  HARMONirAL.  Double  a 
f  Hirth  proportional  to  the  sum  of  the  ex- 
tremes. 

M.-.ANTIME,  or  Equal  Time.  That 
H  nii:h  is  measured  by  an  equable  motion, 
as  a  clock. 

MKA.-JtjEP  A  disorder  incident  to  chil 
dren,  cons'sting  of  a  fever,  attended  wi'n 
iotlHuvimiliin,  r^iugh,  and  difficulty  «f 
br!-ittliiii|; 

Mb.i.-i'RE.  .■\ny  e'ven  quantity  by 
which  the  (luantily ,  lenaih,  l>readth,  thick- 
ne'^.  and  rripitcity  of  oiln-r  things  may  be 
Mtinialed. 

AIEASI.'UE  (in  Geometry        Any  cer- 


MEC 

tain  quantity  assumed  as  one,  or  nnitf  tr 
which  the  ratio  of  otiier  similar  quanti^iet 
is  expressed,  thus  the  measure  of  a  line  i« 
the  extensiim  ot  a  right  line  at  pleasure 
which  is  to  be  considered  as  unity,  as  an 
inch,  a  foot,  or  a  yard. 

.MEA^ib'RE  (in  Arithmetic).  A  certain 
niiinber  or  quantity,  whn  h  lieing  repealed 
a  certain  number  of  times  ig  equal  to  ano 
ther  that  is  bigger,  to  which  it  has  relation, 
us  u  is  the  iiiea.sure  of  '.i(i. 

MEASI'RE(iii  Music).  That  note,  ai 
the  seuiibreve,  by  winch  all  the  othei 
notes  are  measured  or  adjusted  to  its  val 
ti«. 

MEASl'RE  (in  Poetry).  A  certain 
number  nf  syllables  metrically  measured 

MEASI'RE  (ill  ('oiiimerci-).  Delermi- 
iiale  quantities,  by  wliah  all  things  that 
are  txiught  and  sold  are  measured  as  to 
their  quantity,  and  estimated  as  to  tb»*'' 
rate:  these  are  various  in  different  cuui-- 
tries. 

MKCnANIOAL  Pertaining  to  me- 
chanics. 

M  ECU  AN  IC  A  L  AFFECTIONS 
(among  I'hilosopiiers).  Such  pro}>erlies  t>.' 
matter  r)r  body  its  arise  from  its  ligure, 
bulk  or  m^'tion. 

M  ECU  A  N I  ( •  A  L  PH I LOSOPH  Y.  Thai 
which  explains  the  phenomena  or  .ippea< 
Hiices  of  nature  from  mechanical  priiic' 
pies,  VIZ.  from  the  motion,  rest,  size,  fig 
lire,  &c.  of  the  small  |>artic!es  of  mailer. 
'I  his  is  the  same  as  the  corpuscular  philui- 
ophy. 

MECHANICAL  POWERS.  The  six 
simple  machines  to  which  all  others,  bow 
complex  soever,  may  be  reduced,  and  of 
the  assemblage  wl  ereof  they  are  ail  coD> 
[Miunded  ;  these  are  the  simple  lever,  th«> 
wheel  and  axis,  the  pulley,  the  inclined 
plane,  the  wedge,  and  the  screw.  These 
six  might  be  reduced  to  two,  for  the  pulley 
and  wheel  are  only  assemblages  of  levers, 
and  the  wedge  and  screw  are  inclined 
planes. 

MECHANICAL  SOLCTION  OF  A 
PROBLEM  (With  Mntlieniaticians).  Is  a 
construction  or  priNif  not  done  in  a  strictif 
geoinelricat  manner,  but  by  the  help  of 
instruments. 

MECHANICS.  The  science  of  motion, 
or  that  branch  of  mixed  iiiathemntica 
wlilrh  treats  of  the  effeits  of  powers  of 
moving  forces,  and  applies  them  to  ma- 
chines and  ensiiies.  Newloii  divides  till* 
science  into  practical  and  rational  ;  the 
former  of  which  relates  to  the  mechanics] 
powers,  namely,  ihr  lever,  balance,  wheel 
and  axis   pulley,  wedge,  screw,  inclined 


MEG' 

^ane,  &.C  (see  M£<:ha.-<ici>l  Powers); 
knd  the  latter,  tbul  ia,  mtlmiui  iiirrli;tiiicii, 
relate*  to  the  theory  of  uiutinn,  .-liuiviiig 
n'htMi  the  forces  and  poxvi-rs  are  ^iKen, 
how  to  delerinine  the  nuitimi  thai  will  re- 
sult from  lliciii ;  and  cuuvt- rst-ly,  whin  the 
cirruDielances  of  the  motion  iirr  givrn, 
bov  lo  trace  the  furcr:>  or  powers  i'rum 
wliich  they  arise. 

A*  to  the  practicil  prirl  of  iiitTlinnics, 
this  was  duuhtlew  oii<-  oi'  ihr  lifi  liraiich- 
es  uf  knowledge  whicJi  iirirs»iiy  would 
lead  men  lo  acquire,  it  lieiiig  impossible  to 
Dursue  any  of  the  iiieilutniL'  arts  success- 
fully, without  the  aid  of  merhanical  pow- 
ers in  raising  \veiulit.'<  or  exerting  forces. 
7'hat  all  the  mechanical  p<iwers  were  well 
known  to  the  aiicieiils  is  certain  from  the 
number  and  perl'eclion  of  the  machines 
which  they  had  in  use.  The  theoreticil 
part  uf  mechanics  appears,  however,  not 
to  have  engaged  their  attention  before  the 
time  of  Archimedes,  who  particularly  ap- 
plied himself  to  this  subject  ;  and,  in  his 
iHMik  on  Equiponderants,  has  given  us  the 
theory  of  the  lever,  the  inclined  plane,  the 
pulley,  and  the  screw.  F'rom  his  time  lo 
the  sixteenlli  century,  the  theory  of  the 
mechanical  science  remained,  with  little 
or  no  addilKin  or  change,  ^tevinus,  a 
Flemish  malheiiiallcian,  revived  the  sub- 
ject by  Irealiiigoii  the  laws  of  equilibrium, 
of  a  body  pl.tced  on  an  inclined  plane, 
&.C.  ;  ana  Galileo  afterwards,  in  his  trea- 
tise on  statics,  extended  his  researches  on 
the  theory  of  the  inclined  plane,  the  screw, 
and  all  (he  mechanical  powers,  but  mote 
particularly  on  the  theory  of  accelerated 
motion.  Torricelli,  a  pupil  of  Galileo, 
ailded  several  propositions  loncerning  pro- 
jectiles ;  Huygens  treated  of  the  motion  of 
bodies  along  given  curves  ;  and,  in  I6G1, 
Huygens,  Wallis,  and  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  all  discovered  the  true  laws  of  per- 
cussion, without  any  previous  communi- 
cation with  each  oiher.  Henceforth  the 
study  of  mechanics,  like  every  other 
branch  of  the  mathematical  science,  was 
illustrated  and  enlarged  by  different  wri- 
ters of  great  name  :  as  by  .\eWton,  in  his 
Prim  ipia ;  lASibiiitz,  in  his  Resistentia 
Solidoruni  ;  Deschales,  in  his  Treatise  on 
Motioo  ;  Parent,  in  his  Elements  of  Me- 
chanics and  Physics  ;  Oughtred,  in  his 
Mechanical  Institutions;  Keil,  in  his  In- 
Toduction  to  True  Philosophy  ;  De  la  Hire, 
in  his  Mi-cbanique  ;  Ditton,  in  his  Laws 
of  .Motion  ;  Gravesande,  in  his  Physics  ; 
Kuler  in  his  Traitatus  de  .Motu  ;  .Mus- 
thepb-ock.  in  his  Physics  ;  B<)«sii,  in  his 
Meeb;  ixpies  ;  [.agrange,  in  his  Mechaiii- 


MLD 


?49 


;  que  .Analytique  ;  AIwimmI,  in  his  Treati^ 
antl  recently  by  Wood,  WTiewell,  and 
Mosoly. 

.MEI>.\L.  An  dnctent  coin,  or  a  piece 
of  metal  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  st:ini(H-d  to 
preserve  the  memory  of  some  illustrious 
person,  or  of  some  distineuishrd  event 

MEDALLIO.N.  A  »ery  large  medal, 
suppo>:ed  to  be  anciently  struck  by  the 
emperors. 

MEDICINE.  The  art  of  preserving 
health,  curing  diseases,  and  alleviating 
maladies.  It  is  an  art  that  assists  naturt 
in  the  preservation  of  health  by  tlie  use  of 
proper  remedies. 

MKDIE'IAS  l,I.NGL'/E  (in  Fngland) 
A  jury  consisting  of  hall  natives  and  half 
foreieiiers,  which  is  empHiinelled  in  cases 
where  the  party  to  be  tried  is  a  foreigner 

MEUIMNO.  .A  corn  measure  in  the 
Levant,  equal  to  nearly  four  English 
quarters. 

MEDIUM  (in  Physics)  That  space  or 
region  through  which  a  body  in  motion 
passes  to  any  point  ;  thus,  ether  is  suppo- 
sed to  be  the  medium  through  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  move  ;  air  is  the  medium 
through  wliirk  bodies  move  neartheearih  ; 
water  the  medium  wherein  fishes  live  and 
move. 

BIEDIUM,  iflTHERiAL.  A  subtle  medi- 
um supposed  by  Newton  to  occupy  every 
part  of  space,  in  which  the  planetary  mc 
tions  are  performed  without  resistance 
and  by  means  of  whi'  h  light  is  reflected, 
inflected,  and  refracted,  heat  is  prop:igated 
and  imreased,  and,  in  short,  all  the  great 
operations  of  nature  are  supposed  to  be 
carried  on  through  the  agency  of  this  uni- 
versal medium. 

MEDLAR.  The  fruit  of  a  tree  called, 
in  Botany,  the  .Mespilii  Germ«:«ica, 
which  in  its  leaf  resembles  a  laurel.  The 
fruit,  which  in  shape  ri-seiiibles  an  apple, 
is  not  eatable  until  it  is  in  a  stale  of  rotten 
ri|>eness. 

MEDULLA  CEREBRI  The  sort  sub- 
stance of  the  brain,  covered  externally 
with  a  cortical  substance  of  an  ashy  colour. 

MEDULLA  OBLONGATA.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  spinal  marrow,  or  an  er 
tended  portion  of  the  brain. 

MEDUS.\  (in  Mythology).  One  of  iht 
three  Gorgons,  said  to  have  been  borr 
with  snakes  on  her  head  instead  of  locki 
of  hair.  Perseus  rut  off  the  head  of  .Me- 
dusa, and  placed  it  in  the  shield  of  .Miner- 
va. 

.MEDUPA.  A  sort  of  worms  wh'rh. 
causing  when  touched  aslighttingliitgaiM 
redness,  are  denominated  sea-nettles 


tM 


ME  IS 


MEK 


MBERSIIALTM.  A  fine  sort  of  Tiirkisli 
'.lay,  of  which  pipesi  are  iiiailit  in  Germany 
of  various  forms,  ll  assumes  a  beaulifiil 
bruvvn  colour  aller  it  has  lieen  used  fur 
■niokin^  for  some  time 

MELLITB,  or  Honkt-8toi«e.  A  mine- 
ri!  found  first  in  I'huriiicia,  which  is  of  a 
honey-yellow  colour,  and  is  usually  crys- 
tallized III  small  octaedrons. 

MELLrj'K;  A(;iD  A  substance  pro- 
cured from  mellite. 

MKLUUY  (ill  Music).  The  agreeable 
■en-vitioii  produced  by  a  regular  succession 
of  different  soun<ls. 

MELDi;.  A  sort  of  insects,  of  which 
the  two  principal  species  are  the  oil  beetle, 
so  called  because,  on  bein^  handled,  it  ex- 
udes from  its  legs,  drops  of  a  clear,  deep 
yellow  oil  or  fluid,  of  a  very  peculiar  and 
penetrating  smell ;  and  the  meloe  vesica- 
torius,  or  Spanish  fly,  which  is  used  in 
raising  blisters 

MELON.  A  plant  of  the  cucumber  tribe, 
the  flower  of  which  consists  of  «me  bell- 
shaped  leaf  cut  into  several  segments.  The 
fruit  is  mostly  of  an  oval  sh<ipe,  and  filled 
with  seeds. 

MEMBKA.NE  (in  Anatomy).  A  broad, 
nervous,  and  fibrous  substance,  which 
•  serves  as  a  invi-riii:'  for  different  parts  of 
the  body,  particularly  the  brain  and  the 
victceni. 

ME.ME.N'TO  A  hint  to  awaken  the 
metii  iry. 

MEMOIRS.  Histories  written  by  those 
who  have  been  witnesses  of  the  transac- 
'tioiis,  and  acquainted  with  the  persons, 
which  they  describe. 

MRMORAiVDUM.  A  short  note,  for 
the  better  remembrance  of  a  thing. 

MK.MORIAL.  A  monument,  or  what- 
ever else  serves  to  call  a  thing  or  person 
to  remembrance 

MICMORV,  Artificial.  A  method  of 
assistiii!;  the  memory  by  some  artificial 
aiiitrivance,  as  that  of  forming  certain 
Words,  the  letters  of  which  shall  signify 
the  date  or  era  to  be  remembered.  Various 
devices  of  this  kind  have  been  hit  ujiouat 
different  times. 

M ICX  PICA  NTS.  Monks  so  called,  who 
go  about  begging  alras. 

MENSTRUUM.  A  liquid  whic'i  serves 
to  extract  the  virtues  of  any  substance,  by 
infusion,  decocli(m,  &<•.  Water  is  the  men- 
struum of  all  salts,  oils  of  resins,  acids  of 
wkniies  and  t.lie  like. 

MF.NSUK  ATIO.V.  The  art  of  ineaaur- 
tng  lines,  superficies,  and  solids,  which,  in 
consequence  of  its  extensive  application  to 
the  purposes  of  life,  is  considered  as  of  the 
frtiatest  unpoitaace. 


Euclid  treats  of  mensuration,  as  far  at 
reuards  surfaces,  only  of  the  mea'^uringof 
triangles ;  and  in  regard  to  curvilinear 
figures,  he  attempted  the  measuiemenl  of 
the  circle  and  the  sphere.  Archimedes 
carried  this  subject  to  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent: he  found  the  area  of  a  parabola  to 
be  two  ihirdsof  itscircumscribinglriangle  ; 
winch,  with  the  exception  of  the  luiiulna 
of  Hippocrates,  was  the  first  instance  of 
the  quadrature  of  a  curvilinear  space  He 
likewise  determined  the  ratio  of  spheroids 
and  conoids  to  their  circumscribing  cylin- 
ders, and  h<is  left  us  his  attempt  at  the 
quadrature  of  the  circle.  He  demonstrated 
that  ttie  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of  which 
one  of  its  sides  about  the  right  angle  is 
equal  to  the  radius,  and  the  other  to  the 
circumference  ;  and  thus  reduced  the  qua- 
drature of  the  circle  to  llie  determining  the 
ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter, 
a  problem,  in  the  solution  of  which  he 
could  only  arrive  at  an  approximation  tc 
the  truth,  showing  that  the  ratio  between 
the  circumference  and  the  diameter  was 
less  than  that  of  7  to 2-2.  What  Archimedes 
failed  toefilect  in  this  respect  has  continued 
to  this  day  unattainable,  notwithstanding 
the  eflforts  which  have  been  made  by  sub- 
sequent mathematicians,  particularly  with- 
in the  last  three  centuries,  to  arrive  at  a 
greater  approximation.  As  all  hopes  of  ac- 
curately stiuaring  the  circle  and  some  other 
curves  were  at  length  given  up,  mathema- 
ticians applied  themselves  to  the  finding 
the  most  c<uivenient  series  for  approxima- 
ting towards  their  true  lensrths  and  quadra- 
tures; and  the  scieiiceof  mensuration  has 
III  consequence  assumed  a  more  consistent 
form. 

MERCAPTAN.  A  liquid  cimposod  of 
sulphur,  carbon,  and  hydrogen. 

MEI'1^TI(^  Poisonous,  like  the  Me- 
phitis, or  Damp,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
miners ;  as  Mephitic  Air,  another  name  for 
nitrogen  gas,  on  account  of  its  no.xious 
quality  ;  and  .Mephitic  Acid,  carbonic  acid, 
so  called  localise  it  cannot  be  respired 
without  causing  death 

MERCATOR'S  CHART.  A  sea  chart, 
in  which  the  parallels  of  latitude  and  the 
meridians  are  represented  by  straight 
lines. 

MERCER.  One  who  deals  In  wrought 
silks.  The  mercers'  company  in  London 
was  incorporated  in  1393 

MERCH.-VNT.  In  England,  one  that  ex 
ports  and  imports  merchandise.  In  tb» 
U  S.,  the  term  is  applied  to  large  dealen 
generally 


ME8 

MERCURY.  In  mythology,  the  god  of 
eloquence  and  trade,  and  the  messenger 
of  the  gods. 


MET 


245 


st^::^^^ 


MERCURY.  In  astronomy,  the  planet 
nearest  the  sun.  from  which  he  is  dis- 
tant about  30,000,000  miles.  His  mean 
sidereal  revolution  is  performed  in 
VS-'JGO'ioS  iiieau  solar  days.  His  diameter 
is  about  3,140  miles.  Ho  revolves  on 
his  axis  in  24  hours,  5  min.  28  sec.  In 
mineralogy,  a  white  metal  which  is 
fluid  at  common  temperatures  ;  quick- 
silver. Its  spetafic  jjravity  is  13-E;  its 
equivalent  is  200.     Formula,  Hg. 

MERGANSER.  An  aquatic  fowl,  the 
goosander. 


MERIDIAN.  In  astronomy  and  geog- 
rapliy,  an  imaginary  great  circle  of  the 
sphere,  p;i.ssing  through  the  earth's 
axis  and  the  zenith  of  the  spectator, 
dividing  the  spere  into  two  herals 
pheres,  eastern  and  western,  and  cross- 
ing the  eijuinoctial  at  right  angles.  In 
geoj^raphy ,  the  meri  Uans  are  as  numer- 
ous as  the  places  on  the  eurth,  and  the 
first  meridian  is  that  from  which  the 
reckoning  commences.  Tliis  is  fixed 
difiFereiitly  by  different  nations,  thecap- 
ital  of  each  country  being  mostly  chosen 
as  the  first  meridian  for  their  re.speo- 
tive  globes.  Meridional  distance  is  the 
difference  of  the  longitude  between  the 
meridian  nuder  whi.^h  the  ship  is  at 
present,  and  any  other  she  was  under 
before. 

MESMERISM.  Another  term  for  ani- 
mal magnetism:  an  agent  (as  taught  by 
its  advocates)  by  which  one  person  can 
communicate  certain  influences  at  will 


to  the  mind  of  the  person  mesmerized, 
or  put  into  a  state  of  sleep,  in  which 
questions  are  answered.  Mesmeriza- 
tiou,  is  the  act  of  producing  the  mes- 
meric state. 

MESOZOIC.  In  geology,  an  epithet 
applied  to  the  middle  i^eriod  of  the 
earth's  crust  as  relates  to  animal  re- 
mains. 

METAGENESIS.  In  zoology,  the 
changes  of  form  which  the  representa- 
tive of  a  species  undergoes  in  passing 
from  an  imperfect  to  a  more  perfect 
state. 

METAL.  An  undecompounded  body 
of  p'culiar  lustre,  insoluble  in  water, 
fusible  by  heat,  and  capable,  in  the 
state  of  an  oxide,  of  uniting  with  acids, 
and  forming  with  them  metallic  salts. 
Metals  are  distinguished,  in  different 
degrees,  by  malleability,  ductility,  fusi- 
biUty,  tenacity,  elasticity,  and  crystal- 
line texture.  Gold,  silver,  iron,  copper, 
mercury,  lead,  and  tin  were  known  to 
the  ancients  from  the  earliest  periods. 
Gold  andsilver  were  called  noble  metals; 
the  rest  base  metals. 

Metals  are  distinguished  into  dif- 
ferent cla-sses,  which  have  been  thus 
arranged  by  Hoblyn: — 1.  MetalUc  bases 
of  the  alkalies,  viz.,  potassium,  sodium, 
and  lithium.  The  oxides  are  termed 
alkalies,  and  the  metallic  bxses  alkaline 
or  alkaligenous  metals.  2.  Metallic 
bases  of  the  alkaline  earths,  viz  ,  bari- 
um, strontium,  calcium,  and  magne- 
sium, and  their  oxido-i  are  termed  al- 
kaline earths.  3.  Metallic  bases  of  the 
earths,  viz.,  aluminium,  zirconium, 
glucinium,  siUcium.  yttrium,  and 
thorium.  4.  Metals  yielding  oxides, 
which  are  neutral  salifiable  bases,  viz., 
gold,  silver,  mercury,  copper. lead,  iron, 
tin,  platinum,  palladium,  nickel,  cad- 
mium, zinc,  bismuth,  antimony, cobalt, 
and  manganese.  5.  Metals  which  are 
acidiflable  by  combination  with  oxygen, 
viz.,  tellurium,  arsenic,  chromium, 
molybdeniim,  tungsten,  columbium, 
ami  selenium.  6.  Metals  magnetic, 
viz.,  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt.  Metals 
are  termed  native  when  found  in  an 
uncombined  form;  niiueralizod,  when 
combined  with  other  bodies;  com- 
poTiuds  of  two  or  more  metals,  except 
mercury,  are  called  alloys,  and  possess 
the  characteristic  proi)erties  of  pure 
metals;  those  of  mercury  with  other 
metals  are  called  amalgams.  Metals 
are  the  best  reflectors  ol  caloric,  aud 
the  worst  radiators. 

METAPHYSICS.  The  philosophy  of 
mind,  as  distinguished  from  that  of 
matter;  a  speculative  science,  which 
soars  beyond  the  bounds  of  actual  ex- 
perience. The  science  has  been  divided 
into  six  parts— ontology,  cosmology, 
anthropophosy,  psychology,  pneuma- 
tology,  and  metaphysical  theology. 

METEOR.  A  general  term  for  the  phe- 
nomenaof  the  atmosphere,  but  particu- 


S46 


MEZ 


MIL 


larly  foi  sucfi  sudden  and  liiininnus  appear- 
ances aa  are  uccusiunally  visilile,  siicli  as 
iirebal U  or  luminous  bodies  of  ciinsidenilile 
Dingiiilude,  that  are  frequently  to  be  seen 
m  the  tropical  cliinatea  ;  sliooliri;:  oi  falling 
■lars,  that  are  of  coiinnoii  occurrence  ;  and 
tlie  i^nis  fatuus,  seen  in  marshes. 

ME'l'EOKIC  STO.NES.     Heavy,  stony 


to  drawings  in  India  ink  Thi?  Is  per 
formed  by  punching  tiie  copper  plaw* 
with  the  grounding  tool,  srrapins;  them 
with  the  scrafier,  and  then  rnhlung  them 
with  the  burnislier  or  smiHilh  piece  of 
steel,  to  produce  the  effect  desired 


MICROPHONE.    An  instnimont  for 

.,.,..  ,  ,     ,„  M  ,■    „  niaiiiiifyiii;;  weak  sounds.     Ii  it.s  best 

bodies.  in:a  are  supposed  to  laH  'rom  the  ^^^^.^^^  it'co.mists  of  a  stick  of  jias-carbon 
fireballs  alter  they  have  explode.l.  I  he^^e  pi,,eed  verticall v  and  .supported  loo.sely 
•umes,  which  are  IcHiked  u|K>n  by  some  as  |l„.t„-eeii  two  s'luall  block.s  of  carbon 
cuocreti<jns  formed  in  the  atmosphere,  are  ifiisteiied  to  a  pieceof  thin  board.  When 
by  a  cliymical  analysis  found  to  contain  Ian  electric  current  passes  tlirougb  the 
silica,  oxide  of  iron,  ma-nesia,  sulphur,  carbon,  an  ordinary  tcleplioiie  being  in 


lime  and  oxide  of  nickel. 

MKTliOKuLOUY.  'I'he  doctrine  of  me- 
teors III  sjenenil,  or  the  sliiily  of  the  vari- 
able pIteiioiiK  na  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
chanses  to  which  the  atmosphere  is  most 
subject  are  such  as  respect  its  temperature, 
weight,  moisture,  and  electricity,  which 
are  marked  and  measured  by  the  barome- 
ter, llieruiiuneter,  hygrometer,  and  electro- 
meter. The  results  of  these  changes  are 
winds,  rains, snow,  heals, colds,  dews, &.c. 
The  intensity  of  the  winds  is  measured  by 
the  aerometer,  and  the  quantity  of  rain  is 
measured  by  the  pluviometer  or  rain-gauge. 

M  M'I'ER,  or  CoAL.-Mi:TER.  A  measurer 
of  n>als 

METOXIC  CYCLE.  OR  METONIC 
TEAR.  A  i)eriod  of  nineteen  year-s  in 
■which  tlie  Itination.s  ol  the  moon  returii 
to  the  same  days  of  the  month. 

METRIC  SYSTEM.     The  system  of 

weights  and  measures  first  ado)>ted  in  «^^ -  

Trance,  the  important  points  in  wliich  ^IIURIFI',  or  Diaphrarm   {in   Anato- 


are — 1.  that  it  is  a  decimal  system; 
2.  that  the  miit.s  of  lengtli,  superficies, 
■  soliditv.  anil  weight  are  correlated. 

METROGRAPH.  An  apparatus  on 
arailway-enjiine  to  indicate  the  speed  at 
■wliicli  tile  train  is  traveling,  and  lime  of 
arrival  and  dejiarture  at  each  station 

METROLOGY.  Science  of  weights 
and  measures,  or  a  treatise  on  them. 

METONYMY  (in  Rhetoric).  A  figure 
of  speech,  whereby  one  thing  is  put  for 
another,  as  the  cause  for  the  effect,  the 
part  for  the  whole,  and  the  like. 

METUE  (in  Poetry).  A  system  of  feet 
composing  8  verse  ;  as  pentameter,  a  verse 
of  five  feet,  he.iameter,  a  verse  of  six 
feet,  &c. 

METRE  (in  Commerce).  A  French 
measure,  equal  to  rather  more  than  thirty- 
nine  inches. 

METROPOLIS.  The  chief  city  of  a 
kingdom  or  province. 

METROPOLITAN.  A  bishop  of  the 
Hiolher  church  ;  an  archbishop,  who  is 
Hisliop  of  the  inelro|Hiils 

,Mf:/./(»TINT(J.  A  particular  kind  of 
•ngraving,  su  called  from  its  resemblance 


circuit,  the  slightest  jar,  and  even  the 
vibrations  of  the  voice,  is  siitticient  to 
iuterrapt  the  contact  uu  the  surfaces. 

MICROSCOPE.  An  optical  instrument 
which  magnities  objects,  so  that  the  small- 
est may  be  distinctly  seen  and  described. 
'I'he  invention  of  microsco|)es,  like  many 
other  ingenious  discoveries,  has  been 
claimed  for  dilferenl  auttiors.  Iluygena 
informs  us  that  l)rebell,a  Dutchman,  con- 
structed the  tirst  inicrosco|)e  in  lt>:2l  ;  but 
Borelli  states,  in  a  lettw  to  his  brother, 
that  when  lie  was  ambassador  in  Eni!land 
in  I(jl9,  Cornelius  I)r«bell  showed  liim  a 
Hiicroscope,  which  he  said  was  given  him 
by  the  archduke  Alliert,  and  had  been 
made  by  Jaiisen,  whom  he  considers  to 
have  been  the  real  inventor,  althniiuli  P 
Koniana,  a  iNeapoliuin,  claimed,  in  IMR, 
the  honour  of  the  inventicui  to  liimseK^ 
and  dated  it  from  the  year  lt>18. 


ny).  A  membrane  which  divides  I  be  irii  ilk 
of  the  body  into  the  thorax  anil  abdomen, 
the  upper  and  lower  cavity. 

MI1)SHIP.MAN.  An  otti.er  in  the  navy, 
who  assi.sts  on  all  occasions,  both  in  slow- 
ing and  nimmaging  the  hold,  sailing  the 
ship,  Slc 

.MinsU.MMER.  The  summer  solstice. 
The  ■34th  of  June  is  the  .Midsunuiier  Day, 
which  is  also  quarter  ilay. 

.MIDWIFERY.  The  art  of  assisting 
women  in  chiblbirth. 

•MILE.  A  long  measure,  which,  in  Rn<{- 
land,  contains  H  furliuigs,  or  ITliU  yards, 
or  .V2.~I'J  feet. 

MILIARY  GLA.XDS.  The  small  and 
infinitely  numerous  glands,  which  secrete 
the  perspiration. 

MILITARY.  A  name  for  the  whole 
body  of  soldiery,  with  tlieir  eqiiipuients, 
ice. 

.MILITARY.  An  ppithel  for  what  be!.. nspi 
to  soldiers,  a.«  Military  Architec'ure,  .Mili- 
tary Exercises,  &,c. 

MILITARY    ARCHITECTURE.     Sea 

FoKTIFICAT.O  t 


MIM 

MIUVARY  EXECUTION  Ravaging 
•  roiiiiiry  iliat  refuses  to  |Kiy  the  contribu- 
tion levied  u|Hin  it ,  also  the  punisliiiient  In- 
Jirted  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-inartml. 

MILITARY  KOAI)  or  WAY.  A  ro:id 
naile  for  the  [Kissase  nf  armies,  like  those 
*«nstructed  by  tlie  Ruiiians  in  Britain. 

MILITI.\.     A  military  force  raised 

for  the   pertnaiienl   defence   of   a 
eountry. 

.MILK.  A  fluid  which  serves  for  tlie 
itoiirishiiient  of  yoiin-;  aniinalsi.  It  is  Ke- 
ireted  by  (larticular  glands  in  the  female 
of  all  animals  winch  suckle  their  yoiin;!, 
which,  on  that  account,  are  deniuniiiated 
mammalia.  The  constituent  parts  of  cows' 
milk,  procured  by  chemical  analysis,  are, 
aroma,  an  odorous,  volatile  iirimiple ; 
water,  which  forms  a  considerilile  part  ; 
bland  oil,  from  which  the  cream  is  foriiieil ; 
curd,  or  unimal  gluten  ;  sugar  or  the  serum 
of  milk;  ami  some  neutral  s.alts.  Human 
milk  is  the  thinnest  of  all,  and  next  to 
that,  asses'  milk,  which  is  prescribed  for 
lonsiiniptive  persons. 

MILK  THISTLE.  A  biennial,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  eaten  as  a  salad. 

MILKY  WAY,  or  Via  Lacte*  (in  As- 
tronomy). A  broad  tnuk  or  path  encom- 
passing! the  whole  heavens,  which  is  easily 
di.scernible,  from  its  milky-white  appear- 
ance. 

MILL.  A  niachinefor!n"indin!!wheat,&c. 
of  which  there  are  ililfereiit  kinds,  accord- 
ing to  the  ditfereiit  methods  of  putting  them 
in  motion,  as  waiermills,  windmills,  horse- 
mills,  handmills,  and  also  steanimills. 
They  are  al.so  ilistiiisuished  accordin;:  to 
the  uses  they  serve,  as  cornmills,  cotton- 
mills,  pa|ieriiiills,  barkniills,  ice.  Corn  is 
ground  hy  two  iiiillstones  placed  one  above 
the  other  witliixit  touching,  the  space  be- 
tween them  lieiiiii  made  greater  or  less,  ac- 
cording at)  the  miller  would  have  the  tlour 
flner  or  coarser. 

MILLENNIUM.  A  thousand  years, 
generally  taken  for  the  thous;ind  years  of 
Christ's  reign  here  on  earth. 

MILLET.  A  plant  1  hat  l)ears an  immense 
number  of  small  cniiiis.  In  CViiiral  Afri- 
ca, it  is  the  comnion  food  of  the  inhabi- 
tants 

MILLINO.    The  same  as  fulling. 

MlilLLVfJ.  The  stamping  of  coir  by 
means  of  a  mill.  This  is  one  part  of  the 
process  in  coining. 

MILLION  The  lumber  of  ten  hundred 
tbousnnd. 

MILLRE.\  A  Portuguese  gold  coin, 
eijuai  to  one  dollar  and  live  cents. 

MI.MOS.\.  or  The  Si.itiTirE   TLA-fT, 


MIN 


t*7 


«o  called  on  account  of  the  sensibility  of 
us  leaves.  It  is  a  numerous  inbe  of  planla. 
which  are  all  natives  of  warm  climatea 
They  have  all  the  singular  pmperty  thai 
ilieir  leaves  recede  from  the  touch,  and 
run  rapidly  together;  in  some,  the  IihiI- 
stalks  and  all  are  affected.  The  hiimbla 
sensitives  instantly  fall  downward,  as  i. 
fastened  by  hinges.  These  plants  have  .ill 
winged  leaves,  each  wing  consisiing  <if 
many  small  pinnx.  From  the  Mimosa 
.\ilotica,  represented  iinderneiith,  is  pro- 
cured the  gum  arable. 


MINE.  A  deep  hollow,  running  iinde 
ground,  whence  various  minerils,  particii 
larly  the  metallic  kind,  are  dug  out 
Tliese  mines  are  mostly  due  ihrmigh  vari- 
ous strata  or  beds  of  substances,  of  which 
the  interior  of  the  earth  is  c(im|Mi.sed.  lu 
these  strata  are  found  inniimenthle  fissures, 
called  hy  the  miners  lodes,  which  ront:iin 
the  metal  sought  for.  The  passage  or  do- 
scent  to  the  mine  is  by  means  of  a  pit 
called  a  shaft.  The  priiicip:il  signs,  by 
which  metallic  veins  are  discnvered.  are 
mineral  waters,  pieces  of  ore  found  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  warm  exiialatioiis, 
metallic  sands,  &.c. 

MINE  (in  Fortification)  A  siihterrane- 
oiis  passage  dug  under  the  wall  or  niiii|iart 
of  a  fortification,  for  the  pur|>ose  of  blow- 
ing it  up  by  gun|M>wder.  The  place  whern 
the  powder  is  lodged  is  called  the  chamber. 

MINER.  One  who  digs  mines  or  works 
in  mines. 

MINERALOGY  That  scienre  whict 
treats  of  the  solid  and  hard  component 
parts  of  the  earth.  Minenls  have  been 
variously  classed  by  different  writers.  The 
systeniofWemer comprehend-  litem  under 
the  four  classes  of  earths,  sails,  luilaiiiiiin 
bles,  and  metals.  To  tins  l.inii;pus  ha* 
added  a  fifth  cl;i.ss  of  ix-irnactions. 

Ml.VERAI.  WATERS.  Springs  bn 
pregnated  With  iiiiiienil  substances. 

Ml.NERVA.  Til"  daughter  of  Jupiter 
and  ^>dde«is  of  wisdiHii  and  ttie  fine  art« 


S48 


MIS 


MIT 


She  is  commonly  re|u-fsente<l  with  all  tli« 
e.ulileiiid  of  war,  a^  ll>e  keliiiel,  tJiKsiU,  uiid 
■liield. 

MINERVALIA.  PreseiUs  among  the 
ancients,  made  liy  ilie  hoys  lo  llieir  mas- 
ters before  the  feast  of  Minerva. 

MIMATL'KE.  A  delicate  kind  of  paint- 
ing, consisting  of  little  points  or  dots  in- 
stead of  lines,  commonly  done  on  ivor.y, 
and  used  in  taking  purtraitdj  also  tlie  pur- 
trait  itself. 

MINIM  (in  Music)  A  measure  of  time 
marked  thus,  ^,  ei|ual  to  two  crolclieis. 

MINIMUM  tin  .Matlieniatics)  The  least 
quantity  attainable  in  a  jjiven  ca.se 

MINISTER  OK  STATE.  In  Enalaud, 
one  who  conduct.*  the  affairs  of  slate  by  an 
authority  from  the  kiuu. 

MINISTER,  KoKEios.  A  [lerson  sent 
into  a  foreign  country,  lo  manage  tlie  af- 
fairs of  the  slate  tiy  which  he  is  sent. 

.MINIU.M,  or  Rko  Lead.  An  oxide  of 
lead,  procured  by  exposing  this  metal  to  a 
great  heat  and  a  free  access  of  air. 

MINK.  An  animal  of  the  weasel  kind, 
common  in  North  America,  that  frequents 
the  hanks  of  streams. 

MLNOR  (in  L;iw).  An  heir,  male  or 
female,  within  the  age  of  twenty -ime 

MINORITY  (in  Law).  A  stale  of  non- 
age i  also  the  smaller  number  of  persons 
who  give  their  votes  on  any  questions. 

MINSTREL..  A  player  on  any  musical 
instrument ;  an  itinerant  performer 

MINT  (in  Botany).  A  iM>l-I)erb,  which 
has  a  creeping  root  and  a  strong  aromatic 
scent. 

MI.VT.   The  place  where  coin  is  made. 

MINUTE  (in  Geometry,  marked  thus('). 
The  sixtieth  part  of  the  degree  of  a  circle  ; 
also  the  sixtietli  part  of  an  hour. 

MIR.^CLES.  Works  effected  in  a  man- 
ner dilferent  froii^  the  ordinary  course  of 
nature,  by  the  immediate  power  of  the 
Almighty,  for  some  particular  purpose. 

MIRROR.  The  surface  of  any  opaque 
iHxly  polished,  and  aitapted  to  reflect  the 
■^ys  of  light  which  fall  upon  it,  <-ind  lo 
epresent  objects.  .Mirrors  are  either  flat, 
as  looking-slasses  ;  concave,  for  the  pur- 
pijseof  convergMigtlie  raysof  light ;  or  con- 
vex, for  the  puriMwe  of  diverging  the  rays 
of  light. 

MISADVENTURE  (in  Law).  A  son 
of  homicide  against  the  mind  of  the  kill- 
er, partly  by  negligeni/c  and  partly  by 
chance 

MISCELLANE.E.  One  of  Linnteus's 
natural  orders  of  pl.i.iis,  comprehending 
such  as  were  nol  included  in  the  oilier 
orders 

MISCHIEF  (in  I-tw)    "Vainagc  or  Inju- 


ry done  TO  the  property  of  another,  m  t  tci 
gain,  but  with  a  malicious  intent. 

M1SUE.MEANOUR.  An  offence  lea 
than  felony. 

MISLETOE.  A  plant  which  always 
grows  on  trees,  and  was  thought, lliereforr, 
to  be  an  excrescence  of  tlie  tree  ;  bul  it 
has  been  found  to  be  propagated  by  ihe 
seed  or  berry  which  is  conveyed  by  the 
misletoe  thrush  from  one  tree  lo  another: 
this  bird  being  fond  of  these  seeds,  il 
sometimes  happens  that  the  viscous  pari 
of  the  berry  sticks  to  his  beak,  and.  In  his 
attemjits  to  disengage  himself  I'roni  il  by 
strlkiiiL'  his  beak  agahist  the  bark  of  Ihfl 
tree,  the  berry  slicks  to  the  latter  ;  and  if 
Il  hajipen  lo  light  on  a  siiiootli  part,  it  will 
lake  null,  and  sprout  out  Ilie  next  winter 
This  plant  adiierrs  iiiiisl  readily  lo  the  a«h 
and  other  siiioolh-rinded  trees,  as  tile 
apple,  &.C. 

MI.-^.NAII  The  code  or  collection  of 
the  civil  law  of  the  Jews 

MISNOMER  (in  Law).  The  giving  a 
person  a  wrong  name. 

MISPRISION.  In  general,  a  neglect, 
as  misprision  of  treason,  a  neglect  lo  reveiU 
treason  ;  which  was  formerly  liigh  treason 
in  En  eland. 

MISSAL.  The  book  of  the  Romish  cer- 
emonies. 

MISSILE.  Any  weapon  thrown  or  dis- 
charged from  a  machine,  as  stones  t'rom  a 
sling 

MISSIONARIES.  Ministers  sent  into 
any  country  to  preach  Christianity. 

MISTS.  VaiMiurs  hovering  over  the 
earth,  which  are  c iiher  drawn  upwards  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  fall  ilown  by  their 
own  weiiiht  in  the  shape  of  dew,  or,  iu 
cold  weather,  in  that  of  hoar  frosl. 

MITE.  One  of  the  smallest  Insects,  that 
is  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  except 
by  Its  motion.  .As  seen  through  a  micri*- 
scope,  it  is  found  to  have  eight  legs,  two 
eyes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and 
twojoinled  teiitacuia.  It  mostly  lives  m 
cheeses. 


MITE  (in  Commerce).  A  small  coin 
formerly  current,  equal  to  about  one  third 
part  of  a  farthing;  also  a  weight  anions 
the  moneyers,  equal  to  the  twentieth  part 
of  a  srain. 

MITRE  (among  Carpenters).  .An  angU 
just  45  degrees,  or  half  a  right  angle 


MOL 


BION 


14S 


MITRE.  A  sarerdotal  oiTinment  worn 
>"■  the  head  \iy  hishups  on  solemn  occa- 
MMs ;  it  u  a  cap  uf  a  conicul  fonn 


MIZEN.     See  Mast 

M.N'KMU.N'ICS.  Precepts,  rules,  and 
eoniinoii-places,  to  help  the  ineiiiory 

MOAT  (In  Fortification).  A  deep  trench 
d'ig  round  the  rampart:)  ol'  a  fortilied  place. 

MOCKINO-BIKD.  A  sort  ol"  American 
ihnish,  which  has  the  faciilry  of  imitatin-! 
tlie  notes  of  other  hirds.  This  Iiird  is  so 
|ierfect  an  imitator,  that  it  will  catch  part.s 
of  tunes  from  a  tliite,  and  repeat  tliem 
with  great  sweetness  and  accuracy.  It 
seldom  migrates  farther  north  than  Penn- 
■ylvania 

.MODE  (in  Music).  A  reginnr  disposition 
of  the  tune  in  relation  to  certain  principal 
sounds,  which  are  called  the  essential 
chords  of  the  bass. 

MODEL,  An  oriirinal  pattern,  or  the 
shape  or  design  of  any  tliins;  In  miniature  ; 
particularly  applied  to  an  artificial  pattern 
made  in  wood,  stone,  plaster,  or  other 
matter,  with  all  its  parts  and  proportions, 
n  order  to  give  a  full  idea  of  the  work 
iiat  is  to  be  e.\ecuted. 

.MODERNS.  A  name  given  generally 
to  those  who  have  distinv'uished  them- 
selves since  the  revival  of  learning,  as 
compared  with  the  ancient-s,  and  also  with 
those  of  the  middle  ages 

MODULE  (in  Architecture).  A  certain 
measure  by  which  the  proportions  of  col- 
umns are  regulated. 

.MODUS  DECLMA-NDL  In  England, 
something  paid  as  a  compensation  for 
t'*-.es,  on  the  principle  of  a  moderate 
e<)uivalent. 

.MOHAIR.  The  hair  of  a  kind  of  goat 
at  Angora  In  Turkey,  of  which  the  natives 
make  caniblets 

Mf)IDORE.  A  Portuguese  coin,  equal 
tc$S,50 

MOLAS5ES  The  gross  fluirt  matter 
that  remains  of  siigiir  after  boiling;  the 
scum  of  the  sugarcane. 

MOLE  (amonc  Mariners).  A  lone  pier 
er artificial  bulwark  of  ma.'onry, extending 
•Uiquely  acruss  a  h::rbour 


MOLE  An  anima.  chat  lives  und« 
ground,  and,  on  account  of  the  smallneas 
of  its  eyes,  was  formerly  supposed  t«  bs 
blind 


MOLLUSCA  An  order  of  animals  (in 
der  the  class  vermes  in  the  Linnjean  sys- 
tem, comprehendin;:  naked  simple  animals 
not  included  in  a  shell,  hut  furnished  with 
limbs,  as  the  snail,  star-fish,  cuttle-flsh, 
sea-urchin,  &c. 

MOLTING  The  changing  of  feathers, 
hair,  or  horns,  in  birds  and  beasts. 

.MOLVHDATES.  Salts  formed  from 
molybdic  acid  in  combination  with  earths, 
alkalies,  &c. 

MOLVIJDE.VU.M.  A  metal  which  ex- 
ists,  mineralized  by  sulphur,  in  'he  ore 
called  the  ore  of  Molybdena  Molybdenum 
has  hitherto  been  obtained  only  in  small 
globules. 

M  OM  ENTU  M  The  quantity  of  motion 
in  a  moving  iKidy. 

MO.\ADELPIII.\  (in  BoUny).  One  of 
the  Linnxan  classes,  consisting  of  plants 
in  which  all  the  stamens  are  united  below 
into  one  cylindrical  body 


MONANDRIA  (in  Botany).  0»«  of 
the  l.inna>aii  classes,  consisting  of  plaaU 
that  have  only  one  stamen 


MON.ARCHY.   A  government  in  which 
the  supreme  power  is  vested  in  one  peraoa 


MOIN 


MOO 


MONASTERY.  A  college  of  inondf  or 
nuns ;  n  house  of  religious  retirement, 

MUMJAY.  Tlie  necoiid  day  of  the 
week. 

MONEY.  Whatever  is  made  the  me- 
diiiiii  <if  trade  for  ueleniiiiiiiig  the  value 
(if  ciiminodities  in  buyiuK  or  :<eiling.  It 
cunsi»l.>ieitlierofcoiiis,or(»Jece»of  gtauiped 
meuil,  or  of  paper  nuuiey  or  iiumeys  of 
account.  Paper  money  is  called  paper 
currency,  to  diistin^ui^ih  it  from  specie, 
metallic  currency,  ur  cash  :  it  couiprel:ends 
notes  of  hand,  t»ills  of  exchange,  bonds, 
niort;ni<{es  &.c.  Moneys  of  acco'int  are 
imaginary  ni<neys,  used  only  in  keepmg 
accounts;  such  was  the  English  pound 
until  sovereigns  were  coined. 

.MO.N'E'i  :;RS.  In  England,  officers  in 
the  king's  mint,  who  make  and  coin  the 
money. 

MuNGREL.  Any  creature  of  a  mixed 
breed. 

.MU.N'K.  One  of  a  religious  conmninity  ; 
one  who  dwells  in  a  monastery,  under  a 
Vow  of  observing  the  rules  of  the  order  he 
belongs  to. 

MONKEY.  A  well  known  animal,  with 
along  tail. cheeks  [umched,  and  haunches 
naked.  The  cut  below  represents  a  small 
■pecies,  called  the  striated  monkey 


MONKEY  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
machine  used  for  driving  large  piles  of 
wood. 

MONKSHOOD,  or  Aco;«ite.  A  poi- 
■onous  plant  bearing  a  fine  blue  flower. 

MONOCEROS.  One  of  the  new  con- 
•tellationa  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

MO.NOCHORD.  A  musical  instrument 
with  one  string. 

MONODY.     A  funerai  ditty. 

MONOGYNIA  (in  Botany).  An  order 
In  the  Linnsan  system,  comprehending 
plants  that  have  only  one  pistil  or  stigma 
in  a  flower 

MONOECIA  rin  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linnxan  Classes, includinsplants that  have 
%ale  and  female  tlowers  on  th(i  same  plant, 


as  the  plane-tree,  hasel,  chestnut,  cucoik 
ber,  &.C. 


MONOLOGUE.  A  soIi!oquy_,  or  scene 
where  one  only  speaks. 

MONOPETAL(  ICS.  One-petalled, ap- 
plied to  dowers  the  corolla  of  wliicli  con 
sists  of  one  [letal  only. 

MONOTKEME.S.  In  zoolo<ry.  a  fiimily 
of  edentiite  Mammalia,  wilh  one  exteuiiil 
aperture  for  the  i>a.ssii;;f  of  tlie  semen 
urine,  and  other  excrements.  It  con- 
sists of  two  >renera,  tlie  Ecbulua  and 
Oniithorhvuchus. 

MONOSYLLABLE.  A  word  of  cm 
syllable. 

MONOTONY.  Sameness  in  the  tone  of 
the  voice ;  a  fault  in  elocution  or  delivery 

MONSOONS,  or  Trade  \Vi  nds.  Peri- 
odical  winds  in  the  Indian  sea,  that  blow 
<me  half  the  year  one  way,  and  the  othor 
half  on  the  opposite  points.  'I'liese  points 
and  times  of  shifting  are  different  in  ditier- 
ent  parts  of  the  ficean. 

MONTH  (in  Chrniiology).  The  twelfth 
part  of  a  year,  otherwise  called  a  calendar 
month,  to distinsuish  it  from  tlieastrnnoiii- 
ical  mimtli,  which  is  either  solar  or  lunar 
A  scdar  month,  or  the  time  in  which  the 
sun  passes  through  a  whole  sign  of  the 
zodiac,  is  30  days  16  hours  29  minutes 
5  secimds ;  a  lunar  month,  or  the  period 
of  one  lunation,  is  -29  days  1-2  hours  44 
minutes. 

MOOD  (in  Grammar).  The  manner  of 
forming  a  verb,  or  the  manner  of  the 
verb's  inflertiims,  so  as  to  express  ilie  dif- 
ferent forms  anil  manners  of  the  action,  <ir 
the  different  intentions  of  the  speaker;  as 
the  indicative  mood,  wliicli  declares  a 
thing;  the  imperative  mood,  by  which 
one  commands;  the  subjunctive  mood, 
which  implies  a  conditltiiial  action;  the 
(Miteiitial  mood,  which  denotes  the  fmssi- 
bility  of  doing  the  thing;  and  the  infinitive 
mood,  which  expresses  the  action  in<leti- 
nitely. 

MOO.'V.  One  of  the  secondary  planets, 
and  a  satellite  to  the  earth,  marked  thus  (J  ; 
is  in  diameter  3144  miles,  and  fifty  times 
less  than  the  earth.  Tlie  surface  of  the 
moon  is  diversified  with  mountains  and 
valleys.  Her  sidereal  or  periodical  motion 
on  her  own  axis  she  performs  in  27  day* 
7  hours  43  minutes  auil  LI  aeconda ;  bai 


MOS 


MOT 


25 


■ynodlcal  motion,  or  her  motion  in  her 
orbit  round  the  earth,  slie  inritirins  in 
99  days  12  liours  -44  iiiiiiiites  1-J  seconds: 
the  toniier  i.<  called  (he  periodical,  and 
the  latter  tlie  fvnudical  month. 

MOUN.STtt.NE.  A  pure  kind  of  feld- 
•par,  lonnil  ni  Ceylon  anil  ^Switzerland. 

iM(KiR-Cl»CK.  A  liini  of  tlie  jironse 
tribe,  inliuliilin<!  tlie  lieatiis  of  Scotland 
and  the  norti'  of  k^niilaiid. 

MUUK  lltS.  A  waterfowl  of  the  cool 
trine 

MtJORI.NG.  Laying  out  the  anchors 
for  the  secure  ridin<.'  of  tlie  ship 

MOOtiE.     See  Elk. 

MOIt AVIANS,  or  Hernhutters.  A 
■ect  of  jirofessin^  (.'hristians,  who  prevail 
in  Germany,  and  are  distinguished  tiolh 
by  the  sin<!ularity  of  llieir  doctrine  and 
tiieir  manners, 

MoKDA.N'I'S  (in  Dyeing).  Substances 
combined  witli  the  vegetable  or  animal 
fibre,  in  order  t<i  fix  the  dye-stutf. 

>IOR<XX;0.  A  line  kind  of  leather 
preiHtred  from  the  skin  of  an  animal  of 
the  giiat  kind,  and  imported  from  tlie  Le- 
vant. 

MOROXYLIC  ACID.  An  acid  pro- 
cured from  the  while  mulberry. 

MORSE.  A  sjiecies  of  sea  animal  of  the 
seal  kind,  of  which  there  are  several  va- 
rieties inlialiiling  the  northern  seas.  The 
most  remarkable  uf  these  is  the  walrus, 
or  preat  morse. 

Mortality,  BitLi  or.  see  bill*. 

MORTAR.  A  thick,  short  cannon,  hav 
Ing  a  large  bore,  and  nioiinled  on  a  low 
strong  carriage,  which  serves  for  throwing 
bombs,  &.C 

MORTAR  (witn  ApothecariP!«).  Astnmg 
vessel  fcr  (Minnding  itiiiigs  in  with  a  pestle. 

MORT.AR  (among  .Masons).  Lime,san<l, 
•nd  hair  mixed  together,  so  aa  to  make  a 
cemenl. 

Mf)RTGAGE  (in  Law).  A  dead  pledge, 
or  a  pawn  of  lands  and  tenements,  or  any 
thing  immovable,  given  on  condition  that 
it  should  be  the  creditor's  for  ever,  if  the 
money  be  not  paid  on  the  day  appointed. 

MORTISE,  or  .MoRTOIS  (among  Car- 
penters). A  kind  of  joint  consistins!  of  a 
hole  of  a  certain  depth  cut  in  a  piece  of 
timber  «o  as  to  receiva  another  piece 
cai.'ed  the  tencn. 

MORTMAIN.  In  England,  an  aliena- 
tion of  lands  and  tenements  to  any  guild, 
coriwration,  or  fraternity,  and  their  siirces- 
•ors,  which  may  not  be  done  without  tlie 
King's  license. 

MOSAIC,  or  Mofiic  Work.  An  as- 
■cmhlage  of  little  pieces  of  glass,  marble, 
M-xious  stones,  &c.,  of  various  colours,  cut 


square  and  cementea  on  a  ground  of  stucci 

in  imitation  of  painting. 

MOSULJE.  A  temple  or  place  of  reli- 
gious worship  among  the  Mahomeians 
The  church  of  .St.  Sophia  at  CiuL-'taiitino 
pie  is  converted  into  a  I'lirkisli  inosijue. 

MOSUUITO.  A  large  kind  of  enat  ik 
warm  climates,  which  inllicts  deep  wounds 
on  those  whom  it  attacks. 

MOSS.  A  panisitic  plant,  something 
like  down,  that  adheres  to  tlie  trunks  of 
trees,  and  was  formerly  suppo.sed  to  be 
merely  an  e.vcrescence,  but  is  now  found 
to  be  a  |>erfect  plant,  having  riHits,  (lower, 
and  seeds,  yet  cannot  lie  pr<i|)ag!tted  by 
seed.  It  is  ofleiitimes  very  injurious  to 
fruit  trees,  and  ou^lit  to  be  scraped  olfiii 
the  spring  season  and  in  moist  weather. 


fe^^^^^^ 


MOTH.  An  insect  something  similar  to 
the  butterfly,  but  not  so  lariie.  It  s  very 
injurious  to  cloth  and  furniture. 

MOTHER.  'I'he  mouldy  lees  of  wine, 
beer,  &,c. 

MOTHER  OF  PEARL.  The  shell  of 
pearl  tish. 

MOTION  (in  Physiology).  A  chaiireof 
place,  which  is  absolute  if  it  l>e  indepen- 
dent of  any  other  body,  and  relative  if  i( 
changes  the  relative  pl.ice  of  a  inoving 
iMidy,  as  in  the  case  of  two  vessels  sailing 
in  the  name  or  contrary  directions  with 
different  velocities.  Animal  motion  is  that 
by  which  the  situation,  figure,  magnitude 
of  the  parts  of  animals  is  clianged,  which 
takes  place  in  the  act  of  their  growth. 

MOTIO.N  (in  Law).  An  application  in 
court,  either  by  tl«  parties  themselves  oi 
their  counsel,  in  order  to  obtair.  some 
order  or  rule  of  court. 

.MOTION  (in  Congress  or  any  othet 
public  a-tsembly/.  The  pr«ii>osiiig  of  any 
matter  for  the  consideration  of  tlios* 
present. 

MOTTO.  A  word  or  short  sentence,  put 
to  an  emblem  or  device,  or  to  a  coat  of 
arms  in  a  scroll,  at  the  bottom  of  ths 
escutcheon. 


S8S 


MOU 


MUL 


MOVARI,KS.     Personal  poods. 

ftloVBMENT  (ill  Military  Airairs).  The 
re;riilar,  orderly  iiiolKiii  ol'  ;iii  army,  lor 
Ruiiir  iiiirticiilar  |iiirpo.se. 

MOV'K.MK.NT  (.1"  Music).  The  progress 
of  soiiihIm  froin  grave  to  acMla,  or  from 
acute  to  grave. 

MUVKMKN'T  (aninng  W.-itchmakers), 
A  iiamo  fur  the  inner  wurk^i  of  a  watch, 
&.C.,  that  iiuive. 

MUU  I.I)  (in  Horticulture).  Earth  mixed 
with  dung,  <&.c.,  tit  for  the  reception  of 

MOULD  (among  Mechanics).  A  form 
or  frame  in  which  any  thing  is  cast,  as 
glaziers'  moulds,  tallovvcliandlers'  moulds, 
and  the  like. 

MOi;i-l)INESS.  A  term  applied  to 
bodies,  as  hreaii,  &.C.,  which  are  in  a  state 
<il  «>rriipti(iii,  from  the  action  of  the  damp 
or  air.  Ttii.-'  shows  itself  tiy  a  white  down, 
which,  when  seen  tlirou';li  a  microscope, 
appears,  like  the  moss,  to  be  a  kind  of 
plants,  although  some  have  imagined  it  to 
i(Kik  like  animalcule. 

MOL'LDINUS  (in  Architecture).  Pro- 
jeclures  beyond  the  naked  wall,  such  as 
cornices,  door-cases,  &c.,  which  are  cut  so 
as  to  he  oriianiental. 

.MC)IJM)  (among  Antiquarians)  A  ball 
or  globe  with  a  cross  upon  it,  which  kings 
are  represented  as  holdins  in  their  hands, 
to  designate  their  sovereign  majesty 


MOUND  (in  Fortification).  Any  thin? 
raised,  as  a  bank  of  earth,  &c.,  to  fortify 
or  defend  a  place. 

.MOUNT.  An  afificial  elevation  of 
earth. 

MOt'NTAI.N  ASH.  An  ornamental 
tree,  which  in  its  leaf  resembles  the  com- 
mon ash  ;  but  it  bears  a  clustered  flower, 
that  IS  succeedwl  by  a  beautiful  red  lierry. 

.MOUNT.'MNS.  E.xtraordinary  eleva- 
tion* of  the  earth,  such  as  the  Alps  and 
Pj-renees  in  Europe,  the  Caucasus  and 
Uralian  mountains  in  Asia,  and  the  Andes 
in  America.  Mountains  mostly  consist  of 
■tune. 

MCUNTING  (In  Military  Affairs).  Oo- 
lag  upon  some  arduous  or  specific  duty. 
V  muun'ing  a  breach,  that  is,  running  up 


to  it ;  mounting  the  trenches,  poins  iipoti 
duty  in  the  trenches,  &.c. ;  but  mounting 
a  cannon  Is  setting  it  on  its  carriage. 

MOL't'K.  A  little  animal  that  haunts 
houses  and  fields.  It  is  nearly  allied  to 
the  rat,  and  is  classed  with  it  under  the 
name  of  Mus  in  tlie  I^innsan  system 
Field  mice  are  frequently  white. 


MOtrsE-EAR.  A  plant  very  similar  tn 
chickweed  ;  but  the  tlower  is  larger,  and 
the  fruit  shaped  like  an  ox's  horn,  gaping 
at  the  top. 

MOIf' PH.  The  aperture  in  the  head  of 
any  animal  at  which  the  food  is  received, 
anil  by  which  tlie  inspiration  and  expira- 
tion of  the  air  is  performed  ;  also  the  aper- 
ture of  muny  other  things,  so  called  frr.tii 
the  similarity  of  situation  or  use,  as  ihe 
mouth  of  a  cannon,  where  the  powder  and 
ball  go  in  and  out ;  the  mouth  of  a  river, 
where  the  water  passes  in  and  out ;  and 
the  mouth  of  a  vessel,  &c. 

M.  P  An  abbreviation  for  Member  of 
Parliament. 

MS.     An  abbreviation  for  Manuscript. 

MSS.  An  abbreviation  for  Manuscripts 

MUCFLAOE.  A  slimy  substance  of  suf 
ficient  consistence  to  hold  together,  as  a 
solution  of  gum  or  any  tenacious  liijiiid. 
or  a  viscous  extraction  from  roots  and 
other  parts  of  vegetables. 

MUCUS.  A  viscous  fluid  secreted  by 
certain  glands  in  the  body. 

MUFFLE.  A  small  earthen  oven  used 
for  cupellation. 

MUFTI.  The  chief  priest  among  the 
Mussiilinen,  appointed  by  the  grand  seign- 
ior himself,  lie  is  the  oracle  in  all  doubt- 
ful questions  of  their  law. 

MULATTO.  Any  one  born  of  a  black 
man  and  white  woman,  and  vice  versa. 

MULREIIU  Y  TRICE.  A  large,  spread 
ing  tree,  the  fruit  of  which  resembles  the 
raspberry  in  its  seedy  make,  but  is  much 
larger.  The  white  mulberry  is  cultivated 
in  France,  Italy,  and  the  United  States, 
for  its  leaves,  to  feed  silkworms,  but  the 
Persians  make  use  of  the  common  bl.ick 
muli>erry  for  this  purpose. 

Ml'LK.  A  mongrel  kind  of  quadruped, 
(generated  between  ar    ass  and  a  n>jj« 


MUN 


MUS 


too 


■Bd  somelimes  hptween  a  hnrse  and  a  she- 
ass.  Mules  are  liarity,  siire-fiHrted  animals, 
■set!  iiii:i:li  in  inoiiiitaiiioiis  coiiiitrirs,  as 
■bout  the  Alps  and  IVreiioea  ;  but  they 
tre  iiicapuble  ofpfopagating  tiicir  species. 


RU.'I.K  (in  BotanyV  Any  flower  or  fruit 
nroiliiceit  friiiii  two  sorts. 

Mri.KTKKR.     A  driver  of  mules. 

AIL'I.I.I-yr.  A  fish  with  a  head  almost 
square,  and  a  silvery  body, 

MULTIPLE.  A  number  which  includes 
another  a  certain  number  of  times,  tis  G, 
the  niultiple  of  2. 

MULTIPLtCATFON.  One  of  the  four 
simple  rules  of  arithmetic,  which  ronsisLi 
in  the  increasing  of  any  one  number  by 
another  as  often  as  there  are  tinits  in  thit 
nnuilier  by  which  the  one  is  increased. 
The  number  umltiplyin;!  is  the  multiplier ; 
the  number  multiplied,  the  multiplicand  ; 
and  the  result  of  the  o|>er.ition  is  the  pro- 
duct. 

.MULTirt.YI.NO-GLAPS.  A  glass  other- 
wise calleil  a  p<ilylieilron,  belne  ftround 
into  severil  planes  that  make  nnsles  with 
each  other,  and  c^iiise  objects  to  appear 
Increased  in  number. 

MULTL'M  L\  I'ARVO.  Much  tn  a 
small  compass. 

MUM.  A  kind  of  liquor  made  of  wheat, 
and  brought  from  Brunswick  in  Germany. 

.MUMMIES.  The  name  of  dead  bodies 
which  have  been  preseri'ed  for  aees  from 
corruption  in  Eiopt,  I)y  a  particular  me- 
thod of  enibalmins;  also  the  licpior  run- 
ning from  such  miimmibs,  which  ap- 
proaches more  or  less  to  a  slate-of  solidity. 

MUNDIC.  A  sort  of  cop|>er  ore  ;  a  sul- 
phuret  of  copper  of  a  greenish  yellow 
colour. 

MUNICIPAL  (in  the  Civil  Law).  An 
epithet  sipnifyinc  'invested  with  the  civil 
rights  of  a  citizen  ;'  with  us,  it  is  an  epi- 
thet for  what  belones  to  a  town  or  city, 
as  mur  cipal  laws,  laws  enjoyed  by  the 
tahabilants  of  a  free  town  or  city ;  and  in 

a? 


an  extended  sense,  munici|inl  law  Is  Ih. 
law  by  which  any  particuiai  oate  or  coun- 
try is  governeil. 

MURAL  CROWN.  A  rrown  among 
the  Romans,  given  to  hini  who  first  scaiec 
the  walls  of  a  city. 


MURDER  (in  Law),  The  wilful  and 
felonious  killing  a  man  with  malice  pre- 
pense. 

MUREX,  A  shell -fish  noted  among  tlit 
ancients  for  its  purple  dye ;  in  the  Liiina;ri 
system,  it  is  a  genus  of  insects  under  th 
class  vermes,  the  animal  of  which  is  a 
limax  :  the  shell  is  univalve  and  spiral. 

MURIATES.  Salts  formed  from  muri- 
alic  acid  with  certain  bases,  as  the  muriate 
of  ammuiiia,  of  soda,  &.c. 

MURIATIC  ACID  (otherwise  callec 
Spirit  of  Salt).  An  acid  procured  from 
salt,  consisting  of  hydrogen  combined  with 
chlorine  gas.  Its  mlnur  is  pungent,  and  its 
taste  acid  and  corrosive.  If  an  indumcd 
taper  be  immersed  in  It,  it  is  insiiin'Jy 
extinguished:  it  is  al&!Rlestructive  cf  hu- 
man life. 

MURRAIN*.  A  wasting,  contagious  dis- 
order among  cattle 

ML'S  (in  Zoology).  A  generic  tenu,  in 
the  Linna^an  system,  for  a  lril>e  of  animals 
of  the  class  mamuialia,  and  order  glires, 
distinguished  princip.-illy  by  their  teeih. 
The  most  remarkable  s|Hxies  are  the  rom- 
mon  ntt  and  mouse,  Uie  nmsk  rat,  the 
Norway  rat,  tc 

MUSCI.  Mosses;  one  of  the  families 
into  which  Linmeiis  has  divided  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  It  is  of  the  class  crypt (v 
gamia,  and  comprehends  a  vast  variety  of 
sjiecies,  as  the  earth  moss,  bristle-moss, 
spring-moss,  water-moss,  &c. 

MUSCLE  (in  Anatomy).  A  fIeshy,fibrou? 
part  of  the  body,  consisting  of  a  bundle  of 
thin,  parallel  plates,  divided  into  a  gre--t 
number  of  fasciculi,  or  little  threads  ai'd 
fibres,  so  constructor  as  to  admit  of  rein  \. 
ation  and  contraction,  and  serving  as  l'>» 
organ  of  motion.  The  extremities  of  t.'.o. 
muscles  are  inserted  into  the  bones. 


MUPES  ('B  the  Heathen   MythoIt»py>- 
Divinities  supposed  to  pres  de  over  the 


264 


MUS 


MUS 


Uta  and  sciences.  They  were  nine  in 
nuiiibfir,  namely,  Cliu,  to  wliuiii  Uiey  at- 
inbuted  tlie  invention  of  liistory  ;  Me'po- 
uiene,  tlie  inventor  of  tragedy  ;  Tlialia,  of 
comedy  ;  Eaterpe.  of  ttie  use  of  tlie  (iiile ; 
Terpsichore,  of  the  harp;  Erato,  of  the 
lyre  and  lute  ;  Calliope,  of  heroic  verse ; 
Urania,  of  astrology  ;  Polyhyniiiia,  of  rhe- 
toric. Herodotus  divided  his  history  into 
iiine  books,  to  each  of  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  one  of  the  muses. 

MUSEUM.  A  collection  of  rare  and 
interesting  objects,  particularly  in  the  de- 
partments of  Natural  History;  also  the 
place  where  the  collection  is  deposited. 
The  term  was  originally  api>lied  to  a  study, 
or  a  place  set  apart  for  learned  men,  in  the 
royal  palace  of  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  who  founded  a  college,  and 
gave  salaries  to  the  several  members,  add- 
ing also  an  extensive  libniry,  which  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world. 

MUSHROOM.  A  plant,  the  generic 
name  of  which,  in  the  Linncean  system, 
is  agaricus.  It  is  a  spongy  substance 
which  grows  up  to  its  bulk  on  a  sudden. 
The  seeds  of  niushroonis  have  not  lung 
D«en  discovered. 


MUSIC.  "The  science  which  treats  of 
the  number, time,  division,  succession,  and 
combination  of  sounds,  so  as  to  produce 
harmony.  It  is  divided  into  Theoretical 
Music,  which  inquires  into  the  properties 
of  concords  and  disconU,  and  explains 
Iheir  comlunations  and  proportions  for  the 
production  of  melody  and  harmony  ;  and 
Practical  Music,  which  is  the  art  of  apply- 
ing the  thecry  of  music  in  the  composition 
of  all  sorts  nf  tunes  and  airs. 

MUSIC,  HiJToRT  OF.  The  first  traces 
of  music  are  to  be  found  in  Eg>'pt,  where 
musical  instrument-^,  capable  of  much  va- 
riety and  expression,  existed  at  a  time 
when  other  aatioris  were  in  an  uncivilized 
•tate.  Tilt  iiivcnii'tn  of  the  lyre  L-  by  them 
■scriU'd  to  Htrn.cs  Trlsmegistus,  the  Mer- 
cury of  tliM  EgjpJans,  which  is  a  jiroof 
of  Its  an'.ioiiity  ;  bu*  a  still  arear^r  pnmf 
c(  the  exMtence  of  uiusical   instruments 


amongst  them  at  a  very  early  period  )t 
drawn  from  the  figure  of  an  instruinent 
said  to  be  represented  on  an  ol  elisk, 
erected,  as  is  sup(>osed,  by  Sesostris  at 
Heliopolis.  This  instruthcnt,  tiy  means  ot 
its  neck,wascapable,wuh  only  two  strings, 
if  tuned  fourths,  of  furnishing  that  series  of 
sounds  called  by  the  ancientsaheptarhord; 
and  if  tuned  filths,  of  producing  an  octave. 
As  Moses  was  skilled  in  all  the  lea'-ning 
of  the  Egyptians,  it  is  probable  that  the 
Israelites,  who  interwove  music  in  all 
their  religious  ceremonies,  borrowed  much 
from  that  |>eople.  That  the  Greeks  took 
their  lirst  ideas  of  music  from  tlie  Egyp- 
tians is  clear  fVoni  this :  that  they  ascribed 
the  invention  of  the  lyre  to  Mercury,  al- 
though they  made  Apollo  to  lie  the  grjd  of 
music,  and  gave  him  that  instrument  to 
play  upon.  In  no  country  was  music  so 
much  cultivated  as  in  Greece.  The  muses, 
as  well  as  Apollo,  Bacchus,  and  other  godii 
and  demigods,  practised  or  promoted  it  in 
some  way  or  other.  Their  poets  are  sup- 
posed to  have  lieen  liku  the  Celtic  and 
German  bards,  and  the  sr^ilds  of  Iceland 
and  Scandinavia,  who  went  about  singing 
their  |ioenis  in  the  streets,  and  the  palucei 
of  princes.  In  this  manner  did  Orplieus, 
IIonle^,  Hesiod,  Sappho,  and  others  recite 
their  verses ;  and  in  after  times,  on  tho 
institution  of  the  games,  Sinionides,  Pin- 
dar, and  other  poets  celebrated  iu  public 
theexploitsofthe  victors.  I'heinstriimenta 
knows  in  the  time  of  Homer  were  the 
lyre,  flute,  syrinx,  and  truiii|iel.  The  in- 
vention of  notation  and  musical  character* 
is  ascribed  to  7'erpander,  a  |Kiet  and  iiiiisi 
cian, who  flourished  071  years  liefore  Cnrist 
VVe  arterwards  tint!  philosophers,  as  well 
as  poets,  among  the  number  of  those  who 
admired  and  cultivated  music,) heoretically 
as  well  as  practically,  as  Pythagoras,  PlaU>, 
Aristotle,  Aristoxeniis,  Euclid,  and  many 
others.  Pythagoras  is  celebrated  for  his 
discoveries  in  this  science  ;  nan;ely,  for 
that  of  musical  ratios,  and  the  addition  of 
an  eighth  string  to  the  lyre.  The  former 
of  these  he  is  supposed  to  have  derived 
fnim  the  Egyptl.-ins.  He  also  explained 
the  theory  of  smiiids,  and  reduced  it  lo  a 
science.  Aristoxeniis  is  the  most  ancient 
writer  on  music  of  whose  works  there  are 
any  remains.  Euclid  Iblloweil  up  the  idea 
of  Pytliagoros'  ratios,  which  he  reduced 
to  mathematical  demonstration.  To  thia 
list  of  Greek  writers  may  be  added  NJ- 
chomachii*  Geraseniis,  Alypius,  Gaudenti- 
us,  Barchius  senior,  IHolemy  the  aatrono- 
mer.and  AriKtidesitiiintlllan  whose  worka 
are  tilill  e.xiant.  'i'hese  wn<te  under  tlia 
Koman  emperors,  many  of  whom  cultiv*' 


ftlUS 

led  music  »nd  followed  the  theory  of  the 
Greeks.  Aiiioi)<!lhf  Uonian  wriiers  may  be 
rei;lvoned  Vitriiviiis,  ulio,  in  liis  arcliilec- 
ture,  t4iiiclies  li<:lillyon  thin  siiliject ;  at8o 
MartiaiiiiiiCapellaund  Koethiiis,who  wrote 
on  the  decline  of  the  empire.  Alter  them 
■onie  centurieti  elapsed  liefore  the  science 
cf  music  met  with  any  particular  attention. 
Us  introduction  into  Hie  church  service 
prev?nted  it  from  falling,  like  other  arts, 
into  total  neglect.  Instrumental  nmsic 
was  introduced  into  the  pulilic  service  of 
tiie  church  under  Constantine  the  Great. 
The  practice  of  chanting  the  psalms  was 
Begun  in  the  western  churches  hy  St.  Am- 
Wutse,  about  ;J5U  yearf  alter  I'hrist ;  three 
buudrcd  years  after,  tlie  method  of  cbatit- 
inj;  wiis  improved  by  St.  Grej^y  the 
Great.  It  wiis  prohably  introduced  into 
Gn;!land  hy  St.  Auuustlne,  and  greatly 
iuiproved  hy  Si  Diinstan.  'I'he  useof  the 
•riran  prohably  commenced  in  the  Greek 
eliurch,  were  it  was  called  hydraulicon, 
•r  the  water-organ.  The  first  orjran  known 
ill  Europe  was  sent  as  a  present  to  King 
Pepin  from  the  emperor  Conslantine  Co- 
•ronymus.  It  came  into  general  use  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Eii'.:land,  in  tlie 
leiith  cent'iry.  Soon  after  Ihis,  nnisic  lie- 
gnu  again  to  lie  cultivated  as  a  science, 
aurticularly  in  Italy,  where  Guulo,  a  monk 
of  Arezzo,  firsi  conceived  the  idea  of  coiin- 
ter|H>int,  or  the  divisuin  of  music  into 
parts  liy  poiiils  set  opposite  to  eai  h  other, 
ind  formed  the  scale  altcrwards  known 
Wy  the  name  of  the  gamut.  'I'his  wiis  fol- 
lowed by  the  invention  of  the  time-tnlile, 
tnd  allerwnrds  by  regular  com|Hisitions  of 
9iusic.  But  the  exercise  of  the  art  was 
k)r  a  long  time  confined  to  sacred  music, 
during  which  |ieriod  secular  music  was 
<(illo\\ed  by  itineriiit  poets  and  musicians, 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancients.  Of  tliis 
lescription  were  the  troubadours  in  France, 
tlie  Welsh  hards  or  harpers  in  England, 
»nd  the  Scotch  minstrels. 

AIUSIC'1A.\.  A  professor  of,  and  prac- 
titioner in  music  j  one  who  performs  on 
any  musical  instrument  The  musicians 
in  London  form  one  of  the  city  compa- 
nies. I 

MUSK  An  oily,  friahlp,  brownish  suh- 
Stance,  generated  In  the  body  of  the  musk, 
of  the  most  powerful  and  penetrating 
■mell,  which  is  used  as  a  perfume.  It  is 
partially  »oluble  in  water,  which  receives 
itx  smell, and  also  in  alcohol, to  which,  how- 
ever, it  does  not  communicale  its  odour. 

MUsK.  A  quadruped,  in  size  and  tiv'ure 
resembling  a  smhil  roebuck  |i  is  a  Dative 
of  Thibet  and  other  parts  of  .'Vsia,  and  is 
remarkable  for  having  an  oval  bag  Id  the 


MUT 


US 


lower  p.irt  of  its  belly,  containii       «  p«r- 
fume  called  musk 


MUSKAPPLE  and  MUSK-PRAR  A 
sort  of  apple  and  p<Mr  having  tne  perfume 
<if  musk  ;  also  other  plants  or  (lowers,  so 
CiUled  from  Iheir  liaviii:;  the  s:inie  perriiine, 
as  the  musk  cniiiesbiil,  and  tlie  musk  uchra, 
a  West  liiilian  plant. 

MUSKKT.  A  commodious  sort  of  fire- 
arms used  by  soldiers.  The  regular  length 
of  a  musket  is  3  feet  H  inches  from  tne 
muzzle  to  the  p<'in. 

MIJSKKT-SIK  )T.  The  distanre  that  f 
musket  will  carry,  which  is  anout  120 
fai  bonis. 

MUSK-OX.  An  animal  with  short  legs, 
and  long  hair,  that  resembles  the  Itison. 
and  inhabits  the  frigid  regions  of  North 
America. 

MUSK-RAT.  An  animal  of  the  beaver 
kind,  which  yields  an  oily  fluid,  having 
the  (lerfuiiie  of  musk.    Its  fur  is  vr'.iuble. 

MU'SK-ROSE.  A  sort  of  rose,  from 
which  a  highly  odorous  oil  is  extracted  at 
'I'linis. 

MUSLIN.     A  fine  sort  of  cotton  cloth. 

MUSUUETEERS.  Soldiers ari-ied  wiU 
muskets. 

MUSSEL.  A  testaceous  animal  found 
lodged  III  limestone,  or  in  deep  beds  under 
water 

MUSSULMAN, or  Moilem,!.  e  Faith- 
ful.    The  name  assumed  by  Mahometans 

MUST.  The  newly  pressed  j'lre  of  the 
grniie,  which,  by  a  chemical  nnaly.sis,  ia 
found  to  contain  water,  sugar,  jelly,  glu- 
ten, and  bilartrate  of  pot.tsh 

MUS'J'ER.  A  review  of  soldiers  under 
anus. 

MUSTER-ROLL.  A  specific  list  of  the 
officers  and  men  in  every  regimel.t,  trotip. 
or  company. 

MUTATIS  MUTANTIIS.  Things  being 
changed  as  they  ought  to  lie. 

MU'I'E  (in  I-nWi.  .Not  answering ''irect- 
1y  to  the  arraignment,  on  an  J:irliclment  fol 
felony      A  prisoner  is  salJ  to  stand  oinli 


2.% 


NAK 


when  he  will  not  put  himself  up»n  the 

•nqilfSt. 

MU-TE  (in  Mineralocy).  An  epithet  for 
nil  icrals  wiiicli  du  nut  ring  wiiun  tJiey  are 
Btiiick. 

MUTES  (in  Grammar).  Letters  which 
Mnnoi  form  aKoiind  without  a  vuwel  alter 
iliein,  as  b,  c,  d,  c,  k,  p,  q,  l. 

MUTES  (in  the  Cinind  Sei<:ni<ir'8  Se- 

•^jrlio).    Oinnb  ortirers,  who  are  sent  to 

btran»le,  with  tlie  liow-striii:;,  l>ashawa  nr 

otiier  persons  wliu  fall  under  the  sultan's 

'spleasiire. 

MUTES  (among  Undertakers).  Those 
men  who  are  employed  to  stand  at  the 
loor  of  the  deceased,  uulil  the  body  is 
tarried  out. 

MUTINY.  A  revolting  from  lawful  au- 
.hority,  particularly  among  soldiers  and 
sailors. 

MYRMELEON.  a  genus  of  insects  in 
the  Linni»»n  system,  one  species  of  which 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  its  laiva, 


-4- 


NA8 


which  has  the  property  of  preparing  a  ». 
of  pitfall  for  the  ensinirini;  of  other  insectr 

MYKRH.  A  resinous  concrete  juice 
procured  from  a  tree  growing  in  Arabia 
and  Abyssinia.  The  sort  of  tree  whicfa 
yields  this  substance  is  not  exactly  known, 
but,  according  to  Hruce,  it  is  a  sort  of 
mimosa.  Myrrh  is  in  the  form  of  tears, 
brittle,  of  an  aromatic  taste,  not  melting 
when  heated,  and  burning  with  difficulty  ; 
yields  oil  by  distillation,  and  forms  a  ye) 
low  solution  with  water. 

MYRTLE.  A  fragrant  shrub,  which, 
among  the  ancients,  was  sacred  to  Venus 
The  common  myrtle  is  a  native  of  Asia. 
Africa,  and  Eiiroiw. 

MYRTUS.  The  generic  name  of  the 
myrtle  in  the  Liiinaiau  system  ;  includef 
also  among  its  species  the  pimento  or  all- 
spice tree. 

MYTHOLOGY.  The  fabulous  history 
of  the  heathen  deities  and  heiues,  and 
divine  honours  paid  to  them 


N. 


N,  the  thirteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
Et(K>d  as  a  numeral  (or  900,  and,  with  a 
dash  over  it,  thira,  N,  9000.  JV.  or  No. 
stands  as  an  abbreviation  for  nuniero, 
number  -.  also  for  north,  note,  noun,  &c. 

NAROK,  or  NAVOUR.  An  Indian 
word  for  a  deputy  ;  a  title  of  dignity  and 
power  applied  to  those  who  act  under  the 
•oubalis  or  viceroys. 

NABOXASSAR.  First  king  of  Baby- 
Ion,  in  whose  roiiin,  according  to  Ptolemy, 
a.stronomical  observations  were  made ; 
whenc*  an  tera  was  formed  from  this 
kinii's  rei::n,  c.-'Med  'he  a;r3  of  Nabonas- 
sar,  dated  747  years  before  (/'nrist. 

NADIR  (in  Astronomy).  Tliiit  point  in 
the  heavens  opposite  to  tlie  z.enith,  and 
directly  under  our  feet,  or  a  point  in  a 
right  line,  sup|wised  to  be  drawn  from  our 
feet  tlirniigh  the  centre  of  llie  earth,  and 
terminating  in  the  lower  hemisphere. 

N  Al  L  (in  Anatomy).  The  horny  lamina 
on  the  extremity  of  the  fingers  and  toes. 

NAIL  (with  Ironmongers),  fpikes  of 
Iron  and  braas,  having  heads,  and  fitted  for 
binding  several  pieces  of  wood  tosether. 

NAIL  (in  Commerce).  A  mea.su re  of 
tenirth,  containing  the  sixteenth  part  of  a 
fard. 

NAKED.  A  erm  in  Architecture,  ap- 
plied either  to  a  column  or  a  wall,  to 
dfmote  tne  face  or  pbin  surface  from 
which  ih».  prujecUons  take  ihoir  rise. 


NANKIN.  A  well  known  stuff",  so  call- 
ed from  Nanking,  a  city  in  Cliinii. 

NAPE.     The  hinder  part  of  the  neck. 

NAPHTHA.  A  native  combustible  li- 
quid, and  one  of  the  thinnest  of  the  liipiid 
bitumens  issuiii!!  from  the  earth,  and  found 
on  the  borders  of  springs  on  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  many  other  placea 
It  feels  greasy,  has  a  bituminous  smell, 
takes  lire  on  the  appro,irli  of  tlame,  and  is 
so  liiiht  as  to  tloat  (ui  the  water, 

N  A  RCISSUS.  A  genus  of  plants,  whick 
is  cultivated  in  gardens  on  account  of  its 
s\veet-sme!;i<ig  flowers,  which  are  eilhei 
\  vellow  or  Wt.ite. 

NAR(;OTlCS  (in  Medicine).  Poporife- 
roiis  and  stiipifying  medicines,  as  opium 
and  its  preparati(m3. 

NARROW  A  small  passage  between 
two  lands. 

NARVAL.  An  animal  of  the  whal« 
tribe,  remarkable  for  its  sinsletimth  stunn- 
ing out  like  the  horn  of  the  unicorn. 


NASTURTrtJM.  A  plunl,  which  Is  ewi- 
tivated  in  gardens,  and  bears  a  flower  of 
a  deep  crimson  colour     The  seeds,  whaa 


NA  V 


NA  V 


tt 


r.niiaea.  hare  a  pungent  cnell  that  causes 
•net^zins. 

NATIONAL  DEBT.  Ixmns  advniiced 
to  giivcniiiient.  which  ronsliiiilr  llir  liiiiiU 
or  stiicks,  lor  u  hich  iiii>^rt-»i  in  paul  iruin 
revenues  wl  apart  I'nr  ihe  piir(n>s«j. 

KATHO.N.     Native  carlHUiulr  nf  soda. 

NATURAL  IIISI'OKY.  That  hriiuh 
of  knii\vled<>e  whith  trea"s  of  the  charac- 
teristics ur  distinctive  marks  iileacli  nidi- 
viilual  i>bj«-ct,  whetlier  animal,  vejielatjle, 
cr  uiiiienil ;  as  also  of  iUi  peculiar  habits, 
ijualilies,  uses,  &.C. 

NAIX'KALIZATIO.V  (In  Law).  The 
•dinittiiig  iif  an  alien  into  tile  iiunilier  of 
vatiir.k!  siilijects. 

NAl'L'RAl.opniRS  (in  Botany).  A 
Tiode  of  cl:t!isifylii<!  plants  accordiiK!  tti 
their  natural  ur  mure  ubvious  cUaracter- 
Ulic8. 

NATURAL  PlirLO?OPIIY  That 
Uianch  of  science  which  (reals  of  the  |miw- 
ers  iif  naiiire,  the  properlies  of  natiinil 
b-'Hlies,  anil  their  actions  on  one  another, 
eomprelieiiiliii<!  iiiuler  it  the  sevenil  divi- 
■i<in8  of  asironomy,  chyniislr} ,  electricity, 
gulvaiiism,  hydraulics  or  hydroslatics, 
magnetism,  mechanics,  uptics,  pneunia- 
lica,  &.C. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE.  The  w.i- 
ence  of  ship  building,  c«iniprehendiiie  the 
theory  of  delineating  marine  vessels  ii|Min 
a  plane  surface,  and  the  ait  of  framing 
them  ii|K>n  the  stiMrks  according  ti>  the 
prop<irtioiis  exhihiteil  in  a  regular  desian. 

NAVAL  ARCIIITEUTI;RE,  lli.Tonr 
OF.  The  tirst  example  of  any  conslnictioii 
fitted  to  he  borne  up  by  the  wate-T  is  re- 
turded  in  Scripture  in  the  case  of  the  ark 
Ditilt  by  Noah  under  tlie  divine  assisumre 
and  coinniands.  As  this  was  built  by  more 
than  human  aid,  it  is  not  surprising  tliat 
we  he.'ir  of  no  farther  attempts  at  building 
vessels  of  any  kind  until  the  nation  of  the 
Egyptians  was  formed,  who  doubtless  pro- 
fited by  those  arts  and  sciences  which,  as 
Is  generally  admitted,  were  pnutised  lie- 
fore  the  tiiuid,  and  trinsinitted  by  Noah 
and  his  family  to  his  posterity.  'J  he  Eey  p- 
tiai'S,  we  are  told,  constnirted  the  barks 
wli.ch  they  used  on  the  Nile  of  planks 
cut  out  of  the  acacia,  or  Eg>'ptian  thorn  ; 
Uie  planks  were  nearly  s<piare,  nieasuring 
th«iiit  three  I'eet  each  way,  and,  lieing 
kipjied  over  each  oilier  like  tiles,  were 
fastened  (oifether  .villi  wiXMlen  pins.  The 
J<iints  and  sfani*  were  cjirel'ully  calked 
With  the  iKipynis,  mil  lienrhes  of  the  same 
material  were  lor  neil  for  the  rowers.  As 
Uie  m-cessily  of  some  iiiipellini!  and  direct- 
inc  force  in  ad  nrhiiiii:in  lalHiur  was  soon 
^°t,  a  ruddet  hqiI  a  <ail  were  quickly 
32* 


added.  Th^  sail,  which  was  made  nftl^ 
piijiyrus,  w:ii>  irisieiied  to  a  imle  seivincaa  . 
H  mast,  which  was  made  ol  the  acantha. 
As  such  \e.-<sels  were  incafKible  ot  steni- 
ining  the  ciirreiii  of  the  river  when  the 
wind  Wiis  uiitavoiirable,  they  used  to  be 
towed  b>  (lersons  on  ihe  Uaiik,  and  when 
they  Weill  with  Ihe  current,  the  Kgy  pliant 
used  to  accelenile  ibeir  niotioii  by  tying 
a  hurdle  of  tamarisk  lo  the  prow  of  the 
vessel,  and  leltiiii!  it  down  into  Ihe  water, 
the  stream  acted  on  Ihe  hiinile  more 
stron*!ly  than  it  vvoiihl  on  the  sides  of  llie 
vessel,  and  thus  increased  the  veli«ity  of 
its  motion  very  materially.  In  order  tf 
[ireserve  a  due  balance  lietween  the  bead 
and  the  stern,  which  might  otherwise 
have  lieen  destroyed  by  Ihe  action  u\  the 
hiinlle,  they  caused  a  stone  of  consiiler- 
able  maiiiiitiiile,  pierced  (lironuh  Ihe  mid- 
dle, lo  lie  suspended  by  a  ro|ie  t'roi.i  lb* 
stern,  which  enabled  them  ttiswim  nearly 
with  an  even  keel. 

The  tirsi  tumlrivance  to  supply  the  place 
of  a  commercial  vessel  is  ceiierally  ad- 
inilled  to  have  been  a  kind  uf  mil,  or 
collection  of  trees  laslelieil  together  with 
ropes,  made  Iroiii  the  iKirk.  liiil  as  in  a 
structure  so  rude  they  were  alloselher 
without  Ihe  powerofdireclinelheir  course, 
they  set  alHinl  remeilying  this  inconveni- 
ence, by  |iiitling  a  lew  thick  planks  to 
the  depth  of  three  or  lour  feel  in  the  water 
lielweeii  the  joists  of  the  trees  which  com- 
IHiseil  the  rail  These,  lieing  raised  or 
lowered  at  the  pleiu^ure  of  the  pilot,  served 
in  some  meiisiire  the  pur",>ose  |iroiM>sed. 
Willi  no  lietter  contrivances  tlinii  this,  the 
Phcenicians  are  said  to  have  visited  the 
islands  of  Sicil^-,  Corsica,  and  varioUM 
other  islands  in  (be  Mediterranean.  It  in 
also  worthy  of  oliservalion,  that  Moats  an- 
swering (o  the  ilescripdon  of  these  were 
liiuiiil  in  the  south  seiu"  in  the  last  century. 
Although  llie  (Ireeks  were  not  remark- 
able for  a  spirit  of  commercial  euter))rise, 
yet  the  remains  of  antiipiity  furnish  UH 
with  ample  evidence  of  the  advances 
which  they  made  in  the  art  of  shi|>-biiild- 
ii>g.  They  had  vessels  of  different  fonns 
and  sizes,  distinguished,  accordiii;;  to  their 
use,  into  ships  of  passage,  shifts  of  burden, 
and  ships  of  war.  The  hitter  were  like- 
wise desicnateil  iriremes,  <|nadrpmes,  and 
i|iiini)uirenies,  according  to  the  niiniber  of 
banks  of  oars,  winch  were  raised  in  a 
slopincdirection  nnealioveanolber.  Tlioee 
which  had  most  banks  were  built  highest, 
and  rowed  with  the  grealesl  slren.""h  Ti** 
(Jreeks,  in  all  probahilily,  derlvtwl  the', 
knowledge  of  sjiip  liiiilding  from  Uie  Car- 
tbuginianii,  a  vvs'like  and  tcidiiig  pr<>vU 


CM 


NAV 


descpndec  im  the  riioenic>:«r  i,  who  were 
U'lfhrued  wrtlicir  8kill  in  the  cuiisiriic- 
ii<in  anil  inauaiifiiiciit  of  vt*«i.-«tN  In  cim- 
■<H|iience<rillieirciintedlx  Willi  (lie  Kdiiiiiiiti, 
ine  latter,  after  having  mitlered  one  or  two 
ueTeats  in  naval  enguseineiils,  acquired 
Uie&rt  of  buildins  ship*  from  their  rivalu, 
and  siiccesstully  eui|iluyed  it  to  their  over- 
throw. 

The  modern  art  of  «hi[v-b»ildiiig  appears 
to  lia"e  been  derived  from  the  iiortlierii 
trihex,  among  whom  we  hnd  that  trees 
tiollowed  out  like  canoes  were  Jirst  used. 
The  crus:ules  lirst  «ave  the  impulse  to  iiii- 
provemeiitj  in  shi|>-huilding,  which,  nol- 
witlislaiiding,  continued  for  some  time  at 
a  low  ehb.  Kveii  in  the  reiun  of  Kdwurd 
the  P'irst,  ships  were  very  iiisi^niticant  in 
point  of  size,  for  it  appears  that  forty  men 
were  deemed  siilKcient  to  man  the  lamest 
vessels  in  Knulaiid.  'I'lie  states  of  Venice 
and  Uenoa  probably  lirst  increiisiul  the 
•iae  of  their  ships,  but  they  were  sihui  sur- 
passed by  the  Spaniard*,  who  lirst  em- 
ployed cuiinon.  The  Hanse  Towns  made 
such  advances  in  naval  architecture,  that 
in  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  usual  for 
them  to  let  their  ships  out  to  furei)>n 
princes.  In  the  rei>!ii  of  Henry  IV.  ships 
of  considerable  size  began  to  be  built  in 
England,  and  they  continued  to  increase  in 
magnitude  until  the  rei^n  of  Henry  VIII. 
when  two  very  large  ships  were  built, 
namely,  the  Regent,  of  KIDO  tons  burthen, 
and  the  Henry  Grace  Dieu,  which  was 
larger. 

XAFMACHT.  In  anc.  Eome,  a  show 
or  8i>ect;tcle  rei>ieseiitiiip  a  sea-flj:ht. 

NAUMANITE.  A  i.eciiliiir  ore  of 
silver,  found  in  cubical  ciyBtals,  in  thiu 
plates,  and  j:faiiulni-. 

XAUSCOPY.  The  pretended  art  of 
di.scoverinji  anproacliiu':  slnp.s.  or  tlie 
existence  of  laud,  at  a  cousideruble 
distance. 

NAVAl,  CROW.;.  A  crown  am.mc 
the  Romans,  ;iveii  to  him  whofirst  boarded 
an  enemy's  ship;  it  was  a  circle  of  gold 
tepreseiitiiig  the  beaks  of  ships 


NAVE     Tia  bo-iy  or' main  part  ol  a 
•hurcb 


NAV 

NAVIGATIO.N.  The  art  ol  conuuc'J»| 
1  vessel  at  sea  fniiii  one  |«irt  to  another, 
rills  IS  navigation,  proiierly  so  called,  Ut 
distinguish  it  from  coiiimnn  navigatimi  of 
co:istiiig,  that  is,  conducting  vessels  from 
one  port  to  another  lying  on  the  same 
coast  j  and  inland  navigation,  which  ia 
|ierforiiied  by  small  craft  on  canals  'i'liera 
is  al.-m  a  submarine  iiavigatiiui,  that  is,  the 
art  of  .sailing  under  water  by  uieuiii!  of  the 
diving  bell,  Sec.  Naui^-  n  is  divided 
into  theoretical  navifatUii,  which  treats 
of  the  dilfereii'.><  of  latitude,  the  dltien-iice 
of  longitude  .K.t  •irkoiiiiig  or  distance  run 
the  course  o'  aiimb  run  on,  besidt-s  the 
ditfereiit  iiii-desof  sailmg — plain  sailing,  in 
which  the  plane  chart  is  made  u.se  of;  Mer- 
c.tior's  or  globular  sailing,  in  which  .Merca- 
tor's  chart  is  useil,  &.c.  I'racticid  navigation 
li.'Ui  res^iect  to  the  places  sailed  to,  or  tha 
waters  sailed  over,  and  is  either  pro|icr, 
common,  inland,  &.c.  as  liefore  explained. 

N.\VU;,\TIO.\,  IlisToRT  OP.  Naviga- 
tion and  commerce  without  dout.(  took 
their  rise  together  ;  for  the  desire  of  gain, 
lieiiig  one  of  the  most  powerl'ul  incentive* 
to  action,  would  naturally  lead  men  to 
explore  di.4taii(  countries.  Hence  we  hnd 
that  the  i'hieiiiciaiis,  particularly  those  of 
'i'yre,  who  were  the  first  trading  people  ob 
record,  were  also  the  first  to  make  Heels, 
and  by  the  aid  of  astronomical  observa- 
tions to  extend  their  voyages  to  some  dis- 
tance from  their  own  shores.  'I'he  Cartha 
ginians  followed  the  course  of  their  an- 
cestors the  Tyrians,  and  addicted  tliem- 
selves  so  thoroughly  totrtideand  navigation 
th:it  th"y  surpassed  every  other  nation  of 
antiquity  In  the  cultivation  of  these  twu 
arts.  'J'liey  first  made  the  qnadremes,  oi 
foiir-oared  galleys,  and  probably  were  the 
tirst  who  made  uibleo  for  their  large 
vessels  of  the  shrub  spatuiii.  I'liey  like- 
wise pushed  tlieir  discoveries  to  a  vast 
extent.  They  were  perfectly  acipiainted 
with  the  .Mediterranean  and  all  the  porta 
in  it,  and  proceeded  to  the  we.<lward  lar- 
ther  Llian  any  other  nation.  Britain  and 
the  Canariea  were  kni  wn  to  them,  and  ia 
the  opinion  of  some  they  even  went  aa 
far  as  America.  The  formiilable  fleets  tliejr 
fitted  out,  the  quantity  of  sliippini!  they 
always  kept  in  their  employ,  and  lh« 
lionulir  they  so  lonj!  enjoyed  of  Iw-iiig  the 
masters  of  the  sea,  siitticieiitly  alirst  llii> 
advances  wh'cli  they  made  in  navigation. 
As  the  (JreeKs  and  Romans  were  mora 
addicted  to  war  than  commerce,  they  en-- 
pliiyed  their  sliippiiiii  principally  in  Ir  •-«- 
pnrtinif  their  men  to  the  countries  ,y 
wer',  iroiiia  to  attack,  or  in  eiigaaiiig  tneli 
ei         is  at  sea.    Tlial  the  A'benians  e> 


NAVIGATION. 


Ifil 


Mlleo  all  the  other  Greeks    n  llu-ir  mari- 
Uiiie  warliire  is  ev.dent  from  the  victories 
wiiicli  tlicy  gained  over  'he  l'eri<iaiis  by 
tea.    As  lu  the  Uoinans,  they  ure  said  dy 
F(il\  hills  to  liave  l>een  utter  stiaiigers  to 
itavuJ  aihiirs,  and  ijuile  ignorant  ot  slitp- 
building,  before  the  first  I'unic  war,  when 
a  Carlhuginian  galley,  having  accideni;illy 
^«lniudrd  on  the  coJtst  of  Italy,  was  taken 
by  tl:eni,  and  served  as  a  niodel  for  the 
eon-'lriu'tion  of  vessels.   Of  this  tliey  made 
0t  gtKtd  a  use  as  to  raise  a  fleet  of  one 
indred  and  twenty  galleys,  wilh  which 
ley  were  enabled  to  beat  the  Carthagi- 
nians on  their  own  element.     It  does  not 
a{>|iear,  however,  Ihiit  either  of  these  jieo- 
ple  went  to  any  distance  in  their  vessels, 
either  lor  j«nri>oses  of  trade  or  curiosity. 
'J'lie  only  voyage  of  disctivery  we  read  of 
in  anti<{uity  was  tliat  made  by  iVearchus, 
under  tlie  aiispices  of  Alexander.     In  all 
otiiercountries,  navigation  waseiiconraged 
Solely  fur  the  |mr|)ose8   of  coniinerce,   :is 
by  the  Eg)  [ilians  and  the  Byzantines,  and 
■uhseijneiitly  by  the  Venetians  and  Geinv 
ese  until  llie  time  of  the  crusades,  when 
a  spirit  of  adventure  was  excited  lhrot>i;li- 
out    all    Luroiie,  and  preparations  were 
made    for    voyages    to    the    Holy   Land, 
which  led  t«i  the   improvement  of  naviga- 
tion.   I'he   laws  of  Uleroii,  framed  and 
established  by  our  king  Richard  I.,  show 
tliat  a  system  of  mtyiliine  policy  was  now 
Uiought  necessary.'  Of  tlie  progress  of  the 
Knglish  navy,  it  suflices  here  to  observe, 
tiiat  l)ie  lirst  statutes  respecting  it  were 
passed  in  tiie  reign  of  Richard  II.  and  that 
from  tlial  period  to  the  present  it  h.is  been 
the  object  of  government  to  raise  it  to  tlie 
highest  pitch  of  perfection.     As  to  the  art 
of  navi)/ation  generally,  nothing  contribu- 
ted so  much  to  its  advancement  as  the  in- 
vention of  the  mariner's  compass,  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  which  gave  so  great  a 
facility  to  the  exploring  of  unknown  re- 
(ions.     From  this  time  many  ccmsidenible 
voyages  were  made,  (larticiilarly  by  the 
Portuguese,  under  the  auspices  of  Henry 
Duke    of   Vistco,    who    was    |>articularly 
i^illed  in  cnsmngraphy,  and  employed  a 
uerson  from  the  island  of  iMajorca  to  teach 
■avigalion  and  to  make  instruments  and 
charts.  In  the  subsequent  reign  of  John  11. 
one   Martin  de    Rohemia,  a  Portuguese, 
B.ttive  of  the  island  of  Fayal,  a  |Hipil  of 
Regiomont.-iiins,  calculated,  aboiit  1465,  for 
tlie  use  of  navigators,  tables  of  the  sun's 
^clinatinn,  and   recommended  the  astro- 
^^be  for  taking  observations  at  sea.  About 
the  fame  time,  Columbus  conceived  the 
Idea  of  exploring  a  passage  to  India  by 
niling  directly  towards  tlie  west  acroas 


the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  being  nimt*!)«4 
witli  a  small  arniaiiieiit  of  three  ships  b« 
Ferdinand  and  lB;d>ella  of  S|min,  he  se* 
siiil  in  August,  141^2,  and  steered  directly 
for  the  Canary  Islands;  tlieiice  holding  his 
course  due  west,  he  stretched  away  iiiio 
uiifrei|ii(-iitedand  unkiiowiicea.-i.  Alteren- 
countering  incredible  ditliculiies  and  hard- 
ships from  the  elemonUi,  and  a  scarcity  (,f 
provisions,  but  above  all  from  the  muti- 
nous spirit  of  his  crew,  he  arrivt-d  at  dia 
nanii,  one  of  the  large  cluster  of  islands 
called  the  Luraya,  or  B<ihama  Isles.     He 
also  discovered  Cuba,  II ispanioln,  and  seve- 
ntl  other  small  islands,  and,  having  left  a 
cohmy  in  a  fort  at   llispaniola,  returned 
to  ^paiii  in  March,  l-iSi.     In  Septenilier 
following,  he  set  out  on  his  second  voyage, 
and   sailed    by   the    Leeward    Islands   to 
llispaniola  i  and  in  a  third  voyage,  under- 
taken in  U98,  he  discovered  the  continent 
of  .\merica.     In  the  same  year,  V'asco  de 
Gaiiia  returned  to  Lisbon  from  a  voyajje 
to  the  Last  Indies  by  the  Cat*  of  Goud 
Hojie.     As  from  practice  the  art  of  navi- 
gation was  thus  materially  unproved,  so 
likewise  additicmal  efforts  were  now  made 
to  advance  it  theoretically,  and  to  extend 
its  cultivation.    The  empeior  Charles  V 
founded  a  lecture  at  Seville  for  the  im- 
provement of  navigation,  which  derived 
much  advantage  from  tlie  discovery  of  ilie 
variation  of  the  compass,  and  the  use  of 
the  cross  staff.    The  subject  also  now  be- 
gan to  engage  the  pens  of  the  learned. 
Two  treatises,  the  first  of  llie  kind,  con- 
taining a  system  of  the  art,  were  published 
in  Spanish,  the  first  by  Pedro  de  Medina, 
at   Valladolid,   in   1545,  called    'Arte  de 
Navegar,'  the  other  at  Seville,  in    15.W, 
by  Martin  Cortes,  under  the  title  of  Dreve 
Compendio  de  la  Sphera  y  de  la  Arte  de 
Navegar,  &c.'  which  was  translated  into 
English  and  passed  through  several  int^ 
press  ions. 

The  finding  of  the  longitude,  which  is 
still  a  desideratum  in  the  art,  had  even 
early  engaged  the  attention  of  writers;  for 
we  find  that  Pedro  Nuner,  or  Nonius, 
published  a  treatise  on  this  subject  in  liiSl 
in  the  Portuguese  language,  which  was 
afterwards  printed  at  Basil  in  Latin,  under 
the  title  of  '  De  Arte  el  Katione  Navi- 
gandi.'  In  this  work  the  probU'm  of  deter- 
mining the  latitude  from  two  observation* 
of  the  sun's  altitude  and  the  intermediate 
azimuth  is  resolved.  In  1557,  Bourns 
published  his  '  Regiment  for  the  Sea,'  ip- 
tendtd  as  a  supplement  to  Cortes ;  and  in 
15(?l,MichaelCoignet,  a  native  of  Antwerp, 
published  his  '  Instruction  Nouvelle  des 
Points  plus  excellena  el  necesaairea  tou. 


KO 


NAU 


NFE 


enant  I' Art  de  Naviger,'  inteii<led  as  an 
iiu|)roveineut  u|>uii  iMeilina.  I'lie  discny- 
ery  of  the  di|>piii;;-iie<;tlle  was  explained 
by  Robert  Norman,  in  his  '  New  Attrac- 
tive,'a  |Kini|>hict,  til  which  is  coMiMiiinly 
tubjoined  VVIIIiain  Biirroii<Ui's  '  Dificourse 
of  the  VarialiuuortheC<iii)|ias.s.'  In  Jo94, 
Captain  Jii{in  Davis  pnbli.'died  a  small 
Ireatue  entitled  tiie  't'eaiii:iii's  Secrets,' 
which  w:i;!  much  esteemed  at  that  time. 

na  the  errors  iif  the  plane  chart  had  been 
much  coiiipiained  of  by  tliose  who  were 
i4>r.versa)il  willi  tlie  subject,  Gerard  Mer- 
cator  was  led  to  construct  a  universal  map, 
Air  the  purpose  of  obviating  those  objec- 
tions, the  use  of  which  svas  iirterwards 
fully  illustrated  by  Mr.  Kdward  Uright  of 
I 'uiiibriilge,  who,  in  his '  Correction  of  cer- 
tain Krrors  in  Navi'.'ation,'  printed  in  1599, 
.showed  the  true  method  <if  dividing  the 
meridian  from  Cambridge,  as  also  the  man- 
ner of  constructing  tlie  table,  and  its  uses 
in  navigation.  The  method  of  approxima- 
tion by  what  is  called  the  luiddle  latitude 
is  iiienlioiied  by  Uiinter  in  his  wor'«-, 
printed  III  \&£i,  but  was  not  brought  into 
^'enenil  use  until  some  time  after.  The  a|>- 
plicatiiui  of  loj^rlthms  to  navigation  was 
also  made  by  this  author  in  a  variety  of 
ways  ;  hiitTliomas  Addison,  in  his '  Arith- 
metifji]  Navigation,'  is  said  to  have  b«en 
the  first  to  apply  logarithmic  tables  to  the 
cases  of  «;iiliiig.  From  this  time  several 
writer"  in  Kngland  and  elsewhere  contrib- 
uLxd  to  tJie  improvement  of  the  science,  as 
(k-llibraiid,  in  a  '  Discourse  Mathematical 
on  ilie  Variation  «if  the  Needle  ;'  Norvvood, 
In  his 'Sf'-'wan's  Practice;'  John  Baptist 
Iticcioli,  ai  ftoliigna,  in  1661  ;  Father  Mil- 
let l>#-chals,  in  lii74  and  IG77  ;  M.  Bougier, 
ill  IfHtd  ;  William  Jones,  in  a  '  New  Coni- 
p<^ndiiiin  of  (lie  whole  Art  of  Navigation  ;' 
Peter  Bouque,  in  hi«  '  Nouveau  Traite 
de  .Navigation  ;'  and  Dr.  Robertson's 
'  Giemenls  of  .Navigati  .«,'  to  which  was 
added  a  valuable  preface  by  Dr.  James 
Wilson. 

.NAVIGATOR.  One  who  follows  the 
practical  part  of  navigatiim  ;  piirticiilarly 
pne  wIki  goes  on  voyages  of  discovery. 

N  W  M  ACH I  A.  The  representation  of 
a  sea  fight,  r.'hich  among  the  Romans 
fi'rmeil  a  part  of  the  Cirrensian  ■games. 

NAUTICAL.  An  epithet  for  what  lie- 
'.•ngs  to  the  navy  or  navigation,  as  the 
Nautical  Almanack,  whirh  in  England  is 
piililHhfd  under  the  direction  of  the  BcKtrd 
nf  Ijoneivude,  for  the  use  of  mariners. 

NACTlf^US.  A  genus  of  testaceous 
vvrrins.  one  s|)ecies  of  which,  called  the 
•xff  shell,  t\"ntn  on  the  surface  of  the  sea 
n  lis  iiliell,  by  the  I'eip  of  u  Hiembrane 


I  which  it  extends,  so  aa  to  make  It  tnWK 

I  the  piir(N>se  of  a  sail. 
NAVY.  The  whole  naval  establUfe- 
ment  of  any  country,  comprehending  the 
]  ships,  olhcors,  men,  stores,  &.c.  &c.  4'hal 
}>;i.'t  of  the  navy  of  England,  which  is  dia- 
tinu'Uished  by  the  title  of  the  Royal  .Navy 
comprehends  all  vhips  of  war  and  their 
crews,  &.C 

NAVY  BOARD  (in  the  F.nglish  Nav^) 
consists  of  a  loril  high  admiral  or  lordt 
commissioners,  Willi  a  number  of  inferior 
orticers. 

NAZARE.VES.  A  term  of  reproach 
among  the  Jew8  for  our  Saviour  and  hi* 
ilisciples, 

.NAZARITK3.  A  sect  among  the  Jtwi 
atfecliiig  rerlaiii  peculiarities. 

N.  B.  i.  e.  .\oT»  Bkne.     Take  notice 

NEAP  TIDli.S.  Tides  in  the  second 
and  last  cjiiarter  of  the  moon,  not  so  .'injh 
as  the  spring  titles. 

NEEDLEGUX.  A  breecli-loadiiig 
fire-aini.  \vlii6h  i.s  rx]ilodeil  by  means 
of  a  steel  )M>iiit  anil  detonatiii-i'iiowder, 
first  used  by  tin)  l'i'iis.<^ians  ii>;aiii»t  the 
Aiistiiiiiis  III  18(iG. 

XEEDLE-OUE.  A  native  .siilpliiiiit 
of  bismuth,  found  in  a  gold  mine  in 
Siberia. 

N  ERUIjJE.  Spots  in  the  heavens,  some 
of  which  consist  of  clusters  of  exceedingly 
small  stars,  others  appear  like  luuiinous 
spots  ofdilferent  forms. 

NECK.  That  port  between  the  htad 
and  the  liody. 

NIX'K.  .Any  thing  long  in  the  form  of 
the  neck,  as  the  neck  of  a  bottle,  a  violin, 
ice. 

N  ECROt.OG  Y.  A  register  of  the  deaths 
of  benefarliirs  in  a  moiiiistery  ;  also  a  reg- 
ister of  distinguished  [lersons  who  die 
within  a  certain  [wriod. 

N  lOCRO.MA.NCY.  A  sort  of  magic  prac- 
tised by  rtie  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans, 
by  which  they  attempted  to  raise  the  dead 
or  make  ihem  apjiear. 

NECTAR  (in  Mythology-).  The  drink 
of  the  gcwls,  according  to  the  poets. 

NECTAR  (in  Medicine).  A  drink  of  a 
delighifiil  taste,  smell,  and  color. 

N  ECTA  R I  .N  E.  A  sort  of  [leach,  havinf 
a  smooth  rind  and  a  firm  Hesli. 

N  Etrr A  R  Y.  The  melliferous  part  of  a 
vegetable. 

NEEDLE.  An  instrument  of  steel  for 
sewing,  having  a  sharp  jMiint  for  piercing, 
and  an  eye  to  receive  the  thread  ;  also  &■ 
instrii'iieni  for  knitting,  which  is  a  tiinpia 
steel   wire. 

.NEEDLE,  or  Mioketical  Needlb. 
A  neei'ie  touched  with  the  loadstone,  anif 


NEP 

•uip«*nilpd  nn  n  pivni,  on  \\  Inch,  pinyine 
U  'llM-rty.  It  il'.r«-cl8  iLsrIt"  in  llir  iinnli  ami 
■iiiilli  i>r  Hip  liiiri«<in.  M:i<:iii'liail  iireiilesi 
are  i-!ill<-il  lii>ri£iiiiUii  wlit-ii  huliiiicfd  eiiual- 
ly  on  ImiiIi  Nirli-!<,  anil  iii<  liiniliiry  f>r  <li|i|iiri>; 
Wl<«-ll  Ui«"V  iirr  riiii!<mirl«-il  «>  a.<  l<>  slu'W 
tlie  ili|)  ot  itii-  iiffdle,  ur  lluw  lar  il  (khiiU 
below  ilif  Iiii'i7.iin. 

NKliA'l'IN'B.  An  epltl>el  fnr  what  iin- 
plten  nri'  limn. 

M;<;.ATIVE  ErXCTRiriTY.  That 
■tatp  lit  IxmIips.  ill  wliicli  tliry  are  deprived 
•i  some  (KH-liim  ol'  tlin  electricity  wliicli 
thev  iiatiinilly  cuiitain. 

NKiJATIVi:  I'KWJNANT  (in  I-aw). 
A  liPfPUive  vvliitli  iiiiiiliex  an  Htliriiiation, 
as  when  a  jier^oin  deiiiei*  having  duiie  a 
tliiiii;  in  a  reruiln  manner  or  at  a  cer- 
tain lime,  11^  titited  ill  Ihe  deilanilion, 
wliicli  iiiiplie:!  liul  be  did  it  in  suiue  iiiuii- 
uer. 

NEGATIVE  QUANTITIES  (in  Aliie- 
bra).  Uiianlities  having  the  iieg-.uive  sijrii 
■el  liefnre  Itiein. 

NKlIATIVb:  SIGN  (in  Alyehra).  A 
(igti  marked  thus  — ,  to  denul«  less  llian 
nuthin<!. 

NEUdTIATION.  The  condnrtin?  a 
treaty,  eKiier  in  political  ur  cuiniiierciul 
matter!). 

NEliROES.  The  black  inhabitants  of 
Africa.  Iiavine  wihiIIv  hair  ami  a  |ieiiiliar 
complexion.     They  have  liilherto  been  Ihe 


NEW 


261 


NEI'TUNE.  The  prwl  of  Hip  »ca.  bnlh- 
pf  of  Jii|itipr,  in  Uie  hewheii  mythology, 
who  i»  known  by  hu  tridenu 


NERITA.  A  sort  of  lestareoii*  worms, 
whose  shells  are  adorned  with  a  beautiful 
paintine  in  niinialiire. 

NERVES  (in  Anauuny)  Ixins  white 
cords,  the  medullary  prolon!:nti<ins  of  the 
brain  which  serve  for  seiisatiun. 

NKIIVK.S  (in  Botany).  I-ona  toiiuh 
striiics,  whicli  run  lengthways  iii  the  leaf 
of  a  plant. 

NEUVOITS.  An  epithet  for  what  re- 
lates to  thp  nprve«,  as  the  nervous  system, 
nervous  disorders,  &.c. 

NEST.  The  liHluins  prepared  by  birds 
for  inculation  and  receiving  their  young. 

^  „  .  ,  ■  l-TESTORIAX.  One  of  an  nncient 
objects  of  the  iiihiiman  irathc  called  the  1^^^^  fonudeil  bv  Xestoiiiis  ot  Colistan- 
slave-tmde.  Tliey  are  very  niimeroiis  hi  jtinoide  iu  the  fifth  ceiitiiiy.  who  tau;;ht 
the  central  (Kirls  id' Alrii-a,  and  il  a|>|>ear8  that  the  divine  iilid  hiiniau  liafiiieH  o( 
by  the  late  Travels  of  Denhani  and  diip     Christ  did  not  unitennd  form  one  persoji. 


perton  and  others,  that  (Hiwerful  king- 
doms exist  there,  in  a  stale  further  advan- 
ced towaril  civili/.;ition,  than  w;is  siip|M)S- 
ed.  it  has  been  ima»!ined  that  the  ne- 
groes are  inferior  in  cafKuily  to  the  other 
nices  of  mankind,  hut  a  better  kiiowlpdiie 
of  Africa  may  tliruw  doubt  upon  this 
Ofiinion. 

NE.M.  CON.  An  abbrpvi.ation  for  nem- 
bie  rontradiipiite,  that  is,  no  one  opi>osini», 
applied  to  the  decisions  of  the  English  par- 
liament and  other  public  sssemblies. 

NEM.  DISS.  An  ablireviation  for  nem- 
Ine  dissentlpnte,  no  one  dissenting,  Uiat 
Is,  with  unanimous  cons«;iit. 

NEI'IIRITE  A  sj.rt  of  stone  of  tiie 
talc  kind,  of  a  darit  leek-creen  c^donr, 
*er^n>!  to  blue.  It  is  found  in  China, 
America,  and  Eeypt,  and  is  hishly  prized 
by  the  Hindoos  and  Chinese,  by  whom  it 
la  maile  into  tal  siiians. 

KErilRITIC      Uelitinp  to  the  kidneys. 

NE  l'LIISLM.TRA,i.e.  no  farther.  The 
•Itremity,  oi  utmost  extent  to  which  any 
tbing  can  gc 


tliat  Mnry  was  not  the  niolliev  of  God. 
but  oi  Christ. 

NEUUOrrERA.  An  order  of  insects 
in  the  l.inn.x'an  system,  including  tliosa 
which  have  the  wings  reticulate,  as  the 
dragon  rty,  the  day  Hy,  the  lion  ant,  &.c. 

NEUTRALIZ.VnON  (in  Chynii«tn). 
The  process  by  which  an  acid  and  an  al- 
Ivali  are  so  combined  as  to  disguise  each 
otlier's  pro|ierties. 

NEUTRAL  SALTS.  Salts  which  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  botli  an  acid  and  aa 
alkali. 

NEWFOUNDLAND  DOG.  A  verysa- 
gacioiis  kind  of  sjianipl  that  is  wei>-r«K>le<l, 
and  a:i  excellent  swimmer 

NEWSPAPER.  A  periodical  piiblicv 
tion,  which  np|»ears  once  or  oftener  in  ib« 
week,  containing  an  account  of  ilie  politi- 
cal and  domestic  occurrences  of  the  time. 

•NEW  STYLE,  abbrevinted  N.S.  The 
Gregorian  iiicthtHl  of  reckoning  the  A:\\t 
n'  thp  year,  so  xi  lo  adjust  Hie  i«l<l  hour* 
and  ininiiu*  in  tlt«  period  ol  Ui«  sumI 
revoltiiiun 


NIO 


MS 


NEWT.  1  nnyi  iImJ  iif  itir  Ilnril 
trilw. 

NEWTOXIAN  PHrU)SOPHY.  The 
4aetfiae  of  tbe  atuvet**  aa  exp^oml  bjr 
Mr  Uaac  Newton,  ntfecuag  tbe  prnfcr- 
tin,  laws.  alSKUnas,  f jcca,  awibfla*,  Ax. 
tt  hiidm,  brcli  ceieaual  aad  terrMtnal. 
Tbe  cktefiArts  oTUie  XewUNnan  phikao- 
pby  are  esptemed  by  Uie  auUM«  m  hti 
i'niM-ipta,  or  Phncipies  of  Nauital  Plulo- 
aiiptiy. 

.MCENB  CREED.  A  particular  creed 
fctmcd  at  the  tint  yraeral  cmukiI  ■•■«■»- 
Urd  at  the  city  of  Nice  bf  Cfmtbtmame 
the  Great.  A.  o.  3i5k  TbM  cnedhasriaee 
been  adiMed  by  the  ctiBich  of  Fjigtaad 

MCKIX..  A  mecUlK  •■tataaoe.MMt- 
ly  fiamd  in  a  aetalbc  litate,  b«t  wMBetimFs 
ia  that  of  aa  oxide,  lu  area  bare  a  cop- 
pery red  color. 

MCKEL  KUPFER,ortheStn.wfuarT 
or  Nicaai.,  ii  a  compnuMl  of  ftidtel, 
araeaic,  aad  a  MiJpharet  ot  utm. 

MCTIT.\.NT  JlEMBaAXE  {ia  Con- 
pantivc  Aaataay).  A  thia  awaihniif 
«Me«r  fand  ia  hirda  aai  iakaa,  whkfa 
>n»tn  tttt  eyea  af  dicae  aai— la,  aa  w»  lo 
ikekcr  tbe«  linna  tbe  daat  and  exceaa  of 
i(b(. 

MGHT(inLaw).  Tbe  period  afdark- 
■eaa,«rbe::  a  oiaa^  free  caaaat  he  di»- 
cemed. 

MGIIT1LAWIC  Aa  \aericxn  bird, 
thai  naJira  mm  apyeaiaaie  at  erening, 
and  ia  mem  kifk  ia  ike  air,  dying  afaoai 
•r  iaaects.    It  baa 

il  waa  tha  wbi|^ 


RIGimfAKe.    A 
aatina  on  tbe  btead  daxiaf  ;be  a'ftat,  to 
vhicb 


.MOimKCALE.  A  aaian  tmwa  C» 
mpran  bird,  iiUL  tngt  beamUfmOy  darl^ 
tbeaifltt. 


MGnrsnADE.  or  DcADLT  Stawrr- 
■HADr.  A  piusoonw  ptatiL,  bearing  a  heU- 
■4i:iped  cnn4la.  fruai  the  leares  ol'  which 
painters  extract  a  fiae  enen. 

.NIHIL  DICIT  (in  l^w).  A  failnre  oa 
tbe  pan  of  llie  drfentlaiit  to  pat  in  an  aj»- 
•wer  ta  tbe  ptaiatiiTs  declaration,  &c,  by 
,  Jutlpnent  it  of  ccoiaa 

MLCILAU,  orXTIjCHAU.  Tbe  Per 
•iha  Bsme  for  a  species  at  aatelape,  tha 
aatilope  picta  oC  Linnsus.  bariag  abort 
hnras  hem  forward,  and  tlie 
nader  parta  of  tbe  aeck  i 


S\Mn'C9  faiBOMg  Amiqiiariana).  A 
eirele  ohaerred  oa  aoae  ainlaU,  <<r  rr^iad 
tiw  iMad  tt  mtmt  caaperMS,  aiwwrrinf  u 
Ike  cirdeaor  fight  di««-aat««Bd  tbe  im 
CBBcfaaiattu, 

MSI  PKICB.  Ia  Ea^bad,  a  <-«■»- 
mia«i>>B  directed  to  tbe  j>idfe«  nf  aiwtze 
empowering  them  to  try  all  quest icm9  td 
£act  iacaing  oat  of  tbeeoiirts  of  U'eatmia- 
■ter,  tliat  are  tlMsa  ready  far  trial  ;  and 
aa,  by  the  eewae  afthe  eoort,  an  caoaea  ar« 
lieard  at  IVeatnimer,  tiM*  riaawr  ia  addrd 
iaaach  writa,  Kiia  prav  jaaticiarii  ad  capl- 
eadaaaaaiaa*  ve^erint ;  that  ia,  Ualea*  te- 
fioie  ilw  d^  lixed  the  juflicea  CfKne  inta 
If  ia  qarw ;  vlieaca  Iha  writ 


NOC 

M  w«n  as  the  comaiisr<ion,  hare  teceiveil 
'h«  nuiiie. 

NITRATES.  Sails  formeil  of  nitric 
Kill  n  itii  snlinaUe  bas«s,  as  the  nitnte  of 
potash,  <(>(ia,  Jtc. 

NITllK,  vulgarly  called  Saltpetbb. 
A  neutrtl  sail,  Iwiii;  a  crystollizeil,  pel- 
lucid, antl  vvhiti:<h  ;!utistance,  of  an  acrul 
and  liitterisii  t:i>te,  iiiipreasiir^  a  strung 
sense  of  culiliiess  on  llie  tongue.  It  a 
fuaiiil  rettily  forTiied  in  tlie  East  Inilies  anil 
ib  the  swutliLTM  iKirts  nf  L\iro|ie.  but  by  far 
tlie  greater  part  i>f  Uie  nitre  in  runiuion 
use  id  produced  by  the  cmiibinatiuii  uf 
liihstuiices  ill  suibcble  situations,  which 
tend  tiv  produce  nitric  acid,  [Kirticul:uly 
where  animal  iii;itter  becomes  decompos- 
ed by  the  air,  such  as  slaughter-houses, 
dm  ins,  and  the  like. 

.NITKIC  ACIU.  A  heavy,  yellow  li- 
quid, prtKured  by  tlie  chyiniral  combina- 
tion of  oxy^n  aud  nitrt>i;eii  fis.  Diluted 
with  the  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids,  it 
*Tnis  the  well  known  liquid  ai)uafortts. 

ITKOOEN,  or  Aiotb.  The  principle 
of  nitre  in  its  g:iseous  stale,  which  consti- 
tutes four  fifths  uf  the  volume  of  aUiios- 
pberic  air.  It  has  neither  smell  nor  t:v-<te, 
and  is  not  to  be  procured  in  a  seimrate 
itate  ;  but  is  remarkable  for  tlie  prii(>erlics 
•f  estiiiguishint!  tlaine  and  animal  life. 

NITUO  MURIATIC  ACID.  A  com- 
pound of  nitric  aud  muriatic  acids,  fur- 
meriy  called  aipia  restit. 

JfTTRCVCALCm:.  ITitrnte  of  lime, 
haviii-;  a  jrreyish- white  color,  iccurriiij; 
lu  etHoresceuces  ou  old  walls,  aiid  iu 
limestone  eaves. 

SUKO-GLYCERIXE.  a  powerful 
blasting  oil.  aud  Ui'ihly  danjjerou.s  ex- 
plosive :i!;eut,  preparetl  by  the  action  ot 
nitric  ami  sulphuric  acids  ou  jilvcerine. 

NILTRE'V.  A IhhIv ot oxv«reii,  hydro- 
gen, carbon,  and  one  atom  of  nitm-^en. 

NOBLK.  Am  Eusli.-ih  coin  usihI  in  the 
rei;;n  of  Edwuitl  III.  Vulae  iibout  il.'i. 


NOR 


!f^ 


NOCTANTER.     By  night. 

NOt."rtll.\"AI^  .\n  epithet  for  wh.'it 
kc-ongs  to  the  nis;ht,  as  a  nocturnal  arch, 
toe  arch  dest  cibed  by  the  sun  or  a  *lar  iu 
Ibe  nighl 


NOCTU  R.N  A  L,  or  .\  oc  TC  a  !.>  ■  itT  M .  A  n 
instrument  used  at  sea  for  tinJiug  the  lat- 
itude and  hour  of  ihe  ni§ht. 

NODDY.    A  sea  fowl  of  the  tern  kind. 

NODE  (in  !?iirgery).  .\  hard  tuiuoui 
rising  out  of  a  IxMie. 

NODE  (in  Dialling).  The  aAis  or  cocs 
of  a  dial. 

NODES  (in  Astronomy).  Two  points 
where  the  urbit  of  a  planet  intersects  Uia 
ecliptic  :  the  Northern  or.Ascen'ling  .Nmh-, 
called  the  dragon's  head,  is  marked  tl)u4 
Q,  the  ^otttlleni  or  Desi-endlng  Node,  ihe 
dntgun's  tall,  uiarkeil  thus  U. 

NOLLE  I'ROSEUL  1.  An  Bgre«ii»-nt 
on  the  iKirt  of  tlie  plaialidT  not  tu  |uuE>e- 
cute  liis  suit. 

NO  .MAN'S  LAND.  A  sea  lenn  f.T 
the  space  in  midsliipM,  between  like  after 
[Kirt  of  the  belfry,  ;uid  the  f..re  jisirt  of  a 
ship's  boat,  wlieu  she  is  stowed  uiiuii  the 
bot>ni. 

NO.MENCT,ATt'RE.  A  catalogue  of 
the  most  useful  aud  siguilicaiit  wuris  In 
any  language  ur  in  any  iiarticiilar  science. 

NO.MINAIIVE  (ill  Grammar).  The 
first  case  of  a  noun,  or  the  nuiiie  itself. 

NON.\GESI.MAL.  Tlie  ninetieUi  de- 
gree of  the  ecliptic. 

NONCHALANCE.  An  affected  iiidif. 
fere  nee. 

NGN  COMPOS  ME.VriS  (la  Law) 
Not  of  sound  Kimd. 

NON  Ct».N"IiLCTORS  (in  EJecUicity.i 
Podies  which  do  not  become  electnc  by 
being  placed  in  tlie  iwighborhood  of  on 
excited  botly. 

NONCONPfiRMIST.  In  England,  a 
person  not  coulormiag  to  the  chiuth  of 
England. 

.NON  EST  I.VVE.NTUS,  I.  e.  Iltenl'y, 
He  has  not  been  found.  Tlir  answer  made 
by  the  sheriff  in  the  return  nf  iIk'  writ, 
when  the  detendant  is  not  tu  be  found  M; 
his  bailiwick. 

NONPl.lfS.  A  ditficHlty  or  eniKtmss. 
ment,  when  t»ne  cannot  pniceed  .iny  wav. 

NO.N  PROS.  I.  e.  Non  |^o~eipiitur,  lie 
diies  not  prosecute.  A  nixvuit,  cr  the 
form  of  renoancins  or  letting  liUJ  a  suit  by 
the  plaintiff. 

NO.\RES>IDE.\CE  (in  I.aw).  In  Eng- 
land, the  not  residrng  on  llieir  benefices, 
as  a|iplicd  to  .«pi  ritual  pers««ns. 

NO.NSUIT.  The  leuiug  fall  DC  renouBC* 
ing  a  suit. 

NORMAU     \  perpendicular. 

NORROY  KI.\G  .\T  ARMS,  hi  Eiiff> 
land,  the  third  king  at  arms. 

NORTH  IMLE.  A  poitu  in  tlie  nortH- 
em  hemisphere,  ninety  degrees  diiOaal 
{rom  the  eiiuutur. 


2G4 


NUO 


NUT 


T:onTH  POT.K.  In  astronomy,  an 
liiuiiriiiarv  point  in  tlio  nortliein  iiemi- 
Sj'lu-if,  !»0°  I'loni  tlif  t'qnntor. 

XOiaVAY  IIAGSTOXE.  A  coarse 
Viitiely  of  wlu!t«toiu>. 

XOrflXG.  In  ill  chitectiire.  the  mould- 
iiijr  upon  tlio  upper  edjrc  ot";i  step. 

NOSOLOGY.  The  doctrine  of  dis- 
eii.tfs,  or  their  chissiliciition  and  nomeu- 
clature. 

NOTATION  (in  Arithmetic  and  Aljie- 
bra).  Tlie  nietliod  of  expressing  nunilters 
or  qiinutitiex  by  signs  or  clianirters  ai>- 
propriated  for  that  pur|)nse.  The  Jews, 
Greeks,  and  Romans  expressed  their  unm- 
bers  hy  the  letters  of  tlieir  alphaliet  ;  the 
Arabiaus  liad  particular  cliarauters  called 
tignres,  uiiich  have  been  universally 
adopted  in  Enrope  in  all  arithmetical  ope- 
rations. The  Roman  mode  of  notation  is 
also  still  in  use  in  marking  dates,  or  num- 
bering chapters,  .&c. 

NOTATION  (in  Music).  The  manner 
of  expressing  sounds  by  characters. 

NOTE.  Any  short  writing  or  memo- 
randum. 

NOTE  (in  Music).  A  character  to  dis- 
tinguish the  pitch  and  time  of  a  sound. 

NOTE  OF  HAMJ  A  writing  under  a 
man's  hand,  by  which  one  (>erson  engages 
to  pay  another  a  sum  of  money  on  a  cer- 
Uttn  day,  or  on  demand  :  tliis  may  either  be 
tn  tjie  form  of  a  lull  or  of  a  promiss(>ry 
note. 

NOT  GUILTY  (in  Mw)  The  general 
iaaue  or  plea  of  the  defendant  in  a  criminal 
actii  n. 

NOTICE  (in  Law).  The  inaKing  some- 
thing known  timt  a  man  was  or  might  lie 
ignorant  of,  and  which  it  was  pro|*er  lie 
■hould  be  made  acquainted  with. 
NOV.  An  ahlireviatiim  for  Novendier. 
NOVEL.  A  narrative  of  fictitious  events 
and  characters.  When  the  incidents  and 
persons  are  not  probable,  it  is  railed  a 
romance ;  and  if  only  a  short  story,  a 
novelette. 

NOVEMBER.  The  eleventh  month  of 
the  Julian  year.  It  was  called  \ovendier 
because  it  was  the  ninth  of  Roinuhis's 
year. 

NOVICE  (in  the  Romish  Church).  One 
WhQ  has  entered  his  novitiate  or  year  of 
probation,  before  he  takes  his  vow  ;  in  a 
general  sense,  a  learner  in  any  profession, 
an  unskilful  |>er8on. 

N.  S  An  abbreviation  for  new  style,  or 
the  new  mode  of  forming  the  calendar. 

NOUN  (if  Grammar).  A  part  of  speech, 
the  name  of  the  thing  itself,  as  horse,  dog. 
Ire. 
NUCLEUS.  Ttw  kernel  of  a  nut,  Slc.     ' 


I      NI'CLKl'S  (in  Astronomy).    The  li<y!y 
of  the  comet,  otherwise  called  the  head. 

NUDE  CD.V'rUAirr.  a  bare,  naked 
contract,  without  a  consideration,  which  ia 
void  in  law. 

NUISANCE  (in  l.«iw).  Any  annoynnc« 
which  tends  to  the  hurt  or  incnnveiiienca 
of  another. 

j\U.MIJER(in  .Arithmetic).  An  assem- 
blage of  several  units  or  of  several  tliinga 
of  the  same  kind.  Whole  numbers  are 
otherwise  called  integers,  as  1,2,3.  Itniken 
niiinlier.<  are  fntctions,  a.s  \.  t'ardinal  niiiu- 
bers  express  the  number  of  things,  as  I,  2, 
3.  Ordinal  numbers  denote  the  order  of 
tilings,  as  1st,  2d,  :id,  &.C.  Even  iiumliera 
are  those  which  may  be  divided  into  two 
equal  parts,  without  a  fraction,  as  6,  ]\l, 
&.C.  Uneven  nnndters  are  such  as  leave  a 
remainder  after  being  divided,  as  6,  13, 
Slc.  a  sipiare  number  is  the  product  of 
any  number  mulliplied  by  itself,  as  4,  the 
product  (d°2  multiplied  by  2. 

.\U.MIIER  (in  Gniniinar).  An  inflection 
or  change  of  ending  in  nouns  and  verbs, 
to  denote  number.  Nnmliers  are  singular 
to  denote  one,  dual  to  denote  two,  or  plural 
to  denote  more  tlian  one. 

NU.MUKRS  (in  I'oetr)).  Measures  or 
cailences  which  render  a  verse  agreeable 
to  the  ear. 

NUMERAL.  Any  character  which  ex- 
pres.ses  a  niinilter,  as,  I,  2,  3. 

NUMERAL  LETTERS.  The  Roman 
letters  I.  11.  111.  IV.  ice.  which  denote 
numbers. 

NL'.MERATION.  The  art  of  expressing 
in  figures  any  number  pro|Hised  in  words, 
or  expressing  in  words  any  numlier  pru- 
|iosed  in  figures. 

.NUMERA'I'OR.  The  number  in  tfw 
up|>er  line  of  a  traction,  denoting  the  num- 
ber of  ttie  given  parts  taken,  as  3  in  J,  that 
is,  tliree  out  of  the  four  parts  of  an  integer. 

NUMERICAL.  Relating  to  auinbera, 
as  numerical  algebni,  that  which  is  per- 
formed by  the  help  of  mimbers. 

.NUMIS.M  ATICS.  The  science  ofmedala 
and  coins. 

NUNtMO.  The  jiope's  ambassador. 

NUNCUPATIVE  WILL.  A  will  made 
by  word  of  month. 

NUNNERY  (in  the  Romish  Church). 
A  religions  bouse  for  nuns,  or  females  wfio 
have  bound  themselves  by  vow  to  a  single 
life. 

NURSERY.  A  chamber  for  young  chil- 
dren. 

NURSERV.  A  place  set  apart  for  you! i| 
trees  and  lihrubs. 

NUTATIO.V  (in  Astronomy).  A  trem» 
Inns  motion  of  the  earth's  axis. 


OAT 

NUTnALI,S.  Excrviw^-nreii  nn  the  l«^f 
3f  the  (Kik  Tim  .Me|ipi>i;all<are  iiii|>itrteil 
for  the  use  of  rtyirsi.  calirn  printer»,  &r.. 

M  T  MATCH.  A  small  s,-»-ci«-s  of 
VVi>oit(i«».Sier. 

Nl.'TMKG.  A  fjpire,  the  fruit  of  n  tree 
M  big  A»  a  pear  Ue«,  growing  on  the  islamt 


OBL 


266 


of  R:inda,  In  the  Eastern  Ocea  i.  It  is  one 
ol  the  hiii>itt  of  spicrsi,  rind  is  rarrieil  to  all 
(inris  of  the  world  as  an  article  of  roni- 
nicroe.  The  nnlinrs  is  the  kernel  of 
Uie  fruit,  noi  unlike  the  ["f.-irji,  tiie  ruid  of 
coat  of  winch  i*  rolled  niur«. 

MTX  VilMICA.  A  rt;it,  roin|irH»se.t, 
muiid  frnit.  aNiiil  the  hre.idih  i.f  :i  i<hlllin^, 
hruiishi  from  the  Hast  Indies;  it  is  a  rer- 
tiin  poison  for  dixjn,  cati*.  &.r.,  and  in  oii« 
of  the  iiitfredienis  iiiilawnilly  iiitiiMed  into 
l)eer,  to  siive  it  a  stiipilyiii!!  ipialily. 

NVI.  Ull  \i;.     See  Nil  i;ii:iii. 

NY.MPH.i:.  The  thr>  sails.  ,.r  third  stajB 
of  insects,  t>el\veen  the  i-nih  and  ilie  rty. 

i\  V.M  J'HS.  The  L'lHldessesoftlir  wimmIs, 
accordliis  to  the  |M>etK.  'I'lipy  wi-re  <o- 
le.stial  and  terreslrnil,  the  former  mndinf 
the  heavenly  iMHiirs,  the  latter  pr>-siding 
over  the  \vi«m|!i.  They  are  repreM-nted  ll« 
iH-aiitil'iil  creaturea,  liihaliitint;  every  fored 
and  glea. 


O,  the  fourteenth  letter  of  the  alphab»l, 
U8eU  as  H  niiiiieral  for  eleven,  a:id  vviili  a 
stroke  over  il,  thus  0,  for  eleven  thou- 
sand. 

OAK.  A  tree  relehrated  for  its  tiniher, 
T\'hich  is  So  l<>u|!ti  that  the  sharpest  tools 
will  scarcely  penet.tile  it.  It  in  also  re- 
uiarlcable  for  itsiilownees  of  pnwth,  bulk, 
%ud  hmf;ev!(y.  Oaks  havt^  Ix-en  round  to 
jtrow  only  from  fiMirteen  in  t« miy  imhes 
in  diameter  in  llie  s;>:ir^  nf  emhiy  years. 
The  live  oak  is  .1  >p«<  les  parlii  iilarly  val- 
uable for  ship-litiiliiini;.  Great  quaiilitieii 
are  obtained  in  KInritla. 

O.AKI'.M.  Old  ri>pei4iiiiiuisied  and  made 
Into  loose  hemp  for  CAikint!  shijis. 

O.AR.  A  lon^  |H>le  with  a  Hat.  thin  end, 
by  which  bo.'tlii  are  driven  aloiiij  in  the 
water. 

OATH  (in  Law).  A  solemn  alTirniaivin 
or  denial  of  a  thing,  acconipanied  with 
an  appeivl  10  fJod. 

OATH  OF  AM.EGIA.NCE.  In  Eng- 
land, the  oath  wliith  the  siilijeci  lakes 
when  rct{uired  to  bear  true  aJiegjaiice  to 
the  kine 

OATH  OF  PI'PKKMACV.  Ih  Eni;- 
•and.  the  <aih  which  establishes  the  supre- 
macy of  the  kins  over  every  other  (•ower, 
tein|ioral  or  spiritual,  wiihm  the  realm, 
w  hereby  the  supremacy  of  the  iMipe  waji 
feiii-uiued  :it  the   Rernrmanoii. 

OATH  OF  AI'JI  RATION.  An  oaih 
wbicb  expruisiy  estiblishek  the  siiCi.essioii 

a 


of  Ihe  reisnins  family  to  the  thnme  of 
Kii-rland,  ui  tlie  exclusion  of  the  :jluiut 
family  or  any  irther. 

OA'l"S.  A  iirain,  tlie  peculiar  food  of 
horJ^es,  and  in  ScxUland  and  the  north  of 
England,  also  the  i'ihmI  of  man.  Oaiineal 
Ihe  tloiir  of  Itie  oats,  is  al«i  much  used 
medicinally. 

OIIKI.I.-^K  (in  Architecture).  A  square 
stone  erowuig  smaller  from  the  basv  lu  the 
auniinit. 

oilKi.iSK  (iunong  Printers).  A  mark 
of  relereH'e,  thus  (t). 

t)IUECT  fil.A.-!S.  A  class  in  3  tele- 
sco|ie  or  iiiirrosco|ie,  at  the  end  of  the  tub« 
next  to  the  object. 

OKIT  fin  Ihe  Komish  Church).  An 
annual  service  for  the  ilead. 

t)Kn  lARV.     .A  recisler  of  the  de.iths. 

OBLATE.  Flattened,  an  epilhot  for  a 
sphere  or  sphendd. 

Oltl.ATKhN.  What  is  laid  on  an  alta» 
or  civeii  at  the  altar  by  way  of  otferine 

OltLlt;.\TIO.V  (in  l«iw).  A  bond  C4.n- 
tainins  a  |ieiialty  on  condition  of  not  per- 
formiiis  certain  covenants  annexed. 

OKLIUt'E.  hevialiiiK  from  a  |ier|>en 
diriilar  line  or  direiiion,  a.-,  an  obliqim 
aiisle,  &.C.  that  whuh  Is  not  a  rittit  tii* 

f)BI.UllE  CASES  (in  Griiiimar).  !"•» 
cases  of  uuu:iii  declined  from  the  miDilua. 
tive. 

ORLIQl'ITY  OF  THE  FX'I.ll'TIC 
The  aii"le   vhirh  Ihe  eclir'>c  makes  wic» 


v^ 


occ 


OES 


tiii>  et'intor,  being  now  eiitimated  at  8oni»- 
Uiiiig  leiM  than  'JJ  degreesi  2d  minutes,  as 
the  ecliptic  appruacliea  nearer  to  a  panU- 
irhsiii  Willi  tlie  equator  at  the  rate  of 
about  -42  secoiidrt  in  lUU  years. 

OltOIiUS.  A  small  Grecian  coin,  equal 
to  about  three  cents. 

OltSEKVATIO.N.  The  observing  the 
phenomena  of  the  heavenly  bodies  by 
nieaus  of  any  instruniuut. 

OUWERVA'l'ORV.  A  place  erected  in 
some  lolly  situation,  and  ritted  up  with 
telescopes,  quadratits,  &,c.  for  the  purpose 
<if  making  astronomical  observations,  such 
w  the  observatories  at  Greenwich,  Paris, 
Mnnich  and  Cam1>ridjre.  which  are  the 
most  celelirateil  aiucm^  th«  niodei-n  ob- 
servatories. The  ancient  Clialdeans 
Lad  also  simihir  places, 

OBSERVATORY,  EaUATORIAL,  or 
Pobtablb.  An  instrument  for  aolvinc  ma- 
ny problems  in  astronomy,  as  linding  the 
meridian,  pointing  the  telescope  on  a  st:ir. 
though  not  in  the  meridian,  iu  full  day- 
light, &.C. 

OBSIDIONAL  CROWiV.  A  crown 
made  of  the  grass  that  grew  in  a  besieged 
place,  which  the  Romans  gave  to  the 
general  by  whom  the  town  was  talten. 


OBT.    An  abbreviation  for  obedient. 

OBTUSE  ANGLE.  Any  angle  greater 
than  a  right  angle.    See  Anolc. 

OCCI UENT.  Westward,  as  the  Occident 
•quinoctial,  &.C. 

OCCIPUT.    The  back  part  of  the  head. 

OCCULTATION.  The  obscuration  of 
«ny  star  or  planet  by  the  interposition  of 
any  other  body,  as  the  moon,  &.c. 

OCCULT ATIUN,  Circle  of.  An  ima- 
ginary circle  round  the  |>oles,  which  con- 
tain! these  stars  Uiat  are  not  visible  in  our 
kemisphere. 

OCCULT  DL^EA-SSES.  Di.«iea!»es,  the 
causes  and  treatment  of  winch  are  not 
iiadrrRtood. 

CWXJULT  QUA  JTIES.    Uualities  in 


bo.1ies  which  do  not  admit  of  any  rational 

eiplauulioii. 

ik:cL'1'ATION  fin  r.Kiw).  ThepossM 
aiiiii  and  ut^b  of  lands  ox  ivm-inetw^. 

UClv-V.N.  A  vast  (,ollei:tuiu  ufSill  and 
navigable  waters,  enclosing  ilie  cnutuieiita 
IV  quarters  of  the  ulobe,  Euro;)e.,  Asm, 
Alrica,  and  .Aim-rica.  and  couipri-hended 
under  the  several  di  visimis  of  the  .Alluiitic, 
the  I'acitir,  Indian,  Norlhein,  and  r^outta- 
ern  Oceans. 

OCKI.<  "T.  A  very  fierce,  but  beaiiiifnl 
animal  of  the  cut  Itiml,  found  in  Souiii 
America. 

TiCHRK.  A  sort  of  e.arlh  c<insuiiug  of 
alumina  and  red  oxnle  of  iron. 

OCTAGON.  A  ligure  of  eight  sides  aud 
angles. 


OCTAHEDRON.  One  of  the  five  rei^i- 
lur  bodies,  consisting  of  eight  equal  and 
equilateral  triangles. 

OCTA.MiRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
Linniean  cbisses,  consisting;  of  plants  hav- 
ing eight  stuivina  ;o  each  dower. 


OCTANT.  An  aspect  of  two  planeti 
when  they  are  distant  from  each  ntlirr  l5 
degrees,  or  the  eighth  part  of  a  rirrle 

(XJTAVE  (in  .Music).  The  eighth  inter- 
val in  a  scale  of  sounds. 

OCTAVO,  1.  e.  in  eichl,  expressed  by 
printers  thus,  Bvo.  The  for^n  of  a  pat;« 
by  folding  a  sheet  into  elsiht  leaves,  so  u* 
to  make  it  consist  of  sixteen  panes. 

OCTOUtiR.  The  eialilh  munth  in  Ui« 
year,  containing  thirty-one  days. 

OCUl/ST.  One  whocuresiuMaisiiratn 
of  the  eyes. 

ODD.  An  epitliet  for  any  number  in  ti;» 
series  of  I,  3,  .*>,  ',  tc. 

ODE.  A  iMieiii  wntien  to  be  sung  tu 
music. 

OlXiUR.  The  scent  or  smell. 

aC^JE.^I  A.  Any  tun.our  or  ■•welling. 

n^^Ol'II  VCUS.  The  sullet.  a  ineB^- 
brniiaceoiis  canal,  reaching  from  tl<  fau(«a 
to  the  stomach. 


OIL 


OMN 


OFFEN'CE  (In  Ijiw).  The  violation  of 
ay  law  ;  UiU  is  capital,  if  iiiiiiUtied  with 
4^&th,  anil  not  cA|ilal,  if  visited  Willi  any 
other  puiiisbuient. 

OKFEHINGS  "»  I^w),  In  England, 
Church  dues,  pByahle  by  (  umIoiu,  ajt  the 
Easier  offeringij,  ur  the  otf^rings  at  mar- 
liai!i?a,  &.C 

UKFICE.  That  function  by  virtue 
whereof  a  man  b-ith  s<ime  employinent, 
either  in  lliw  public  adairs  or  ihoae  of  a 
iwivate  individual. 

OFFICER  (lu  Law).  One  filling  an 
ol'^'e  or  |KiBt  under  Eovernmenl. 

OFFICER  (in  MUiiaiy  and  Naval  Af- 
fair*",. One  acting  under  governnient  in 
a  mi'i^ry  or  naval  cap-iclty. 

OFFICERS, CuMMissioNGD  (in  the  Ar- 
my).    Appointed  by  comuiiKnion. 

OFFICERS, Com  MusioMBo  (in  the  Enn- 
ilfH  Navy),  hold  their  coinniissioiiii  from 
Uie  Lord  High  Admiral  or  Lords  of  the 
Admimltv. 

OFFICERS  OF  THE  CROWN.  TJie 
great  olTirers  of  the  crown  in  Eii;:l:ind  are 
the  Lord  High  Cliancellor,  the  Lord  lli^h 
Steward,  the  IaitiI  llijrh  Treasurer,  the 
i<(ird  I'reiiident  of  the  Council,  the  Ixird 
I'rivy  Seal,  the  l^ird  Cliaaiberlaln,  the 
L<ird  llieh  Coiulable,  and  the  Earl  Mar- 
■hal. 

OFFICIAL  (in  Law)  A  depr.ty  tp- 
poinled  by  the  archdeacon  for  the  execu- 
tion of  his  uttice 

OFFICINAL.  An  epithet  for  what  U 
Hold  la  shops,  as  oiKcinal  plants,  herbs, 
medicines,  &.C 

OFFING.  The  open  sea,  or  that  part 
of  Uie  sea  at  a  distance  fniiii  the  shore, 
where  there  is  deep  writer. 

OFFSKTS  (ill  lli.tany).  Young  shooU 
that  spring  and  prow  from  sh<M>is. 

OFFSETS  (in  Sur\'eyins).  Perpendic- 
utais  let  fall,  and  inpasiirin<!  froiri  the 
■tationar)'  lines  t»  the  heJge,  fence,  or  ex- 
tremity of  an  eiirldsnre. 

Ck;EE  (In  ArehJterture).  A  moulding 
foiuied  like  the  letter  H. 


^ 


O'L.  A  fat,  unrtuous  substance,  which 
derives  its  namr  from  olea,  the  olive,  be- 
cause it  was  at  lirsl  principally  known  as 
the  produce  of  the  i-live.  (Jil»  are  dwtin- 
giiMlied  by  chvmislr)'  '"l"  v<ilatile  or  e«- 
•ential  oils,  which  have  a  stronj,  nrrid 
laate,  and  a  string,  friv'rant  smell,  being 
hlaJned  fnm  suielli   g  planu  ;  and  (ii.i.d 


oils,  which  are  thick  and  viscid,  insolubi* 
in  water,  ana  do  not  bo'l  under  tJUU  de- 
grees :  these  latter  oild  are  obtained  from 
both  annnal  and  vegetable  sub:<taiices.  as 
Irain  ml,  olive  oil,  linseed  oil.  &.c. 

OIL  IJAS.  A  gas  eitrarled  Irom  fi*fc 
oil,  which  IS  more  expeiii'ive  aiiil  not  reck 
oned  M>  good  d.s  that  procured  trom  rniiU 

OLKRACEili:  One  of  the  Liiinu'ai 
Dituml  orders  of  plants,  containing  \nA- 
berbs,  ax  i<pin<i<:e,  thyme,  mint,  &.c 

oLKKiiN,  I.AWi  OF.  A  code  of  mari- 
time law,  Ko  railed  because  it  was  framed 
by  king  Richard  I.  uo  an  Uland  uU'  the 
coaxl  (if  France. 

0LKACTO8V  NERVES  Thenerre* 
which  give  the  sense  of  smelling. 

OLIOAKCHV.  A  fonii  ol  t^vemmeni 
wlu-rein  the  adininislratioo  of  atfairs  it 
lods:ed  In  the  bands  of  a  few  persons. 

OLIVE  TRtE.  A  Iree,  native  of  th« 
southam  parts  of  Europe,  which  rises  wllh 
solid  upright  stems,  and  branches  uumer- 
oiisly  on  every  side.  The  olive,  which  M 
the  fruit  of  this  tree,  yields  an  oil  that  k 
of  an  einoUienl  and  sotveiii  natve. 


OLYMPIAD.  The  space  of  iSiir  yearn, 
whcrebv  the  flreeks  rerkoiieil  tJieir  tniie 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  Olympic 
games  haviii!.'  iH-eii  celebrated  once  in  liiill 
years.  The  first  Olympiad  is  dated,  ac- 
cordiiis  to  stiine,  77-1  ye.-ini  before  Christ. 

OLVMIMC  CA.MES.  Solemn  games 
amnna  the  Creeks,  in  honour  of  Jn|utcr 
Olympus,  at  which  five  kinds  of  exen  i>e8 
were  exhibited,  namely,  leapniE,  running, 
wrestling,  quoitius,  and  whirlbats. 

O.MEtJA.  The  last  letter  of  the  Greek 
alphaltel. 

OME-VTUM.  A  double  nellike  meiu- 
bnuie  spread  over  the  entrails. 

OMKR.  A  Hebrew  measure,  about 
three  pints  and  a  half  Kiislish. 

OMMCM.  A  term  among  stock  bro- 
kers for  all  the  kinds  of  stork,  as  3  |ief 
oenu,  4  per  ecnls,  tct.,  which  otb  suM 


<6» 


oro 


OPT 


together  as  thev  were  bnaght  by  the  con- 
Ifiiclim  frorii  izuverniiienl. 

ONICX  A  liiilboiia  eaible  root,  prow- 
ini;  in  t^nrdens,  and  usied  for  vuriuus  culi- 
nary ^iirpuaes. 

'NVX.  A  orecioiia  xtone,  accounted  a 
■pecies  uf  opaque  ac:ite.  it  is  a  !>fiiii|i«-l- 
.Dcid  KCni  ul'ditferent  colotirx,  bul  the  blu- 
'sb  while  kind  is  loulied  upon  ad  the  true 
'<iiyx  of  the  ancients. 

OPACITY  That  property  in  bodies  by 
wl'.ch  they  ars  rendered  impervious  tollie 
rays  of  the  sun,  owing  probably  to  the 
nensity  of  the  parta. 

OPAL.  A  precious  stone  of  various 
CO""ir»,  which  comes  undt-r  the  class  of 
peilLCid  gems.  It  is  found  in  many  parts 
of  Europe,  especially  in  Iliinsiary.  VVIien 
first  dug  out  of  the  earth,  it  is  soft,  but 
It  hardens  and  diminishes  in  bulk  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  'J'he  substance  in  which 
it  is  found  is  a  ferruginous  sand  stone. 

OPERA.  A  dramatic  coiii|Misition  set 
to  .iiiisic.  It  is  sung  on  the  stage,  accom- 
panied and  interspersed  with  dialogue. 

OPERA-GLASS.  A  kind  of  glass  con- 
itriicted  in  a  small  wooden  tube,  so  as  to 
view  a  person  in  a  theatre,  and,  as  the 
glass  is  made  to  point  at  a  different  object 
from  that  which  is  viewed,  it  may  be  used 
without  any  wne  knowing  exactly  wlio  is 
observed. 

OPERATION  (in  Surgery).  Any  exer- 
cise of  the  sursical  art  which  is  perfoniied 
by  the  use  of  instruments. 

OPERATION  (in  Cbemistr>).  Any 
process  that  leads  to  a  given  result. 

OPERATION  (in  Military  Affairs). 
Any  movement  of  an  army  for  the  attain- 
ment of  a  partirular  object. 

OPIITHALmIA.  An  inllammation  of 
the  nieniliranes  of  the  eye,  a  (list- ase  which 
particularly  affected  the  English  soldiers 
during  their  stay  in  E^^'pt- 

OPIATE.     A  medicine  made  of  opium. 

OPIOM.  An  inspissated  gummy  juice 
obtained  from  the  liead  of  the  popi'.V.  It 
is  imported  in  cakes  from  Persia,  Arabia, 
and  other  warm  climates  ;  is  of  a  reddish 
brown  colour,  and  of  a  nauseous  bitter 
taste ;  and  has  a  powerfully  narcot'c 
property. 

OF\)BAL8AMtJM,  Balm  or  Gilbi o. 
A  gummy  j'-lf-e  of  the  balsam  tr'-e. 

OPOl*t)NAX.  A  gummy,  renii;ous juice 
obtained  from  the  root  of  an  uiubelliferoiis 
plant  growiuE  in  warm  climates. 

OPOSSI'^l  An  American  animal 
that  lives  in  holes  and  woody  places. 
The  female  is  remarkable  for  having 
two  Of  three  pouches,  wherein  the 
foung  ciM.ceal  themselves  in  tiiite  of  dan- 


ger.   It  is  found  only  in  Virginia,  um4  am 
vicinity. 


OPPOSITION  (In  Astronomy).  One  of 
the  asp«cts  of  the  planets,  whi-n  they  ;ire 
loO  (leiirees  distant  from  euch  oilier,  that 
is,  in  n  diametrically  opposite  relation  to 
eacli  iilher. 

ori'ATIVR  (in  Grammar).  \  mods 
or  form  of  a  verh  by  which  is  expressed 
tlie  wish  or  desire  to  do  a  thing. 

OPTIC.  Pert:iiniiig  to  the  sislit  ;  as 
Optic  Glasses,  classes  contrived  for  view- 
ini;  objects  whicli  lan  not  otherwise  lie  seen, 
as  spectacles,  telescoin-s,  micro»cii|«*s,  ic 

OPTICIAN.  A  dealer  in  or  maker  of 
optical  instruments. 

OPTIC  NERVES.  The  second  pair  of 
nervf-s  of  the  bniin,  which  perforate  the 
bull)  if  the  eye,  and  serve  for  the  sense  of 
sight. 

OI-TIC  PLACE  OP  A  STAR.  That 
IMiint  of  its  orbit  in  which  it  appears  to  bo 
to  our  eye. 

OPTIC  PYRAMID.  A  pyramid  form- 
ed by  rays  drawn  friuii  the  several  (toints 
f»f  the  [terimeter  to  the  i-ye. 

OPTICt?.  That  hranrh  nf  natural  phi- 
losophy which  treats  of  the  nalure  of  light 
anil  colours,  or  of  llie  general  doctrine  of 
vision.  It  is  distinguished  into  three 
kinds  :  namely,  optics,  properly  so  called, 
which  treats  of  direct  vision  ;  catoptrics, 
which  irfius  of  reilectt-d  vision,  or  ttiat 
which  is  performed  by  means  of  rays  re- 
flected from  s|M!culum8  or  mirrors;  and 
dioptrics,  which  treiils  of  refracted  vision, 
or  that  which  is  perlbnned  by  means  of 
rays  rel'raricd  or  turned  out  of  their  course 
by  passing  through  mediums  of  different 
densities,  chielly  through  glasses  or  lenses. 

OPTU'S,  IlnTOHT  OF.  The  pro-crties 
of  lizht  natunlly  altractt-d,  at  an  earlv 
period,  the  attention  of  jihilosophfrs  who 
iii.tde  nature  their  study.  Eiiipedudes, 
who  nourished  upwards  of  four  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  is  said  to  have  written 
a  treatise  on  light;  and  the  works  of  Aris- 
totle jiresent  ns  with  a  number  of  qu«s» 


OPTICS. 


869 


■ons  and  observatinns  eonreming  optical 
Bppeariiices.  'J'liis  iiliiludoplicr  was  aw:ire 
tlial  it  is  the  retleclldii  iif  the  li^lil  I'ruiii 
Uie  atiiii>spliere  wliicli  prevents  total  dark- 
ness Hller  the  suii  seb,  und  in  thuse  pla- 
ces wiiere  he  does  not  shine  in  the  day- 
time lie  also  considered  that  niinlntws, 
hali>!<,  and  mock  suns  were  all  occasioned 
by  the  redeclion  ol'tliesnnlien.'!!:  '  4itrer- 
cnt  circiimsiaiii;e3,  hy  which  an  in>,  4rtV'-' 
image  ol"  hia  joily  w.».  .iroduced,  tiic  coi- 
otir  only,  and  not  his  proper  li^iire,  h<-ing 
exhibited.  Kiiclid  wrote  a  treatise  on  o|i- 
tic8  and  rato|t(ric^,  in  which  lie  shows  the 
cliief  properties  of  rellecled  rays  in  plane, 
Convex,  and  concave  surfaces,  in  a  ceu- 
uielrical  maimer,  lieginning  with  that  con- 
rernnis  the  equality  of  the  ani;les  of  inci- 
dence and  rerleclxui.  lie  also  takes  some 
notice  of  dioptrics,  and  remarks  on  the 
e.Tecl  of  refratiion  in  repird  to  an  object 
at  the  bottom  t€  a  vessel,  which,  when 
%vater  is  poured  in,  is  bron^rht  to  view, 
thai  was  not  to  l«  seen  above  the  edge  of 
the  vessel  liefore  the  water  was  (Kiured  m. 
As  to  the  elferl  of  burning  filasscs,  both  by 
reflection  and  refraction,  this  is  noticeil 
not  -lily  by  Kuclid,  but  by  many  other  of 
the  ;.  cients  ;  and,  if  we  iiive  creilit  to  his- 
torianii,  the  exploits  |K-rfornied  by.  Archi- 
medes in  setting  (ire  to  the  vessels  of  tlie 
Komans  Itefore  Syracuse,  by  means  of 
burning  mirmrs,  pmve  that  his  practical 
knowledge  exceeded  that  of  modern  limes. 
'I'heie  is  no  doubt  that  he  wrote  a  treatise 
on  burning  ^hisses,  as  also  concerning  the 
apiieantnce  of  a  ring  or  circle  under  the 
water,  which  shows  that  Litis  phenomenon 
nad  not  escaped  b><»  ;.».iice.  The  ancients 
H'ere  also  acipiaiiited  with  the  production 
of  colours  by  means  of  refnicted  light.  Se- 
neca observes  llial  when  the  li^lit  of  the 
sun  shines  Ihn'iigli  an  angular  jiiece  of 
g!a.ss,  it  shows  all  the  colours  of  the  ntiii- 
Ikiw  ;  also  that  Ihe  cidonrs  Feen  in  a  pi-  I 
geon's  neck  wlii-n  it  changes  its  iKisition, 
are  the  elfert  of  refraction,  and  on  the 
same  principle  tlcit  a  s|ieculum,  not  hav- 
ing any  colour  of  its  own,  wilt  assume 
tliat  of  any  oilier  ImmIv. 

Resides,  the  ancient*  were  rot  iinac- 
quaniied  with  Ihe  magnifying  power  of 
glass  •riobes  tilled  wiih  water,  for  the  an- 
cient eiisr.ivers  used  to  employ  such  a 
flass  glolie.  III  onler,  as  is  siip)M^ed,  to 
maenifv  ilie  tiiiures,  that  they  might  exe- 
cute llieir  wviik  with  more  correctness. 
Iloleniy,  who  wrote  a  consideninle  trea- 
tise on  opiict.was  well  aciiuainltd  with 
the  refr«lii>n  of  li:<lit,  and  ilelermined  ihe 
ratio  of  the  ansles  of  refru  tion,  as  coni|inr- 
m1  Willi  that  of  the  angles  of  nrid^nce, 
2<  * 


with  such  accuracy,  that  U«re  is  but  a 
Irirtiiig  ditlereiice  belwren  the  results  i4 
his  observations  and  those  of  .Newton  ;  not 
more  than  might  arise  from  his  having 
used  glass  and  water  of  specific  CTavilie« 
.sometliing  ditferenl  from  those  employea 
by  .N'ewton.  ll  appears  also  from  Ihia 
Work  of  I'tolemy,  as  also  from  his  Alma 
I'esl,  that  he  eniphiyed  his  kuow*'dge  ef 
./ptics  in  his  aslronomlcal  obstrivaticox, 
for  he  was  fully  aware  that  refraction  <ie- 
creiuses  from  the  horizon  to  llie  Keuilli, 
and  that,  by  means  of  this  n-fnirtion,  the 
intervals  between  the  stars  ap|>ear  lesa 
when  near  the  horizon  than  in  the  merid- 
ian. He  also  acc4>unts  for  the  remarkably 
great  apparent  size  of  the  sun  and  moon 
when  seen  iiearlbe  horizon,  by  as«'ri<iiii| 
the  ap|>ear>tiice  to  the  refmilion  of  the 
niys  by  va|M>urs,  which  actually  enlarge 
the  anile  under  which  the  luminaries  ap- 
|iear,  Just  as  the  angle  is  enlarged  by 
which  uii  object  is  seen  from  under  v«  alrr 
1'he  next  writer  of  any  iui|M>rtaiice  on 
the  science  of  optics  was  Alhazeii,  an 
Anibian  philosopher,  who  tlonrished  in 
the  (weltlli  century.  He  made  many  ob- 
servations and  experiments  on  the  etfecli 
of  refraction  at  the  surface  between  air 
and  » aler,  air  and  glass,  and  water  and 
ghiss,  I'rom  w  huh  he  deilured  th:it  atiiinA- 
phericnl  refractiiin  increases  the  allituites 
ol  all  objectn  in  the  heavens.  He  also 
first  observed  that  the  stars  are  s<imetimes 
seen  above  the  horizon  by  means  of  re 
traction,  when  they  are  really  lielow  il ; 
an  oliservalitui  confirnied  by  Viiellio  and 
other  opticians.  He  likewise  niaiiitiineii 
that  rcfniclion  conlracus  the  diametera 
and  distances  of  lieaveiily  bodies,  and  tluit 
it  is  the  cause  of  the  twinkling  of  vLo 
stara.  nesides,  Alhazeii  treats  largely  on 
the  uia<:nir\ing  |Miwer  of  glasses,  so  that 
probaldv  his  observations  led  to  the  inven- 
tiiui  of  s|H-ctacles.  In  the  next  cenliirf 
followeil  Vitellio,  a  Pole,  who  digested 
the  contents  of  Alhazeii's  work,  and 
made  many  additional  observations  on  the 
power  of  refraction.  He  gave  a  table  of 
the  results  of  his  experiments  on  the  r«>- 
fracting  fiower  of  air,  water,  and  glass, 
corresponding  to  difl'erent  angles  of  inci- 
dence. Itoger  Ifcicou,  a  contemporary 
with  Vitellio,  also  wmte  on  this  science, 
and  is  generally  considered  to  l>e  Ihe  in- 
ventor of  the  magic  laiilern.  .Maumlycm, 
w  ho  followeil  these  two  al  the  distance  cf 
nearly  two  centuries,  explains,  in  hil 
treatise  lie  I.iiniiiie  el  nnitirl,  llie  iiroceiia 
of  vision,  showing  ihai  Ihe  crvsialliiie  hu- 
mour of  the  eve  is  a  lens  w  hirh  roilecM 
Ihe  nivs  of  li"lit  issuiii;;  Iron  th«  oUjiyw* 


270 


ORA 


ORD 


and  tnrows  them  on  llie  retina,  where  the 
focus  uf  earh  |)eiicil  is  I'oriiieil.  Kruiii  (his 
princi|>le  ti«  ilisi-ovcrcil  the  rea-sun  why 
•oiiie  pfople  liave  a  short  sight  :ui<i  others 
•  long  one  ;  also  why  the  ronuer  are  as- 
■isieil  by  conuive  ghisses,  and  the  lutter 
by  convex  ones.  John  Ikiptistu  i'orta,  his 
Coniem;«ir;iry,  Uisaivereil  llie  camera  «b- 
sciira,  and  UhiK  the  first  |iiihlic  notice  of 
the  magic  lantern,  ihe  original  invention 
of  which  has  been  ascribed  to  Koger  Itacoii. 
Kirctaer,  who  foUowed  Kaptistu,  enhirgeU 
•>n  hi3  hints,  and  |iiit  them  iiitu  execution. 
!<«  alnct  made  many  ex|RTiiiieiits  with  the 
Cbiiiera  obscnra,  by  which  he  saiislied 
himaeir  Uiat  viriiou  is  perlbrined  liy  the 
iutroinissioii  of  soinethiii!!  inl»  the  eye, 
and  not  by  visual  rays  |iri«ceediiig  Ircuii  it, 
a*  had  been  I'urmerly  iinaiiined.  lie  con 
■idered  the  e\'e  us  a  camera  obsciira,  the 
pupil  to  ite  the  hole  in  tlie  wimluw  sliiit 
ter,  and  the  crystalline  hiiitioiir  to  corre- 
spond to  the  wall  which  receives  the  im- 
ages;  but  in  this  latter  point  his  idea  has 
been  proved,  by  closer  observations,  to  be 
incorrect,  for  it  is  now  known  that  tirts 
oflice  is  performed  by  tlie  retina,  'i'lie  ob- 
Brrvutioiis  and  ex|»eriineiit3  of  this  writer 
on  the  science  of  optics,  and  on  llie  nature 
of  vision,  appear  to  have  led  llie  way  to 
Ihe  discovery  of  telescopes,  which  was 
doubtless  made  very  soon  after  his  time. 
AlXer  this  the  writers  on  optics  became 
very  numerous,  and  their  lalHiiirs  rontrib 
lited  to  the  contirmation  and  improvement 
of  those  who  had  preceded  them. 

OPSTOMETER.  An  iiistnmient  for 
moasmiiij:  the  extent  of  distinct  vision 
in  (lifFeient  persons. 

0PTIM1S.M.  Tlio  doctrii.e  that 
evervtliinir  is  nnlereil   for  tlio   best. 

OPTOilETEU.  Ill  <«ptics,  .nn  instni. 
meiit  for  meusuriii^  tliu  limits  of  dia- 
tiiict  vision. 

OlTt.ME.  In  Kn-iland,  a  schnlar  In 
tho  rtnaclassof  inallieniaticsatCambrid<re. 

OK  (In  Heraldry).  The  yellow  or  gold 
colour,  represented  on  Uie  escutcheon  by 
nuU  dola. 


OSA.    A  Saxon  coin,  equal  to  from  I6d. 
to  'JOd..  or  al>oiU  -10  cents. 
ORACLBSfaiD'jng  the  Heathens)    Am- j 


bigiious  answers,  which  the  prie«t8  pre. 
tended  lo  deliver  by  the  inspiral  on  of 
their  :!ods,  such  as  the  oracU-s  of  ApoUc 
at  Ik^lphi,  and  lliose  of  Jupiter  Amnion 
in  'I'helies. 

Oil  AN(;-OlJTANO.  One  of  thetailless 
species  of  H|>e,  which  the  most  reitemUI»a 
man  in  its  tigore. 


ORANGF.-'riMCi:.  An  evergreen,  r»- 
sembling  the  laurel  in  its  leaf.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  warm  climates,  and  yields  a  well 
known  juicy  fruit  of  tlie  same  name. 


ORATORY.    The  same  as  Rkcto«ic. 

ORB.  A  hiillow  sphere  or  space  con- 
tained between  two  conreiilric  spherical 
siirtiices,  as  the  orb  of  the  heavens. 

OKUrr.  The  palh  of  a  (ilanet  ornroin- 
et  described  by  its  centre  in  its  pro(ier  mo- 
tion in  the  heavens. 

ORBITS  (in  Anatomy).  The  twc  "vga 
cavities  in  which  the  eyes  are  placeii. 

f)K('MARI).  A  piece  of  ground  planted 
with  fniil  trees. 

nUCHKSTRA.  The  stage  or  middle oj 
tlie  theatre  aiiKiiis  the  tlrceks,  wht-re  llio 
rhiirns  use<l  til  daiirt-,  and  the  (MTfiirmrr* 
used  til  sit.  It  is  now  the  pbii-e  srI  ajiart 
for  Ihe  miisirians,  as  thr  frnnt  of  the  stage 
in  a  tneaire,  a  g9"ery  in  an  asuenihly- 
rootn,  &c. 

ORCHEDR.f:.  One  of  T.inniEns's  nm- 
iiral  <'rde-i  of  pla:  s,  co'itainingtlieorcnii 
and  tiiher  flowers  allied  to  it 


ORU 


OKO 


ZT\ 


CRDEAL.  A  Saxon  mode  of  tri»l, 
wtiicli  coniisted  in  trying  tlie  pulK  or  in- 
nocence of  persona  by  appeals  to  Heaven, 
U  in  tlie  ordeal  by  Are,  vvlien  ttie  luirly 
accused  undert(K)k  l<(  walk  l>lindl'iilil  lie- 
tween  nine  red-hot  plonghsliures  ;  and  if 
he  or  she  escaped  unluirt,  it  was  lnuked 
U]>on  as  a  proof  of  innocence  ;  so,  in  llie 
fwdeal  by  water,  when  a  |)erson  was  throw  n 
bound  into  a  river,  or  put  his  hands  or  feet 
ink)  scalding  water,  and  the  like. 

OKDKlt  (in  AliliUry  Allairs),  as  Order 
of  Battle,  the  di.-i|>osition  of  troops  for  Ikii- 
tle  ;  oj>en  order,  close  order,  Aic;  also 
in  the  sense  of  coinniand,  as  the  com- 
mander in  chiefs  orders,  which  issue  ini- 
niediutely  from  the  commander  in  chiers 
olhce ;  so  brigade  orders,  general  orders, 
■lanilin;;  orders,  &.C. 

OKUI-:u  (in  Naval  Atlairs).  Conunand, 
as  snihn)!  orders,  &.C. 

OKUKIl  (in  Natural  History).  A  partic- 
alar  divlsior  >f  aniiv*"-*  plants,  or  niiiier- 
aU,  coinprrhew-(*'  viDO—  lass  in  the 
Linnipun  and  otn^  fya>jeins. 

ORDER  (in  Archite-Murc).  The  rule  of 
pro|Hirti(>n  to  be  obsetved  in  the  construc- 
tion of  any  building,  which  is  applied 
mostly  lu  the  column  and  tlie  entabla- 
ture, from  the  diversity  in  which  liave 
ipruns  the  five  severil  orders — the  Poric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian, Tuscan,  and  Composite. 

ORDER  (in  Ceonielry).  A  rank  or  sit- 
uation in  a  series  of  curves,  lines,  it.c. ; 
Uiiis  the  first  order  of  curve  l.nes  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  simple  e(|Untion,  or  the  lirsl 
power;  liiose  of  the  second  order,  by  u 
quadratic  equation,  or  the  second  power ; 
«nd  so  on. 

'»RUKRSs  (in  l„-i\v).  In  Bncland,  niles 
made  by  the  court  in  causes  there  dp|tend- 
Ing.  These  orders  :ire  made  by  dillerent 
Courts,  as  the  Chancery,  Kins's  Bencli, 
kc. ;  and  also,  on  (larticiilar  occasions, 
f  rder*  are  made  by  magistrates  at  the 
Sessions. 

ORHKRS  (in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs). 
Con?iecation»or«K-ielips  of  religious  |>er- 
■ons,  who  hind  llieinselves  by  a  vow  to 
live  under  a  su|>erior,  according  to  certain 
r.'.U-s  prewrjbed  to  them  by  their  founder, 
Mirh  as  l\\r  iiiiiiiksand  nuns  in  the  Koniish 
d.urch  ;  likewise  the  character  and  office 
bv  which  PI  cip-iiastics  are  disliiiuiiished, 
lh;it  are  set  ap:iri  i'<ir  the  ministry.  Since 
Uie  Reformation,  there  are  three  orders  of 
the  clerify  Hckiinwlediied  in  F.nuland, 
naiiieiy,  bisliups,  priests,  and  deacons ; 
wiieiice  the  plirise, '  to  be  in  onirrs,'  is  the 
•aine  as  to  be  of  the  rieriial  oriler. 

0RUI;R.><  t>F  K.M<;illlU)OU  (in  Her- 
%ldry)     Societies  of  knights  instituted  by 


princes, 'J  marks  of  distinction  fur  uica 
as  have  disliimuished  themselves  in  war 
'i'he  lintish  orders  are  I  lie  order  of  iJia 
(jarter,  and  the  order  of  the  iialli,  belong" 
ing  to  Kiiiiluiid  ;  the  Irish  onler  of  s<t. 
I'alrick  ;  and  the  Scotch  order  of  li)« 
Thistle. 

ORUINA.VCt      A  law  or  decree. 

ORUl.VARY  (in  the  Coiomcii  Law). 
In  Eii<!laiid,  one  m  ho  has  ordinary,  or  ex- 
empt and  iiiiiiiediate  jurisdiction  in  causes 
ccclesiaslicul,  as  an  urclibishop  or  a  bishop 
The  ordinary  in  .Vew-niie  is  the  clerg\  niaa 
who  utlends  in  ordinary  U|H)n  condemned 
malefactors;  also  a  term  for  the  ottiiers 
and  servants  of  the  king's  ho'iseli'ild  who 
attend  on  common  occasions, as  physicians 
in  ordinary. 

ORDLN ARV  (in  the  Navy).  The  esu- 
blishinent  of  persons  emplojed  by  piveru- 
nieiit  to  take  charge  of  the  ships  of  w»" 
which  are  laid  up  in  the  harlKiiirs. 

ORDINARY  (in  Heraldry).  Any  charge 
in  coats  id'  arms  which  is  pro|icr  to  the 
art,  and  in  ordinary  use  therein  ;  as  the 
chief,  pale,  bend,  lesse,  bar,  chevron,  cross, 
and  saltire,  in  distinction  from  the  com- 
mon charges,  or  such  things  as  it  has  in 
common  with  the  other  aru,  us  animals, 
implements,  crosses,  &c. 

ORDI.N'ATES  on  Conic  Sectioiw).  Geo- 
metrical lines  dniwn  |Kinilk-l  luracli  other, 
!$nd  cutting  the  curve  in  a  certain  number 
of  (Hiints. 

ORDIN.ATIO.N  (in  Ecclesiastical  Af- 
fairs). 'J'he  act  of  ordainiiij!,  or  putting 
into  holy  orders.  The  aue  of  ortlinatinn 
for  a  deacon,  in  Rnsland,  is  twenty-three, 
and  for  a  priest  tweiilyfoiir. 

ORD.NANt.'E.  A  general  name  for  all 
sorts  of  great  euns. 

ORDNA.VCE,  Offick  or.  An  nmce 
kept  within  the  Tower  of  London,  which 
su|ierintendR  and  disimses  of  all  the  arms 
and  implements  of  war 

ORE.  A  eenenil  name  for  metals  in  an 
unrefined  slate,  ns  they  are  dug  out  cf  the 
earth,  where  they  are  found  in  the  four 
liillowin;;  stales:  namely,  I.  Tore,  that  is, 
by  llieinselves,  in  n  pure  metallic  state,  or 
as  alloys,  in  combination  with  other  met- 
als. 2.  As  snlphiirets,  or  in  combination 
with  sulphur.  U.  As  oxides,  or  in  com:  ^ 
nation  with  nxyitrn:  and  4.  As  salts,  that 
is,  ii!  c<imbinalion  with  acids. 

ORGA.V  (in  I'hysioloL'y).  An  '.nstru- 
nieni  by  which  any  nainral  faculty  in  an 
animal  ImmIv  is  e^en-i.sed,  as  the  ear.  u  hich 
is  the  ors>aii  of  hearing  ;  Uieeye,  whicti  It 
the  oraan  of  sinlil. 

ORCAN  (in  iliisic).  A  wind  ln<in»- 
nieul   blown  by  bellows,  and  cuntuinini 


m 


OUN 


OIIN 


Bumernus  pipes  of  varioiit  kinds  and  dt- 
•nenainiis,  wliicli,  Tdf  iu  solt^iiijiity,  iirati- 
dour,  and  rich  volume  of  lone,  i»  iwculinr- 
If  fitted  for  tlie  purpose  for  wliiili  it  In 
coinnioiily  employed.  ()r<!ang  are  sonie- 
innes  of  nii  immense  xize:  tlie  or<nin  in 
the  cut  lied  ral  church  at  L'lm,  in  Cierinany, 
U  said  to  be  9J  feet  high  and  Hn  Itrusid,  its 
lar;:est  pipe  beini;  13  inches  iit  diameter, 
and  it  having  sixteen  pair  of  bellows. 

This  orjran  is  oxceeiled  in  nizc  by  tlio 
one  constructed  in  It70  for  the  lloyal 
Atl>ert  Hall,  in  London.  \vlii(:li  ha.--  Ill 
comi)letf  leuister.s  and  lliS  draw-stops.  1 

OKUAXOGIIAPIIY.  In  botany,  a 
description  of  the  organs  or  structure 
of  plants.  I 

OUdAXOLOGY.  In  botany,  that' 
brnnch  of  pliysioloiry  wliicli  treats  in 
particular  of  the  different  orjjans  of, 
aiiinial.!). 

OIIGAXOX.  An  instrnnipnt;  a  ma- 
cliine  for  facilitating  labor  in  archi- 
tecture and  tlie  art.s. 

ORGUES.  In  fortification,  lonp:.  thick 
pieces  of  lini'.MT,  forniing  :i  jiortcullia^ 
for  tlie  defence  of  a  irate. 

OUIOX.  Ill  astroniuny,  a  constella- 
tion of  the  southern  beiuisplierc. 

ORIOLE.  A  species  of  birds,  of  whirJi 
the  llaltiinore  oriole,  or  liaiig-hird,  is  a 
beautiful  variety,  well  knowu  in  tlie  U. 
States. 


ORfON.  A  constellation  in  the  sniitli- 
ern  hemisphere,  containing  from  tlnrty- 
eielit  lo  seventy-eight  stars,  accorilinj;  in 
different  writers. 

OIINAMKXTS  (in  Arrhilertnre). 
Ij«»ves,  r<>»es,  rliannellni',is,  and  Ilie  like, 
w'lirh  ornament  tlie  ditfereiit  jKirts  of  a 
toliiinn. 

OKNTTflOLOOY.  That  hranrh  r.fNa- 
**tn\    History  which  treats  of  I'lrds,  and 

•ir  natures,  '•ihils.  form,  eronomy,  and 
uses.  Ilirds,  in  the  •.iiiiia'an  system,  are 
^livided,  under  the  ri..»«  .Aves.  into  six 
orders,  arcordiiii;  li.  the  form  of  their  hills  : 
M  tbt  Accipitres,  includin*:  the  eai;Ie,  vul- 


tiir«»,  hawk,  tc. ;  PIct,  incluill'n  t,« 
crow,Jiickd;tw,  |>arrot,  Alc.  ;  Aiiseien,  i» 
rliidin^  the  duck,  gtHise,  swan,  gull,  &.C. ', 
(jnillx,  aa  the  heron.  wiHHicock,  o.«l'it  ti, 
Ace;  iiallinip,  includini:  llie  |ienc>cl(, 
phe.asaiil,  turkey,  doiiirslic  fowl,  &.c. ; 
l',is.s<-res,  iiiciuding  Uie  gpitrrow,  lurk, 
swalli^w,  &.C. 

OK.M  TlluLor.Y,  HitTORT  OF.  Th« 
only  scientihc  writers  on  the  subject  id 
birds  anions  the  Hncienls  were  Arisiotte 
and  l^liiiy.  The  former  of  these  u  rlters 
s|ieaks  of  the  ilill'erenl  kinds  of  fmid 
adapted  to  llie  itiHereiit  siiecles,  of  which 
he  (:ives  an  imperfect  nomenrlature,  and 
adds  some  remarks  on  I  heir  various  (leri- 
ods  of  hiiildjnt!  their  n>-st8.  I'liny's  re- 
marks on  lords  are  very  desultory,  and  not 
very  extended.  The  first  writer  among 
the  moderns,  who  has  treated  of  lords  nie- 
lliodiially,  IS  I'eter  Belon,  who  has  classed 
them  )irlm'i|>idly  accordjni!  lo  llieir  ImMl 
and  habiialion.  lie  has  likewise  added 
many  fdiservations  on  their  external  form 
and  character.  Coiinnl  (<esner.  Ins  coteiii- 
porary,  has  displayed  iiitnh  learnini:  in 
his  work,  liavint:  ;:iveii  alplialietical  tables 
of  the  names  id' birils  III  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
Arabic,  Creek,  Hiid  Uilln,  a^d  numerous 
references  to  the  writers  from  whom  ho 
rollected  Ins  m.-iierials.  Aldrovandiis,  the 
celebrated  naturalist,  followed  In  llie  steps 
of  [leloii  and  <iesner,  and  added  niiicli  to 
llieir  store  of  learning!  and  re.searih  ;  at  the 
Siiiiie  time  iliustralinu  the  subject  with 
numerous  wiuul  cuts.  The  next  orniUiol- 
i>i.'ist^  of  any  distinrlion.  al>er  these  three, 
were  Wjlliiiinhby  and  Ray,  the  latter  of 
•Vhoni  published  the  works  of  the  former. 

«l°riend,  with  many  additionsof  hisown, 
in  IHTS.  In  this  work,  the  external  and 
inte'rnrd  structure  uf  birds  is  described. 
Jacob  Theodore  K*.  J  !n  his  llistor}'  of 
liirds,  divides  them  into  tamiliig  orders, 
and  trities  ;  the  families  dx'ineiiisneil  ac- 
cordinu  to  their  feet  'l.v,  ..,.1,-rs  by  the  form 
of  the  hill,  and  me  trilies  by  the  form  of 
the  be-Qd,  &.C.  In  the  systematic  arraiige- 
menl  of  .Moehring,  the  clas.ses,  orders, and 
penera  of  turds  are  distin^iuislied  by  the 
form  of  the  feet  anri  bill.  The  system  of 
l.inna'us,  which  follows  here  in  order  of 
time,  is  dated  from  the  year  ITGIi.  It  is 
formed  from  llie  manners  and  habllsoftlie 
binis,  as  well  as  ilieir  external  form  (si-e 
ZoiiLo'iT).  I!ris.si.n,  in  his  4ysteni  of 
Ornillioli'Sj'.  has  distribiiled  turds  into 
twenty  sit  ordi'is.  from  ilif  form  <if  the 
bill  and  (eel,  ,^r.,  lurliotini;  under  ihes^one 
liiindr>-il  and  til\een  uenera,  and  thirteen 
hundred  speiies.  The  Work,  which  is  in 
six  volumes  -llo.,  1:1  illurtruted  with  mort 


OUR 

thnn  Iwo  hundred  and  twenty  excollent 
enKnirin^K.  'I'lie  work  of  Hiirfon,  tluiui:h 
popiilHi,  has  hut  te<v  cluuiis  to  notice  in  a 
srientilic  (niint  of  view.  Mr.  Tennanl,  in 
liis  distriliiition  of  birds,  prefers  Ray  to 
LinntHiis  ;  but  .Mr.  Latham,  in  his  Syno|v- 
Bis  of  UirdK,  adheres  to  the  latter  witli 
very  few  exceptions,  as  does  also  Mr. 
Shaw,  ill  liis  (ienenil  Zoology 

Anioii»  the  writers  who  have  treated  of 
the  birds  of  inrticular  places,  the  most 
distinguished  are  Juan  Hernandez  on  the 
hirds  of  Mexico,  Marc>;rave  on  the  birds 
of  Knizil,  :^i^  Mans  :Sli.ane  on  the  birds  of 
Jamaica,  Mr.  Mark  Catesby  on  the  birds 
of  Carolina,  Klorida,  &c.,  Schwenckfel  on 
those  of  i^ilieria,  Urunnickon  those  of  Den 
Uiark,  Sonnerat  on  those  of  New  (iuinea, 
Friscli  on  those  of  Uerniany,  Vaillant  on 
those  of  the  Cajie,  and  Edwards  on  those 
of  the  West  Indies.  Wilson's  Ornitholo- 
gj'  of  tlie  U  t^tates  deservedly  places  him 
aiiiout;  the  tirot  writers  on  this  subject. 

OK.NITllORUNCUS  r.\R.\DOXUS. 
A  singular  quadruped  from  New  South 
Wales,  not  yet  properly  classed  in  the 
Linnasan  system.  Its  great  peculiarity  is 
that  the  structure  of  its  head,  externally 
and  internally,  bears  a  greater  resemblance 
to  that  of  a  duck  than  to  ttiat  of  any  ani- 
mal of  the  niaminalia  tril>e. 

ORPHAN.  One  bereaved  of  either  fa- 
ther or  mother,  or  of  both  parents. 

OKl'I.ME.NT.  A  tine  yellow  powder; 
a  mineral  composed  of  sulphur  and  arsen- 
ic ;  one  of  the  ores  of  arsenic. 

ORUKRY.  An  astronomical  instnimenl 
for  exhibiting  the  several  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  The  first  machine  of 
thl^  kind  was  constructed  by  Mr.  Graham, 
but  it  derives  its  name  fnun  the  Earl  of 
Orrery,  for  whom  one  was  made  by  Mr. 
Rowley  ;  and  Sir  Richard  Steele  suppos- 
ing this  to  he  the  first  ever  constructed,  he 
gave  it  the  above  name  in  honour  of  the 
earl.  Orreries  are  constructed  so  as  to  be 
more  or  less  complete.  That  given  in  the 
accompanying  fisnire  has  all  the  planets 
represented  upon  it ;  that  is  to  say,  tlie 
Buii,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  stilar  sys- 
tem ;  next  to  the  sun  is  the  orbit  of  Mer- 
cury ;  and  next  to  that,  the  orbit  of  Venus. 
Next  to  the  orbit  of  Venus,  is  the  orbit  of 
onr  earth,  represented  by  a  silver  plate,  on 
which  the  sisiis  of  the  Zodiac,  the  dee^ies 
s^  the  ecliptic,  and  the  days  o<  each 
inoiith  ara  drawn  ;  and  the  earth  is  repre- 
lented  by  an  ivory  ball  placed  upon  an 
axis  so  as  to  make  an  ansle  with  the 
plane  of  the  horiwm  of  60  decrees  and  a 
balf  Alxiut  the  ivor>'  hall  t!iere  is  a  silver 
cin:1&<  which  is  pla.u:d  so  as  t^i  incline  to 


OUT 


r? 


the  earth's  orbit  in  an  angle  of  8  degrcca. 
this  represents  the  orbit  (.f  tlie  moon,  the 
nuwn  itself  Injing  represented  by  a  silvei 
ball.  'J"he  8U|ieriur  planets  are  .Mais,  Ju- 
piter,  and  Saturn,  in  this  order:  Mara 
stands  next  without  our  earth  ;  next  to 
that,  Jupiter  ;  and  outermost  of  all,  Saturn. 
By  the  handle,  the  revolutions  of  the<<e 
planets  are  represented.  While  the  earth 
is  carried  round  the  sun  by  3t)5  turns  and 
a  quarter,  of  the  handle.  Mercury  is  carri- 
ed round  the  sun  in  e<8  turns,  and  Venus 
111234;  which  represents  that  the  leiiyth 
of  the  year  in  Mercury  is  ew  of  our  days, 
and  the  length  of  the  year  in  Venus  is 
ixiual  to  224  of  our  days.  Mars  (icrformi 
his  revolution  about  the  sun  in  6<<7  turns 
of  the  handle,  Jupiter  in  43;J2  turns,  which 
answers  to  4332  revolutions  of  our  earth 
about  its  own  axis  ;  and  last  of  all,  Saturn, 
in  10759  turns,  completes  his  revolution, 
which  is  the  length  of  theSaturniun  year, 
and  is  equal  to  about  30  of  our  yeaia. 


ORTironROMICS.  The  art  of  sailing 
in  the  arc  of  a  ereat  circle. 

ORTIIOF.PY.    Correct  enunciation. 

ORTHOr.RAPIIIC  PROJKCn'ION  OP 
THE  SPHERE.  That  projection  which 
is  made  upon  a  plane  passins;  tliroush  the 
middle  of  the  sphere,  by  an  eye  placed 
verticallv  at  an  infinite  distance. 

ORTIKXJRAPHY.  That  part  of  pram- 
mar  which  teaches  the  nature  and  affec- 
tions of  letters,  and  the  proper  s|iel1ing  or 
writins  of  words. 

ORTHOGRAPHY  (in  Geometry).  The 
art  of  drawing  or  delineatinsthe  forerieht 
plan  of  any  object,  and  of  expressin;;  the 
heishts  or  elevations  of  each  part ;  so  call- 
ed from  it.«  determining  things  by  peri>en- 
dicular  lines  falling  on  the  gi'ometrical 
plan. 

ORTIIOCi.MPUV     (in    .Architecture? 


274 


OS  r 


The  elevntlon  or  representation  of  the  front 
of  a  hiiilding 

OU'l'OhAN.  A  (Iflicate  bird  of  the 
biiiitiiii;lritj«,  which  visits  r.n<:lun(t  liefore 
the  Dettin!;  in  of  frost  and  snow. 

ORY(ri'()l,(JUY.  The  science  of  or- 
ganic remains. 

iJSUJLLATlON.  The  vibration  of  a 
ck>clt. 

OS(;[.TI,ATI().V.  The  contact  lietween 
any  curve  and  its  oticulatnry  cirrh!. 

(ISIICK.  The  red  water-willow,  of 
which  wicker  baskets  are  niaile. 

Jr^lKIS.     An  K;;.vptian  dejiy. 

OSl'KKY.  'I"he  fish  hawk,  common 
41  Utiriipe  and  America. 


OSSIFICATION.  T!ie  formation  of 
bones,  or  (he  liardenini>  into  a  hony  state. 

OS'l'lioLOUY.  Ttie  description  of  the 
boneg. 

Ot^TllACrPM.  A  mode  cf  passing  the 
leittencc  of  lianishnieiit  among  (he  Athe- 
nians by  means  of  tiles,  on  wliirh  Ihe 
name  of  the  person  to  be  banished  was 
written. 

OSTUACITIS.  A  kind  of  crust  stick- 
In:;  to  furnaces  where  the  brass  ore  is 
melted. 

OSTRICH.  The  largest  of  all  birds,  be- 
ing Msually  seven  feet  hiph  from  the  top 
of  the  iiead  to  the  ground,  but  from  the 


OUT 

"  hich  are  na  larsc  as  tlie  head  of  a  Cjillfc 
There  are  lliree  birds  allied  tu  the  ostrich 
which  are  sometimes  confounded  with  it; 
the  cassowary  of  the  .Asiatic  Islands,  the 
emeu  of  New  Holland,  and  the  rhea  of 
I'ataiionin, 

0TT|;K.  a  snznrioiis  animal,  that  ln» 
habits  the  hanks  of  rivers,  and  feeds  prin- 
cipally on  tish.  Its  fur  is  much  e.steemed. 
It  is  fierce  and  crally  when  attacked,  bul 
may  easily  he  tamed  when  youim,  and 
taiit'lit  to  catch  fish.  The  sea  otier,  which 
iiiliahits  the  northern  seas,  is  tlie  larjjeiit 
of  the  species. 


OVAL.  An  oblong  curvilinear  ftjnir*, 
in  the  sha|)e  of  an  e;;2.  The  inathem-itl- 
cal  oval,  which  is  a  regular  fijiure,  ecpially 
broail  at  each  end,  is  ralleil  an  ellipsis. 

OVKR-SKKKS  (in  Law).  I'arish  offi- 
cers who  take  charge  of  the  jioor  that  re- 
ceive parish  relief. 

OVKKT  ACT  (in  I,aw).  A  plain  and 
open  matter  of  fact,  serving  to  prove  a 
desisn 

OUNCE.  In  Avoirdupois  weight,  the 
sixteeiilh  part  of  a  pound  ;  iiiTmy  weight, 
thetwelllh  part  ;  in  Apothecaries'  weight, 
eipial  to  eight  drams 

OUNCK  (in  Zcxilogy).  An  animal  of 
tlie  Icivpard  kind,  liiit  smaller  and  milder 
than  the  other  spe,cies.  It  is  trained  to 
hunting  in  the  Kast  Indies. 


OVOI.O  (in  Architecture).  A  eonvei 
mouldini:,  the  section  of  which  is  itsuallj 
the  quarter  of  a  circle. 


••eh  only  four     It  U  n  native  of  Africa       OVULE,  OR  OVULFM.    In  botany, 
•nd   Arabis,  and  lays  forty  or  filty  cffs  '  tbo  eeed  btfoie  it  U  perfect. 


PAC 


I' A  a 


t7a 


teeHon  Outlaws  were  ancipntly  callpd  <  arid  Is  a  vinlpnl  poi:M>n,  ami  has  In  •"m» 
Friendless  Men,  no  one  Ih-iiis  (•eriniiled  |  cases  been  taken  by  uiisuke  for  Kpnim 
Ui  laketliem  in,  or  atford  llieiii  anv  relief.     8alL<«. 

OLTKK.     Exlravagant.oulofliie  way.        O.XIDATION,    or    OXYDIZK.MK.NT. 

OUTIlll»KRS.  Ser^■ants  allaclied  to  |  Tlie  process  of  converting  nieuils  or  mlier 
■ny  tnivellii-j  eqiiituise,  wlio  ride  forward  substances  into  oxides,  by  ruiiibining  witli 
for  the  puriMwe  of  paving  tlie  tidls,  &.C.  .ihem  a  certain  portion  of  oxygen. 

OUTWOKKS.  Uorks  made  on  the, VoXIDEs*,  or  oXYm>.  SulwUnce* 
outxi<ie  <i(  the  ditch  in  a  fortress.  iombined   with  oiygeii,  wiUiout  being  in 

(»\VL.     A   bird   which,  f>n   account   of     the  state  of  an  acid. 


its  weak  sight,  Hies  about  in  the  dark,  and 
lives  pniici|ially  on  vermin.  Stime  of  the 
•[lecies  have  great  horns,  or  long  ears,tiiat 
look  :ike  horns.  There  are  at  least  fifly 
varictiiM  uf  this  bird. 


OX.  A  well  known  domestic  nn!mal, 
of  which  tnere  are  several  varieties,  as  the 
Abyssinian  ox,  haviii?  the  horns  pendu- 
lous, adhering  only  to  the  skin,  and  the 
African  ox,  having  the  bo<ly  snowy,  and 
hoofs  black,  &c. 

O.XAMC  ACID.  An  acid  extracted 
ff.tn  wtKid -sorrel,  and  also  from  sugar  com- 
bined with  iHitash.  It  furiMS  the  juice  sold 
under  the  name  of  i^nlt  of  lx>iMons,  which 
Is  used  fur  taking  uul  ink  spuU.    Oxalic 


~~OX  VdK.N.  tine  of  the  constituent  and 
e$.sential  |iarts  of  atmuspheric  or  common 
air,  which  is  necessary  to  the  support  ol 
life  and  cooibustion.  In  its  gaseous  state, 
it  is  a  colourless  and  aerial  Hiiid.  Oxygen 
forms  alMiut  a  hllh  of  our  atmosphere,  and 
exists  in  most  vegetable  and  animal  pro- 
ducts, acids,  suits,  and  oxides. 

OXVMEh.  A  sirup  made  of  bonejr 
vinejnr,  and  water,  boiled  together. 

OYER  A.NU  TEK.MINER  (in  Law) 
A  court  to  hear  and  determine  all  treason! 
felonies,  and  luisdeuieanours. 

O  YES  (in  ImIw).  Corrupted  from  the 
French  'oyei,  hear  ye,'  the  expression 
used  by  the  crier  of  a  courf,  in  order  to 
enjoin  silence  when  any  proclamation  if 
made. 

OY.*''rER.  A  shell-fish  which  abounds 
on  the  const  of  England  and  the  U.  St-ites, 
and  is  much  esteemed  as  f(K»d.  In  the 
East  Indies,  the  oysters  grow  to  an  extraor- 
dinary si»e,  some  of  the  shells  lieing  two 
feet  in  width  ;  and  it  is  said  that,  on  the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  an  oyster  will  fur- 
nish a  meal  for  several  men.  At  the  sanit 
time,  it  is  universally  agreed,  that  Ihii 
large  sort  falls  very  far  short  of  the  Euroi)e 
an  and  American  oyster,  in  delicacy  of 
flavour.  The  Kniilisli  oyster  has  a  strong 
copper  taste,  which  at  first  is  very  disa- 
greeable. 


P.  the  fifteenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
stands  as  an  abbreviation,  in  .Music,  for 
piano;  in  Astronomy,  for  jiosl,  as  V.  M., 
Pi.»l  Meridiem,  after  noon  ;  hinong  phy- 
■cians,  for  jwirtes,  as  I'.  ^E.  Partes  ifkjua- 
les  &c. ;  in  I<aw,  for  parliament,  as  M.  P. 
Memlier  of  Parliament. 

P.\CE.  A  measure  of  two  feet  and  a 
half  ;  with  Geometricians,  five  feet. 

rACH.\.  The  chief  admiral  in  the 
Turkish  marine. 

P.^CIFICATIO.N.  A  neprtiatlon  for 
peace  ;  a  i  F.dict  of  Pacification  is  a  de- 
wet  piiblislipd  by  a  prince  for  llie  pacifv- 
ttg  all  parties 


PAC.\.    A  small  animal  of  S.  Amer., 
dark-browu  color  spotleii  with  while. 

PACHYDEIIMS.      Aiiinmls    (iistin- 

piuslieil  l>v  tliickncss  of  their  sV;i:iS,  or 

Laving  hoofs,  as  the  elephaiil  and  hoi-sc. 

PAOni-E.    A  sort  of  o.ir 

PAIU)0(;K.     a  small  enclosed  meadow 

atUiched  to  a  dwellini;. 

PADLOCK.    A  kind  of  lock  to  hang  OB 
the  outside  of  a  do<ir. 

P.\0.\.N9.     Those  who  adhered  to  idol- 
atry after  the  establishment  of  Curislianl- 
ty  i  idolaters,  oi  the  wurshippers  of  false 
p>di. 
P.\GE.     In  Curope^  a  youth  retain** 


»76 


rAlNTlNG. 


u  in  Itonourable  attendant  on  a  prince,  to 
btar  uplrainK,  rnbrs,  &.c 

PACUDA.  A  i^hineac  tr  Hindoo  tem- 
ple :  also  an    Indian    coin  wortli    aUmt 

PAINS  AXD  PENALTIKS.  In  Ena 
land,  an  art  of  pariininriii  to  indirt  p.-iin!> 
and  penalties,  bej'ond  »r  contmry  to  the 
common  law,  in  the  {tarticular  ca9e:s  of 
great  (Hihlic  olft-nders. 

PAINTED  LAUY  A  beautifully  va- 
rie^ted  pe^-u 

PAINTER.  An  aitist  who  reprpsents 
cbjecls  by  colours,  as  a  portrait  pnintrr ; 
Kim  an  artisan  wlio  lay»  coltMint  on  wnwl 
or  stuiiA,  &.C.,  as  a  bouse  painter.  I'he 
C'»ra|Kiny  of  painters  in  Ixindon  isof  creat 
•ntiipiity,  but  was  not  inc4>rporaled  before 
the  reien  of  Elisulieih. 

PAINTER  (a  :*«"a  Term).  A  rope  for 
haulins  a  iKtat  on  nhore. 

PAI.\TEK.STAINER.  A  painter  of 
tmls  of  aruis.  They  were  incor|Kirated 
with  I  lie  |>ai  litem 

PAINTINi;.  The  art  of  repreaentinp 
•II  i»l>jecls  of  nature  by  lines  and  colours 
on  a  (ilaiM  surface.  In  the  exercise  of  this 
art,  the  |M>wers  of  iina):inatii>n,  imitation, 
and  invention,  are  rr«)uirrd  ftv  making  a 
clHiice  of  the  sul>ject.  and  of  the  se\'enil 
fipire*  and  sub<irdinate  parts  of  a  picture, 
which  arc  coiiipreheiidpd  under  the  name 
of  desipn.  In  the  execution  of  the  work, 
lliere  is  likewise  re^juired  a  due  repard 
lo  the  efTects  of  liiht  and  shade,  and  ct>l- 
oiirs,  wiiich  is  termed  composition  ;  and 
«lso  a  nice  choice  of  the  colours  to  be  em- 
ployed, which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
coluurine.  Paintinjs,  as  rerards  the  sub- 
jects, is  distinguished  into  historicAl  paint- 
ing, portrait  paintinsr,  landscape  painting, 
&.C. ;  as  regards  the  form  and  the  m.iteri- 
als,  into  painting  in  oil,  water  colours, 
faesa-o,  miniature,  distemper,  mosaic,  &.C. 

PAIN'TINl?,  IliiToRT  OF.  It  is  to  be 
•upposed  that  painting  was  among  the  e-T- 
liest  elforts  of  human  insenuily,  for  the 
love  of  imitation  would  n.alurally  succest 
llie  ideA  of  representing  the  surrounding 
objects  whieh  eiigaaed  the  attention  and 
Interested  llie  affections.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  savases  p;iinled  their  own  lx>dies,  by 
means  of  puncturing  the  skin,  and  iiifiis- 
Inc  different  colours  into  the  p\inrttire.», 
and  that  they  painted  on  their  shields  dif- 
ferent figures  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
hearer.  So,  likewise,  we  find  that  the 
Mexicans  were  in  the  habit  of  rrpresenl- 
ing  their  warlike  exploits  by  nie^ans  of 
pictiire-writins,  which  was  «i)methinc 
•imilai  to  the  hiemglyiihics  of  the  Es>  j»- 
ttaos,  that  servwl  iii  rt!pr<-scni  sacrt-d  ob- 


jects for  religionf  purpose*  The  ftrrt  *«T 
lieyond  tlie  rude  outline  was  an  atienipl 
10  complete  the  iniitation  by  applying  col- 
ours, w  Inch  at  first  was  effected  liy  cx>ver 
ing  the  different  |>arts  ot  llie  figure  witll 
different  colours,  alter  the  manner  of  out 
coloured  iiia|is,  as  w  as  done  by  the  Eg>'p- 
tiaiis,  and  is  still  practised  by  the  Indians 
and  Chinese. 

Painting  was  pariially  cultivated  by  tha 
Egyptinns,  but  was  not  canied  lo  anj'  per- 
fection, because  they  princijially  em|iloye«< 
tliemselves  in  the  representation  of  tlie 
monstrous  objects  of  their  worship,  mthci 
tlian  in  depicturing  natural  or  real  olijects 
in  consequence,  their  natural  figiires  were 
very  stiff  and  unseemly,  the  legs  l>einc 
drawn  together,  and  the  arms  pasted  to 
the  sides,  like  the  muiiimirs  which  they 
c<ipied.  Their  painters  were  likewise 
ver>  much  emplojed  on  eartlien  vessel* 
or  drinking  cii|is,  or  in  ornamenting  Itar 
ges,  and  covering  with  ligiires  the  chest* 
of  mummies.  Pliny  also  infonns  us  that 
the  Eg}  |t(ians  painted  the  precious  metals, 
which  doubtless  consisted  in  covering  gidd 
t»r  silver  with  a  single  colour.  The  Per- 
sians, as  well  as  the  Arabians,  had  stmie 
idea  of  mosaic  ;  but  theart  wns  culti\~ated 
by  those  people  principally  for  domestic 
purposes.  .Aimmg  the  Indians,  painting 
is  confined  principally  to  the  repn'scnta- 
tion  of  their  idols  and  monstrous  objtHrts 
j  of  worship ;  but  tlie  painters  of  Thibet 
are  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  of  their 
strokes,  in  which  they  might  vie  with  the 
Ur»«ks,  althougli  deficient  in  every  other 
particular.  The  Chinese  are  remarkable 
lor  the  brightness  of  Uieir  colours,  but  Ihi* 
is  the  only  perfection  tliey  can  boast  o{". 
Their  ficures  are  as  unlike  nature  as  pos- 
sible, devoid  of  expression  and  of  propor- 
tion. The  Etrurians  were  the  first  i»eople 
whoappcartohaveexcelird  inihisan.  Ma- 
ny specimens  of  Etruscan  painting  htiv9 
been  preserved,  which  consist  of  long  paint- 
ed fnses,  and  pilasters  adorned  with  huse 
figures.  The  paintings  are  executed  on  a 
ground  of  tliick  mortar,  and  many  of  them 
arc  said  to  b«  in  a  high  state  of  prescmi 
tion.  There  are  likewise  many  Carnpa- 
nian  vase*  extant,  which  are  wonderful 
proofs  of  the  perfection  of  the  art  at  a  very 
early  period  among  these  poi^ple.  As  ui 
the  origin  of  painting  aiDong  Uie  Greeks, 
it  is  not  easy  to  define  t!ie  period  of  its 
commencement.  The  Greeks  themselves, 
according  to  Pliny,  spejtk  of  Polyenote  a* 
their  first  painter  of  emtneDce,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  90th  Olympiad,  or  424  yean 
before  Chnst.  That  painting  in  dry  mi- 
ours  esisted  in  ih«  lime  of  IKimer,  is  obr- 


PAl 


PA  L 


m 


•l.n  fVom  icveial  deKcripltons  to  b«  found 
in  his  lli.-id  nnd  Odyssey  ;  Troni  tlic  aanic 
trmtce  we  als<>  Irarn  llinl  itit-y  were  thru 
acijMatnted  willi  bamwi  relievo,  of  wliicli 
tlie  tiiickler  of  Achilles  waa  a  s|)eriinen. 
Polygnote  wan  followed  by  Xeuj[i:<  ntid 
ParrlL'txiad,  wlioite  i«kill  in  imiuiioii  1.^ 
■aid  to  have  been  xuch,  that  the.  tint  de- 
ceived the  birds  by  |>:iiiitiii|!  clierriea  so 
exactly,  and  tlie  latter  deceive<l  hiM  rival. 
A|»;lleii,  Protogenes,  and  F^u|>lirat>or  con- 
tributed to  raise  Ibe  art  to  iu  highest  per- 
fection. 

I'be  Romans  derived  their  skill  in  paiiit- 
'ng  from  F'lruria  ;  but  the  art  remained 
rery  Umg  neclectcd,  while  the  people 
were  eni^ged  in  conquests,  and  struggles 
for  liberty.  From  the  building  of  the  city 
to  tJie  time  of  the  emperors,  there  Is  meR- 
liononly  of  two  who  excelled  in  patiiting, 
namely,  Kabius,  siirnaiiied  Pictor,  and 
Parivias,  the  nephew  of  the  tragic  poet 
Enniiis.  In  the  tune  of  the  eni[ierors, 
painting,  as  well  as  the  other  art.t,  flour- 
ished. A  coloesenn  fieiire,  100  f«et  long, 
was  (Kiinted  by  order  «if  the  emjieror  Nero, 
which  is  the  first  (minting  on  clotli  men- 
tioned among  the  ancients. 

'I'he  artists  who  painted  movable  pic- 
tures were  superior  to  tho(«<rwlio  (Kiinted 
on  ceiling.s,  or  compartmeiils  of  buildings. 
They  painted  their  movable  pictures  on 
the  wood  of  tlie  fir,  larch,  or  liox  ;  or  on 
canvass,  as  above-mentioned.  The  old 
Greek  and  Roman  paintings  <m  walU  are 
supposed  to  have  been  done  in  distemper 
or  in  fresco  :  they  made  use  of  oil  in  var- 
nishing, for  the  preservation  of  their  pnint- 
in::9,  hut  they  do  not  npi>ear  to  have  ex-. 
pressly  used  It  in  their  colours. 

After  an  interval,  diirmg  which  all  the 
arts  laneni»hed,  imperfect  efforts  were 
imde  to  represent  religious  subjects,  which 
pived  tlie  way  for  the  revival  of  painting 
iu  the  thirteenth  century.  A  noble  Flo- 
rentine, named  Cimabur,  first  learned  ihe 
art  from  a  Greek,  and  cultivated  it  with 
■iircess,  so  that  he  may  be  reckoned  the 
founder  of  the  Florentine  school,  of  whiirh 
Michael  .^ngelo  wna  the  great  ornament. 
Raphael  was  the  founder  of  the  Roman 
■chool ;  Titian,  that  of  Venice.  Corregio 
waa  the  father  and  greatest  ornnmenl  of 
the  Lombard  school,  but  the  Caracci, 
Lewis,  Augustin,  and  Hannibal,  who 
were  natives  of  Bologna,  also  formed  a 
■ciiool,  which  h.is  been  called  the  second 
Lombard  school. 

Among  the  French,  miniature  painting, 
sad  paintinc  on  glass,  were  cultivated  at 
tn«arly  period  ;  bnt  other  hnnchesof  the 
irt  were  at  a  low  ebb  unMI  the  age  of  Lou- 


is .Mil.,  when  Pniissin  arrived  U  such 
eiiiliienre  »*  to  be  called  llie  Itnphael  oi 
France  ;  liut  he  had  ni>  pii|iiis,  nor  any  in- 
tliience  in  forming  the  French  Khool,  the 
honour  of  which  was  divldtxl  between 
V'iMiet,  who  laid  the  founilation,  and  Le 
Hruii,  wh<i  rawed  the  edifice.  The  (Jer- 
inanx  have  never  cultivated  painting  so  as 
to  form  a  scIicm>I,  but  Allien  Diircr  aiiJ 
John  Holbein  have  secured  this  nation 
from  being  forgotten  in  a  history  of  |ia lut- 
ing. The  Fleiiii»li  kcIiooI  is  remarkable 
for  having  introduced  oil  painting,  wlilrU 
was  tir«t  attempted,  or  at  leaMt  brought 
Into  general  practice,  by  John  de  Bruges  ; 
but  the  master  of  the  art  was  Rubens,  ttte 
founder  of  the  Flemish  scbtMil.  I'ha 
Dutch  have  distinguished  themselves  in 
miniature  painting,  of  whiati  Rembrandt 
was  their  great  master,  and  also  as  history 
painters,  among  whom  Lucas,  of  Ley  den, 
holds  tlie  first  rank,  and  may  b«  consid- 
ered as  the  founder  of  the  Dutch  sebrsil. 
The  Fnglish  school  is  comparatively  of 
modern  date,  and  owns  S-'ir  JimIiub  Rey- 
iKilds  as  its  founder.  It  is  priiici|>all/ 
known  by  its  correct  observance  of  the 
great  master*  of  the  Italian  and  Flemish 
scIkhiIs. 

P.\LACE.  A  royal  dwelling,  so  called 
from  the  .Mount  Palatine  in  Rome,  where 
stood  the  royal  mansion. 

PAI,/i:0<;RAPnV.  a  description  of 
ancient  writings,  inscriptions,  ciaracters. 
Sec. 

PALil^STR.A.  A  building  where  the 
Grecian  youth  exercined  themselves  in 
wrestling,  riiiiniiig,  (piolls,  Uc 

PALANdl-IN.  An  Indian  covered 
chair,  Inirne  on  men's  shoulders. 

PAL.X'I'K.  The  roof  f>f  the  mAnth.and 
organ  of  taste. 

PALATI.NF..  Invested  with  regal  pre- 
rogatives, as  fbe  Counties  |ialatine  of  l-iii- 
castflr,  Chester,  and  Diirliani,  in  F.ng- 
land,  which  have  [larticular  jurisdictions. 

PALK  (in  Heraldry).  «>iie  of  the  lion 
oiirable  ordinaries  in  a  font  of  arms  re- 
sembling a  pallsadu,  used  in  fortiticatioas. 


PALE.    A  flat,  pointed  stake  or  board, 
which  is  used  in  making  endosur** 


278 


PAL 


FAN 


PALTSADB.  A  Bner  kind  of  paling  in 
gnriiens. 

PALIJiADOES,  or  PALISADKS  (in 
Fcrtilicatiiiii).  An  enclosure  <if  stakes, 
asci\  to  fortify  tlie  avenues  uf  open  forts, 
&c.  TJiey  were  sometiinea  so  ordered, 
that  they  would  turn  up  and  down  as  oc- 
casion required,  and  niiglit  be  hidden  from 
the  view  of  the  enemy  until  he  came  to 
tiie  attack. 

PAhLAOlUM,  A  sort  of  metal  drawn 
fiuimrude  phtlina. 

I'ALLAS.  A  small,  newly  discovered 
planet,  situated  between  the  orbits  uf  Mars 
and  Jupiter. 

P.VLLKT.     A  painter's  colour  board. 

PALLET  (among  llilders).  A  tool  for 
taking  up  the  gold  leaf. 

PA  liLET  (among  Mariners)  A  parti- 
tivn  in  a  hold. 

PALLET  (in  Heraldry).  The  diminu- 
tive of  the  pale,  being  one  half  of  its 
breadth. 

PALLET-BED.     A  small,  low  bed. 

PALLETS.  levers  in  clocks  and 
watches,  connected  with  the  (K'nclulum  or 
balance,  which  receive  the  immediate  im- 
pulse of  the  wheel. 

PALL-.MALL.  An  ancient  game,  in 
which  an  iron  ball  was  struck  with  a  mal- 
let through  a  rin^  or  arch  of  iron,  as  was 
once  practised  in  St.  James's  Park,  and 
gav#  its  name  to  the  street  called  I'all-Mall, 
pronounced  Pell-Mell. 

PALM.  A  tree  of  different  kinds,  the 
bmnrhea  of  which  were  carried  in  token 
of  victory.  The  cocoa-nut  tree,  date  tree, 
bread-fruit  tree,  and  many  others,  are  va- 
rieties of  the  J'alm.  Some  of  these  vari- 
eties are  found  in  nearly  all  tropical  cli- 
mates. 

PALM  (in  Commerce).  A  measure  of 
three  inches. 

PALM.  A  sea  term  for  the  bmad  part 
of  an  anchor. 

PALM  (In  Anatomy).  The  inner  part 
of  the  hand. 

PALM.-E.  Palms;  one  of  the  seven 
families  into  which  Linnicus  divided 
tiie  ve^eluhle  kingdom,  including  such 
trees  and  shrubs  with  sitnple  stems 
as  bear  leaves  resembling  those  of  the 
ferns. 

PALMER.     A  pilgrim  liearins  a  staff. 

PALMISTRY.  A  mode  of  telling  for- 
tunes by  the  lutes  of  the  hand. 

PAL.M  SUNlJAy.  The  sixth  Sunday 
In  Lent,  the  next  before  1-iaster,  com- 
memorative of  our  Saviour's  triumphal 
entrance  into  Jerusalem,  when  palm  bran- 
thes  were  strewed  in  tie  way. 

rAL.M  WOK.M.     A  x>Uunou8  insect  of 


America.  This  Insect  Is  extremeU  swUI 
In  it»  motions. 

PALSY,  or  Pariltsk.  A  privation  of 
motion  or  sense  of  leeling  ;  a  nervtHis  dia 
order  arising  from  an  affection  of  the  ce- 
re liellum. 

PAN.  'I'he  god  of  mountains,  woods, 
and  she|>lierds,  who  was  said  to  lie  the  son 
of  Mercury,  and  the  inventor  of  the  Pan- 
dean pi|>es.  He  is  represented  as  a  mon- 
ster, witli  horns  on  his  head,  and  ttte  lega 
and  feel  of  a  goal. 


PANACE:^  A  universal  remedy  A 
the  cure  of  all  dtsorriers. 

P.\NADA.     Bread  pap. 

PANATIIEN^r.A.  A  festlTal  celebra 
ted  at  Athens  in  honour  of  Minerva. 

PANCRATIUM.  An  exercise  among 
the  ancients,  which  consisted  in  wresthng, 
Iwxing,  and  kicking  at  the  same  time. 

PANCREAS  (In  Anatomy).  A  flat 
glandular  viscus  of  the  altdomen  ;  in  ani- 
mals called  the  sweetbread. 

PANCREATIC.  Behmgins  to  the  paa 
creas,  as  the  pancreatic  iluct  and  juice. 

PANDECTS.  The  name  of  a  volume 
of  the  civil  law,  digested  by  order  «if  the 
emperor  Justinian. 

PANDORA.  The  first  woman,  accord- 
ine  to  the  poets,  made  tjy  Jupiter.  She 
presented  her  husband  Epimelheiis  with  a 
box,  the  gift  of  Jupiter,  and  on  kis  o|)ening 
it,  there  flew  out  all  kinds  of  evils  on  the 
earth. 

PA.'VE.     A  sipiare  of  glass. 

P.\N  Ef!  V  R IC.  A  set  sjieech  amone  tlie 
ancients  in  pnise  of  any  one ;  in  the  Creek 
Church,  a  hook  of  pniises  of  Jesus  Christ 
and  the  saints. 

PANEL,  or  PANNEL.  A  schedule  or 
roll  of  parchnient  on  which  are  written 
the  names  of  the  jurors  returned  by  lh« 
sneriff. 

PANICLE  (in  Botany).  A  sort  of  in- 
florescence or  flowering,  in  which  tiM 
flower:  and  fruits  arc  Bcattere4  on  peduD- 


PAP 

dM  varlniiRly  luhdivided,  aa  In  oats,  and 
•ome  graiiset. 


PAF 


175 


PANNADE.  The  eiirvettfng  or  praii- 
eini!  i>f  a  riifttlesoiue  horse. 

PANNAGE.  The  feeding  of  swine  up- 
on mast  III  wncMta. 

PA.N.NKL  (jiinonB  Joineni).  A  square 
pirre  of  woihI  zriMivfd  in  a  litrger  or  thick- 
er piece,  as  in  wainfnils,  &c. 

PA.V.NKI.  (aninna  Masouii).  One  of  the 
flices  of  u  hewn  rttunR. 

PANNEI.  (in  the  Manege).  A  saddle 
Qwd  in  rarrt'ing  hiirdens. 

PANNEli  (ill  the  :Jcotch  Law).  The 
prisiiiipr  at  the  bar. 

PA.NNIKR.  A  basket  for  carrying 
bread  on  horseback. 

PANOR.AMA.  A  circular  picture  on  a 
■ree  scale,  fixeil  anniiid  a  nKiiii  particular- 
y  coiis'tnicteil  for  the  purpose. 

PANOPLY.    Oouiplele  armour. 

PANTAI-'iONS.  A  Bariiient  conslBtinj! 
of  breeches  and  stockings  of  the  same  stutf 
fiistened  tosether. 

PANTIIEO.V.  A  temple  at  Rome,  ded- 
icated to  all  the  heathen  deities  ;  a  hook 
containing  an  account  of  all  the  heathen 
g(Mis  and  eiHldesses.  &c. 

PANTHER.  A  fierce  beast  nearly  al 
lied  to  the  tiser,  a  native  of  Africa.  It  is 
of  a  tawny  yellow  colour,  marked  with 
bl.ick  s|H.t«.  It  has  been  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  untamealile,  hut  Mrs.  Bow- 
ditch  has  given  an  account  of  a  recent 
instance  in  which  a  panther  became  so 
gentle  as  to  go  at  large  among  the  peo- 
ple. 

PANTOMIME  (among  the  Ancients). 
Antic  dances  and  mimic  gestures  ;  among 
the  Moderns,  a  sort  of  drama  represented 
by  gestures,  actions,  and  various  kinds  of 
tricks  [lerformed  by  Harlequin  and  Colum- 
bine as  the  hero  and  heroine,  assisted  by 
Pantaloon  and  his  clown. 

PA  NTR Y.  A  bread  closet,  or,  properly, 
ft  small  room  in  which  the  daily  provis- 
ions of  the  table  are  kept. 

PAPAL  CROWN.  The  pope's  tiara  or 
emwn,  otherwise  calted  the  Triple  Crown, 


because  It  is  a  cap  of  silk  environed  with 
three  crowns  of  gold,  as  in  Uie  subjoined 
figure. 


PAPER.  A  vecetahle  substance  manu  ■ 
factiired  so  as  to  be  lit  for  writing  upon. 
The  Egyptian  pa|ier  was  made  of  the  ntsli 
papyrus,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  sub- 
stance. Paper  is  likewixe  made  of  iKirk  or 
the  inner  rind  of  trees,  of  cotton  and  other 
materials,  but  more  particularly  of  linen 
and  other  rags  prepared  by  a  particular 
process  at  the  paper  mills.  Paper  is  distin- 
guished as  to  its  use  into  writing  paper, 
printing  pajier,  drawing  paper,  cartridge 
paper,  copy,  chancery,  &c. ;  as  to  its  size 
into  pot,  foolscap,  crown,  demy,  medium, 
royal,  im|ierial,  &c. 

PAPER  (among  l?ankers.)  A  name 
given  to  money  of  credit  by  means  of  any 
written  pajier,  as  bills  of  exchange,  prom- 
issory notes,  &c. 

PAI'ER  CURRENCY,  or  P»r«B  Mo- 
hit.  A  siibsiitute  for  coin  Issued  on  the 
credit  of  government  in  tlio  shape  of 
notes.  On  Nov.  1.  1878,  there  vein  out- 
stan<lin<r  in  tlie  U.  S.,  iiicliidinfr  nittional- 
banliamllegal-temlcr  notes.  f(J66,363,137. 

PAPIER  .MACHE.  A  substance  made 
of  pa|ier  boiled  into  a  paste,  of  which  toys 
are  formed. 

PAPIMON.ACE.T:  (in  Botany).  On« 
of  Linnieiis's  natural  orders  of  (iJants,  con- 
sisting of  such  as  have  papilionaceous  or 
butter(ly-sha|)ed  flowers,  as  the  pea,  &e. 

P.APIST.  One  profes.sing  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion.  Severe  laws  were  made 
in  Eiieland,  after  the  Reformation,  anainst 
the  Papists,  as  they  were  technically 
termed,  but  they  have  since  lieen  repealed, 
as  the  necessity  for  them  ceased. 

PAPYRUS.  An  Egyptian  reed  gnisii, 
the  leaves  of  which  were  made  into  paper 
It  grows  in  the  marshes  of  Egypt,  or  in  the 
sUignant  places  of  the  Nile  Its  roots  ar» 
tortuous,  and  In  thickness  about  four  oi 
five  inches  ;  its  stem,  which  is  triangulu 
and  taiwring.  rises  to  the  litiglit  of  ten 


280 


PAR 


eiihits  and  carrlu8  a  top  or  plume  of  small 
kairs. 


PAR.  An  equality  between  the  ex- 
iringes  of  different  countrie*. 

PARAnm.  An  allegorical  instniction, 
founded  on  somethinK  real  or  apjiarenl  in 
nature  or  history,  from  which  a  moral  ii 
drawn. 

P.'VRABOLA  (in  Conic  Sectioni).  A 
curve  made  by  cutting  a  cone  by  a  niane, 
parallel  to  one  of  ita  aides,  or  parallel 
to  aplane  that  touches  one  side  of  the 
rone. 


PARACHUTE.  An  instrument  In  the 
shape  of  an  umbrella,  which  serves  to 
break  the  fall  In  descending  from  an  air 
balloon. 

PAR.\DE.  The  place  where  troops 
draw  up,  to  do  duty  and  mount  piard. 

PARADIGM  (in  Grammar).  An  exam- 
ple of  a  Greek  or  Hebrew  verb,  conjugated 
through  all  its  moods  and  tenses. 

PARADISE.  The  garden  of  Eden, 
where  Adam  and  Eve  dwelt  in  their  state 
of  innocence. 

PARADISE,  Bird  op.  A  bird  of  a 
ber-itiful  plumage,  that  chiefly  inhabits  the 
Asiatic  islands.  Its  feathers  are  much 
used  IS  ornaments  for  the  head  among  the 
Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Persians,  from 
Whom  tl>*y  are  obtained,  and  imported 
Into  Europe.  Its  name  was  given  it  by 
the  sailors,  who,  seeing  it  on  tlie  wing, 
br  out  to  sea,  fancifully  imagined  it  tn  be 


PAR 

an  inhabitant  of  the  air,  and  not  ef  Ikt 

land. 


PARADISE,  GB4i-r$  or.    Thehotber- 

ries  or  seeds  of  tlie  cardamura. 

PARADOX.  .\n  opiuicm  apinrently 
absurd  or  contradictor)-,  altliough  some- 
times true  in  fact 

PARAGRAPH.  A  collection  of  senten- 
ces comprehended  between  one  break  and 
another. 

PARALLAX.  A  change  in  the  appa- 
rent place  of  any  heavenly  body  when  seen 
from  different  (raints  of  view. 

PARALLEL  (in  Mathematics).  The 
name  for  lines,  surfaces,  or  bodies  every 
where  at  an  equal  distance  from  each  other. 

PARALLELOGRA.M.  Aplane  figure, 
bounded  by  four  right  lines,  whereof  the 
opposite  are  parallel  and  equal  to  on* 
another. 


PARALLEL  SPHERE  (in  Astronomy, 
The  situation  of  the  sphere  when  the 
equator  coincides  with  the  horizon,  and 
the  poles  with  the  lenith  and  nadir. 

PARALYSIS.     The  paUy. 

PARAPET.  A  wall  hrex<rt  high,  that 
serves  to  hide  the  roof  of  a  house. 

PARAPHRASE.  An  explanatitn  of 
any  text  in  plainer  and  more  ample  terms. 

PARASAiNG.  A  Persian  measure  equal 
to  from  30  to  50  stadia  or  furlongs. 

P.ARASELENE.  A  mock  moon,  of  a 
meteor  in  the  form  of  a  luminous  ring 
round  the  moon. 

PARASITE  (amonjthe  Ancients),  A 
guest  invited  by  the  priest  to  eat  of  the 
aarrifice  :  a  trencher  friend,  or  banker  on  at 
hetablesof  the  great,  who  live-i  bv  flattery 

PARASITICAL    PLANTS,     Such 


PAR 

ftovr  upon  otlierB,  like  the  moM  or  mi*- 
Mltne 

PARASOL.  A  little  movable  ma- 
chine, ur  siimll  umbrella,  lilted  lor  keep- 
ing otf  the  sun. 

PAKC^,  llie  Pates.  Three  sisters 
among  the  heathens,  who  presided  over, 
orspuu  the  lives  ol'men  ;  Clutlio  held  the 
dictalTnnU  spun  the  thread,  Litcheais  turn- 
ed the  wheel,  and  Atropos  cut  the  thread. 

PARCHMliNT.  'J'heskin  of  sheep  or 
gnats,  prepared  t'or  writing  upon. 

I'AIlIXi.N  (in  Law).  The  remilting  the 
punishment  t'or  any  felony  committed 
igainslthe  law. 

PARLNTIIESIS  (m  Grammar).  A 
clause  inserted  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence, 
and  marked  thus  [],  or  thus  (). 

PARIIELIO.N.     A  mock  sun. 

PARIAN  MARHLE.  A  sort  of  white 
marlile,  so  called  from  the  island  of  Paros, 
where  it  was  first  found. 

PARIS.  The  sim  of  Priam,  kine«if  Troy, 
who,  (uirrying  away  Helen,  the  wile  of  Me- 
nelaiis,  was  the  author  of  the  Trojan  war. 

PARIS,  Plaster  or.  A  coinpiwilion 
of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid,  used  ia  making 
ca.-'ts  and    moulds. 

PAKAMOS.  A  name  given  br  the 
Spanish  .settlers  to  tlie  lii,i;h  deseit 
tracts  of  the  Andes  of  .South  America, 
covered  witli  stiinteil  trees. 

PAKSEE.  One  of  the  Persian  r<  fn- 
pees  driven  out  of  their  own  couiitiy 
by  ttie  Molianiinedans,  now  living  in 
various  parts  of  India. 

PA  USEE  ISM.  Fire-worship,  the  re- 
li^i(Ui  of  the  Patsees. 

PAKTHEXOPE.  In  ancient  mythol- 
o;:y.  one  of  tlie  sirens,  who  threw  hrr 
self  into  tlie  sea  liecaiise  she  was  unable 
to  lie'Tiiile  Ulvsses  liy  liersonjrs. 

PARTHEXOPE.  One  of  the  newly 
di.scoTere<l  planets,  fir.st  observed  by 
l)e  Gasparis  iy  18.)0.  Its  mean  distance 
fnmi  tliesuiii's-2:i3.r.l0.00Oniiles:  and  its 
periodical  revolution  3  years,  306  days. 

PARK  (among  Fishermen).  A  large 
net  dis|Kised  on  the  bank  of  the  sea. 

PARL!A.Mi:.\T.  In  England,  the  great 
council  of  the  nation,  ctuisisilng  of  the 
King,  Ixirds,  and  Commons,  which  forms 
the  legislative  branch  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment or  constitution.  Tlie  parliament 
is  assembled  annually  by  summons  from 
the  rrown.  t«)  make  laws.  im|M>se  taxes, 
anddelilieraleoii  other  public  affairs,  either 
of  domestic  or  foremn  policy.  The  Pir- 
Itament  is  also  slyled  the  llijih  Court  of 
Parliamt-nl,  because  the  iip|>er  house  ns- 
■isls  in  the  ailuiinistratiim  as  well  nt  in 
the  makine  of  laws 

PAR.MESAN.  A  sort  of  cheese  made 
at  Parma  in  Italy 

24  • 


PAR 


281 


PARNAWirS.  A  mountain  of  PbocU 
in  (ireece,  on  which  r<i<Mid  Uie  iruiple  and 
town  of  Delphi.  It  was  sacred  to  Apulia 
and  the  Alusea 

PARlil)  Y.  A  poetical  pleasantry,  which 
consists  in  applying  ti.e  verses  of  soma 
person,  by  way  of  ridicule,  to  another  ob- 
ject, or  in  liirning  a  serious  work  into  bur- 
lesque, by  att'ecling  to  observe  the  aauia 
rhymes,  words,  and  cadences. 

PAROL  (in  i.aw).  By  word  of  niouthi 
as  p;irnl  evidence. 

PAROLE  (in  Military  Atfairs)  Word 
of  honour,  a  pronii.se  given  by  a  prisoner 
of  war,  when  suil'ered  to  be  at  large,  that 
he  will  return  at  a  time  appointed. 

PARRICIDE.  A  murderer  of  father  or 
mother. 

PA  R  ROQU  ET.  A  sort  of  parrot  easily 
taught  to  speak.  It  inhabits  tropical  re- 
giiuis  ;  one  specie*  is  foand  in  Hie  tjoulhwa 
States 


PARROT.  A  noisy,  imitative,  grenri. 
out  kind  of  bird,  of  which  there  are  al 
least  lilty  varieties.  It  is  a  native  of  tb« 
tropical  climates,  and  easily  tamed. 


PARRVING  (ameng  Fere^rs).  The 
warding  a  push  or  blow  from  an  adver 
aary. 

PAR.^INr,  (inf^nuimar)  F.ipnundmg 
words  and  senienrrs  so  as  to  apply  tiM 
rules  of  gfauimar  tii  them 


282 


PAR 


I'AS 


PARSLEY.  A  potlierh,  and  a  peren- 
lii:il,  wliK'li  grows  in  unnlt^iiK. 

I'AIIS.N  KP.     An  edililr  root 

PARSON,  In  Bn;£l.'iiiil,  the  person 
holding  the  ntfice  of  recUir  ur  vicar  in  a 
parish. 

PART  (in  Arithmetic)  A  quantity  con- 
tained in  a  whole. 

PART  (in  Mu.fic).  A  piece  of  the  score 
or  partition,  written  hy  itself,  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  iiiiisiciun 

PART  (in  the  Drama).  The  character 
or  portion  of  a  piece  a^isigiied  to  a  per- 
furiii<!r. 

PARTERRE.  An  open  part  of  a  garden 
in  the  front  of  a  house,  commonly  orna- 
mented with  dowers. 

PAR'l'HE.NOX.  A  temple  at  Athens, 
sacred  to  .Minerva. 

PARTICIPM-:  (in  Grammar).  One  of 
the  parts  of  speech,  8o  called  because  K 
(Kirtakes  hoth  of  the  noun  and  the  verh. 

PARTICLE  (in  Pliysiolojy').  A  minute 
part  of  any  bo<ly  which  enters  into  its 
composition. 

PARTICLE  (in  Grammar).  Small  in- 
declinable words,  that  serve  to  unite  or 
connect  others  together. 

PARTI  ES  (in  L.aw).  The  persons  nam- 
ed in  a  deed. 

PARTING.  Separating  gold  and  silver 
by  aquaAirtis. 

PARTITION  (in  Law).  Dividinsr  lands 
or  tenements  among  coheirs  or  partners. 

PARTNER.  One  who  joins  with  anoth 
er  in  some  concern  or  atf  lir. 

PART  OWNERS.  Partners  possessed 
of  a  certain  share  in  a  ship. 

PARTRIDGE.  A  bird  of  game  which 
atiounds  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  ami  is 
highly  esteemed  for  its  flesh.  It  resem- 
bles the  quail  uf  the  United  States,  but  is 
iarier. 


The  bird  ca"ed  partridee  in  New  Eng- 
land, and  phe.isaut  at  the  South,  is  a  spe- 
cies of  grouse. 

PARTS  Ol'  SPEECH.  The  grammat- 
fcal  divisions  of  words  according  to  tlicir 
connexion  with  or  dependence  ii|)on  each 
jther  ;  they  are  commonly  reckoned  nine 


In  number,  namely,  the  article,  noun,  pro- 
noun,  verb.partii'iple,  adverb,  colljiinctluD, 
prepiMition,  and  interjectiiMi 

PAR  TV  (in  Military  Ariairs).  A  sinal. 
iletacliiueiit  or  number  of  men  sent  il|K)a 
any  particular  duty,  as  a  recruiting  party, 

&.C 

PARTV(  in  Public  Affairs).  Any  number 
of  men  coiiibiiiiiig  together  to  follow  their 
own  particular  views,  either  in  politics  oi 
reliuion 

PARTV-WAIXS.  Partitions  of  brick 
made  between  biiililings  sopar.itely  occu- 
pied, to  prevent  tlie  spreading  of  tire. 

l'ASti;;iNAI>E.  A  short  satirical  liliel 
that  is  generally  stuck  up  to  be  read  by 
the  passers  by. 

PAS.S  (in  Military  Affairs).  A  strait 
or  narrow  jKiss-tge,  whicli  renders  the  en- 
trance iiitoaciiuntry  diiliciilt  for  an  army. 

PA.SS  (among  .Miners).  A  Irameof  tliin 
boards,  set  sloping  lor  the  ore  to  slide 
down. 

PASS  (in  Fencing).  A  push  »r  thrust 
at  the  adversary. 

PASSAGE  (ill  Music).  A  succession  at 
sounds  forming  a  member  or  pliMse  in  a 
composition. 

PASSA(;E(in  Military  Affairs).  The 
passing  over  bridges,  mountains,  &.C. 

PASSA(;E(in  Naviuatioii;.  Theconrse 
pursued  at  sea,  particularly  that  which  has 
been  attempted  to  be  taken  by  the  north 
pole  in  going  to  India.  'I'liis  attempt  hat 
been  made  in  two  ways,  namely,  by  coiist- 
ing  along  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  called  the  north  east  jiassa^e  ;  and 
another  by  sailing  round  the  northern  part 
of  the  American  continent,  called  tlieiiorth 
west  pjuisage  ;  besides  which,  an  attempt 
iias  also  been  made  to  sail  over  the  pole 
itself. 

PASSENGER.  Any  one  travelliiigby  a 
coach,  vessel,  or  other  mode  of  convey- 
ance ;  also  any  one  p.issiiig  by. 

PASSKRiiS.  An  order  of  birds  In  the 
Linncean  syotera,  comprehending  such  sia 
have  the  bill  conic  and  pointed,  as  tlie 
pigeon.,  the  lark,  the  thrush,  Slc. 

PASSION  WEEK  The  week  imme- 
diately before  Easter. 

PASSIVE.  Suffering,  an  epithet  ft* 
verbs  which  express  the  suffering  or  being 
acted  upon,  as  '  to  be  loved.' 

I'ASSIVE  PRINCIPLES  (In  Chymii.- 
try).  Earth  and  water,  so  called  because 
their  parts  are  not  so  swiftly  moved  oa 
those  of  spirits,  oil,  and  salt. 

PAS.«!OVER.  A  festival  of  the  Jews, 
ci-  oiorutive  of  the  angels  pacing  the 
dooi  '''the  Israelites  when  they  slew  all 
the  rurn  of  the  Egyptian!. 


PAT 

PAPSPORT,  or  P»m.  In  Eiiropn,  a 
H<-«>iiii«  or  l<'ti«>r  fn«n  a  prince  or  guvenKtr, 
frantin^lllteny  to  a  penxmto  paaa  ttiruugii 
tbo  country. 

PASSI'ORT  (in  Commerce).  A  liceiue 
to  ex|HHt  or  iui(K>ct  ;oo<t!i. 

PASS  WOKU.  A  secret  word  or  cnun- 
tersicn  wiiicli  enntilea  any  periiun  tu  go 
llir<Hi<;li  niil(Uiry  Mations. 

PASTK(inUiP  fihisx  Trarfe).  A  kind 
•f  cnlcuired  clasii  m:ide  of  calcined  cryrtal. 
lead,  nn<i  infUllic  preparations,  so  aa  to 
inii<ai«  sfiiiM. 

PASTKIlOAUn.  A  thick  kind  of  pa- 
per, ii'Tiiied  iif  aeveral  slieeta  pasted  oo« 
over  Itie  iitiier. 

PASTIU  A  aweet  ball  or  perfUmed 
coni|KiHiii<in. 

PASTII.  (ainonf;  Paintem).  A  roll  of 
paste  made  up  of  various  ailoura,\viUi  gum ; 
E  crayon. 

PASTORAL.  A  shepherd's  son?  or 
poem,  by  way  of  dialogue  between  shep- 
herds. 

PASTHRR  LAND.  Land  i«Krved  for 
tiie  feediits  tW  cattle. 

PA'IK.NT.S,  or  Lbttbb*  Pateht.  In 
England,  writings  sealed  with  the  p-e«t 
•eal,  aiitiiorlziiig  n  man  to  do  or  enjoy 
that  which  he  could  not  of  himself.  In 
the  United  States,  tlie  term  is  applied  to 
certificates  issued  from  the  patent  ottice. 
Which  eive  to  the  inventor  of  any  use- 
ful machine  the  eiclusive  advantage  of 
his  Invention. 

PAT ER.N'OSTER.  The  LordV  prayer  ; 
also  the  re|tetition  of  the  Lord's  prayer  in 
tlie  Roniistti  church. 

PATHOLOGY.  That  branch  of  medi- 
cine which  explains  the  syiiipionis  of  dis- 
eases. 

PATHOS.  An  emotion  which  an  ora 
tor  displays  in  his  speech  or  excites  in  his 
bearers. 

PATIE.NT.  One  who  is  under  tlie  di 
rertion  of  a  physician,  for  the  cure  of  any 
disorder. 

PAIIE.VT  (in  Physiolopy).  That  which 
receives  impressions  from  any  other  tiling, 
called  the  acent. 

PATRIARCH.  The  father  or  ruler  of 
a  family,  such  as  Abraliam,  and  tlie  |iatri- 
arrhn  of  old. 

PATRI  ARCH  (in  Ecclesiastical  AfTait^). 
(n  KhL'land,  a  bishop  th:a  ia  superior  to  an 
■rchoishop. 

PATRIMONY  (In  Law).  A  right  <Je 
■cendtrd  from  ancestors. 

PATRIOT.     A  'atlier  of  his  country. 

PATROL.  Any  party  poingtheir  rounds 
at  stated  >^nn,  to  see  that  the  wauhmeii 
4o  tlieir  duly. 


PEA 


383 


PATRON  (in  Law),  (n  England,  a 
friend  of  interest  or  power  ;  be  who  has 
the  disposal  of  a  l>ene(ice. 

PATRON.  In  Kngland,  a  sea  term  foi 
one  who  coniiuands  a  ship  in  the  Blediier- 
ranenn. 

PATRONYMIC.  A  name  derived  fram 
one's  taiher  or  ancestors. 

PAVE.MKNT.  A  layer  of  stone  or 
bricks,  which  serves  to  cover  the  uronnd 
and  I'onii  a  path  or  ro.id.  In  Uouloii,  th 
|K(vemeiil  for  coachways  is  principally  a 
kind  of  •ininile  from  Sciillaiid  ;  for  the  iV-ot- 
path,  Yorkshire  p-iving  stone  is  use<l. 
Uiiirts,  sullies,  kitchens,  halls,  churches, 
■re  miiimonly  |>aved  with  tiles,  bricks,  or 
freestone.  In  Kmiice,  they  mostly  use 
freestone  ;  In  Venice  and  llollanil.and  oili- 
er rntiiitries,  they  use  for  tlie  most  pan 
bricks. 

PAVILIO.V.  A  large  tent  raised  oa 
po«<t«  to  Icxise  under  In  siimnier  time. 

PAUPER.     One  receiving  parish  relief 

PAUPERIS  IN  KORJIA.    See  Korm* 

P.^USE.  A  slop  or  cessation  of  speak- 
ing, singing,  playing,  &.C. 

PAUSE  (in  Aliisic).  A  character  of 
time,  denoting  that  the  note  must  be 
drawn  out  to  a  gn'ater  length. 

P.WV.N"  (in  Commerce).  A  pledce  giv 
en  by  way  of  security  for  the  payment  of 
a  sum  of  money. 

PAWiN  (in  Chen).  One  of  tlie  cor 
moil  men. 

PAWNHROKER.  One  who  lends  mft. 
ney  ii|M>n  goodii  led  in  pledge. 

PAY.  What  Is  allowed  to  each  indi- 
vidual in  tlie  anny.  Full  [>ay  to  the  full 
allowance  i  half  |Kiy,  th.it  which  is  allow- 
ed u>  otiicers  on  their  retiring  (htm  the 
service. 

I'AYI.VO.  A  sea  term  for  anointing  a 
mast,  yard,  &c.,  with  tar,  pitch,  turiien- 
tllie,  &c. 

PAY  I  NO  OFF.  A  sea  tenn  for  letting 
a  ship's  head  fall  to  leeward  of  the  {Hiint, 
whither  it  was  previously  direc4ed. 

PAYINC^  OFF  A  Sllll'.  Discharfing 
tlie  crew  fnmi  actual  ser%-ice,  that  Uie  ship 
may  lie  laid  up  in  ordinary. 

PAY.MASTER.  lie  who  has  the  charge 
of  piyinc  a  regiment. 

PAY M ENT.  The  discharge  of  a  >!i-ht, 
also  the  time  and  measure  of  paying 
Prc.inpt  payment,  tlie  payiiieDtufa  hill  or 
debt  liefore  it  liecjunes  due. 

PEA.     A   kind  of  pulse,  that   Is  ritliei 
planted  in  gardens  for  the  lood  of  Ulan,  or  ' 
III  the  fields  as  a  food  for  caltle. 

PEACE  (in  Law).  A  'i"'"  »"''  '"•^ 
fensive  liehaviour  towards  the  goveiuuient 
and  the  people 


284 


PEA 


PEL 


PEACE  ESTABLISHMENT.  The 
nuiiilter  of  elTective  men  reiinircd  in  the 
army  niid  niivy  diirlns  peace. 

I'KACE  OF  (JUI)  AM)  THE  CHURCH. 
In  Englaml,  the  time  (\l°  vacation  hrtween 
terms,  when  there  is  a  cessation  from 
la\V8Uil8. 

PEACE  OF  THE  KI.NT..  In  F.nglaml, 
that  peace  and  secnrity,  l)otli  for  life  and 
CiHiilii,  whicli  iJie  km:;  all'ords  to  all  his 
Bnhjecls. 

PEACE  op  THE  KINO'S  IIIGH- 
\V.\Y.  la  Kii|,'land,  the  iminnnity  that 
the  kini;'8  highway  has  to  be  Tree  from  all 
inolestntion. 

PEACH.  A  delicious!,  juicy  frirlt,  that,  In 
Kngland,  grows  a^ialnst  garden  wallsn,  and 
in  America,  in  produced  al)uridautly  in  or- 
chards. 

PEACOCK.  A  well  known  domestic 
bird,  remarkalile  for  the  heauly  of  its  tail 
and  tl»e  harshness  of  its  cry. 

PEAK  (in  Ceoiirapliy).  A  nionntain  or 
elevation  with  a  sharp  summit,  as  the  Peak 
of  Teneriffe. 

PE.\K  (among  Mariners).  The  upper 
corner  of  Bails  which  are  extended  liy  a 
patror  by  a  yard,  which  crcksses  the  mast 
oldirjuely. 

PR.Ml  A  well  known  class  of  trees 
which  yields  a  great  variety  «if  frnit,  as 
the  musk,  miisradelle,  rose,  hergamot, 
bury  pear,  sickle,  St.  Michael's,  &,c. 

PEARL.  A  concretion  found  in  several 
■hells,  as  in  some  species  of  the  oyster  and 
muacle.  Pearls  are  of  a  silvery  or  bluish 
white  colour,  and  very  brilliant.  They 
are  siip|K>sed  to  be  prodticed  by  a  distem- 
per in  the  animal,  siinilur  to  the  stone  in 
man  ;  they  are  formed,  however,  i>f  the 
same  matter  as  the  inner  shell,  and  consist 
of  layers  one  over  another,  after  the  man- 
ner of  an  onion 

PEARL,  Mother  of.  The  shell  of 
another  S()ecie3  of  oyster,  not  tlt0  pearl 
oyster.  It  is  extremely  smooth,  and  aa 
V  jite  as  the  pearl 

PEARL  ASH.  Potash  calcined  or^lenr- 
ed  of  its  impurities  by  fire. 

PEARL  BARLEY.  The  seed  ot  com- 
mon barley  rubbed  into  small  roiit>i>  grains 
like  perj-l, of  which  a  coolingdriaK  is  made. 

I'CAT.  A  sort  of  fuel  dii;!  out  of  the 
e'j-lh.  It  is  the  remains  of  c'ecayed  vege- 
uiiiles,  as  leaves,  stringy  fi5  res,  the  wood 
ofilecayed  trunksof  irei-e.  &c.  Itlsfound 
In  low  valleys  and  hcgr  in  Great  Britain 
and  other  parts  of  F/.,rr,)e,  and  in  America. 

PEAT  MOSS.  T.ie  bod  in  which  peat 
to  found,  either  oh  ihe  siirfice  of  the  soil, 
or  covered  ov«  with  sand  or  earth  to  a 
ttMwt  dentil. 


PERBLRS.  A  sort  of  fossils  distiik 
piished  from  flints  by  having  a  variety  of 
colours. 

;'ECC,  VRY.  An  animal  of  the  hog  kmd, 
foi  '  J  in  .Mexico 

•'ECK.  A  dry  measure,  the  fourth  part 
of  t  bushel. 

j'ECCaA.  An  order  of  animals  in  the 
Liniixnn  system,  under  the  class  mam- 
malia, comprehending  such  its  have  the 
feet  ^oofed  and  cloven,  and  live  on  grass, 
and  chew  the  cud,  and  have  four  atoni- 
arlis,  as  the  aritelo)>e,  the  camel,  camelo- 
|Kird,  siaii,  musk,  sheep,  ox,  cow,  &.c. 

PEC'J'ORAL.  Relatinu  to  the  brrasi, 
as  pectoral  medicines,  medi^mes  good  fof 
curins  diseases  in  the  br  ast. 

PECULIAR  (in  l-iw).  In  Encland,  a 
church  or  |>arish  tiaving  a  jurisdiction 
within  itself. 

PECULIARS,  Court  of.  In  EnsU.n  , 
a  court  belonging  to  the  archbisluip  of 
Canterbury,  which  lakes  cognir.ance  of 
m.'itters  relating  to  parishes  that  have  a  (pe- 
culiar jurisdiction. 

PEDANTRY.  A  needless  or  iP timed 
display  of  learning. 

PEDESTAL.  The  lowest  part  of  a 
column. 

PKDl.MENT.  A  low  pinnacle,  serving 
to  crown  .n  frontispiece,  &c. 

PEDOMEPER.    See  Pbrambulator. 

PEER  (in  Law).  An  e<iual,  or  one  of 
the  same  rank  and  condition  ,  formerly 
app'ied,  in  Eimland,  to  the  vassals  or  ten- 
a:ils  of  the  same  lord  ;  and  now  applied  t« 
those  who  are  iinpannelled  in  an  iiii|iiest 
upon  a  i;ian  accused  of  any  otfence,  who, 
by  tliH  critiiinal  law,  ought  to  be  jieers  or 
equals  of  the  persiui  accused. 

PEERESS.    The  laily  of  a  peer. 

PEERS  OF  THE  REALM.  In  Eng- 
land, the  nobility  of  the  kingdom,  who, 
though  distinguished  by  the  dilferent  titles 
of  duke,  nianiuis,  earl,  viscount,  and 
barim,  are  nevertheless  all  peers  or  et)iials 
in  their  |>olitical  cliaracter  iis  lords  of  par- 
liament. 

PEEWIT,  or  LAPwi:<a  An  Euro- 
pean bird  that  frecpients  marshes,  and  the 
banks  of  streams,  about  the  size  of  a  pi- 
geon, and  resembling  the  plover.  A  similar 
bird,  but  much  smaller  in  size,  bears  the 
same  name  in  the  United  States 

PEGASUS  (in  the  Heathen  Mythol- 
ogy). A  winged  horse,  on  which  Bel'ero- 
phon  is  fabled  to  have  ridden. 

PEGA.SUS  (in  Astronomy)  A  constel- 
lation in  the  northern  hemisphere,  con- 
taining from  20  U)  89  stars,  accordine  to 
different  writers 

PELIC  \.\.    A  large  bird  t"\\tA  in  aO 


PEN 


^ES 


28d 


"<r!»nn  Miunfries,  tlie  hill  of  whirh  is 
»tnii;;lil,t^xr«'|ii  ;it  the  (loiiit.  Il  li:is  nskin 
reai'liliia  iU>\vu  llie  iierk.  whicli  rnrms  :i 
|X>urli  ca|i:ihle  i>f  lioliliicj  iimiiv  "iii:»rls  of 
water.  'I'lie  jieliraii  Mas  a  [wriilKir  leii- 
(ieriiess  f(ir  its  yimii'.'.  and  lias  Vji'fu  siiit- 
jjiiwd  U)  cinivv  liliHiil  from  it«  lireiist  for 
0ieir  Hiipix-rt.  In  Siiiilli  Amenta,  lliU 
lirit  I4taii;eil,  anil  laiiiflii  to  raicli  ti.sh,aiid 
brlU){  Uieiii  tu  iu  owner  iii  lU  puuclt. 


minniis  point,  which,  alVr  fnlline  iipoi 
anil  paiisiiii!  tliroiiuh  aleiiD,  cuuveri;ea^a 
uu  entering  llie  eye. 


I 

PEMCANUS.    The  peneric  term  in  the  i 
Liiiiiipaii  system   for  the  sort  of  hlrds  of  i 
wliicli  the  peliraii  is  the  priiiripal  s|)ecles. 
It  comprehends  also  the  cormorant  or  cor-  i 
Tornnt,  man  of  war  liinl,  ami  the  eannet.    i 

PI:M>I('LB.     a  tliin  film  or  fra;,'iiient  ! 
ofa  inemhninn.  I 

PELLITOKY  OF  TMK  WALL.     An  ] 
herh  that  is  used  in  medicine. 

PKI/r.     The  skin  or  hide  of  an  animal.  ' 

PELVIS   (in    Anatomy).      The  lower 
part  of  the  .ahdonien. 

PEN.     All  instrument  for  wrllint;.  j 

PEN  (in  llusliandry).     A  fold  or  enclo-  I 
•lire  for  sheep,  &c.  j 

PENAL  LAWS.      Ijiwn  made  for  the 
punishment  of  criminal  olfeiices. 

PENALTY  (in  Law).     A  fine  or  for 
feitiireby  way  of  punishment.  | 

PENANCE    (in    Enlesiastical    Law).  ' 
An  intliclion  of  some  pain  or  bodily  siif-  i 
ferlns;,   as  an   exercise    of  repentance  for 
gome  sin,  either  voluntary  or  imiioseil  by 
the  priest  in  the  Komish   cliurrh. 

PEN  ATE3.    The  household  gods  of  the 
Romans. 

PE.NCIL.      An    instrument    used     tn 
drawing  and  painting. 


PENCIL   OF    RAYS   (hi  Opficn).      A 
auniberof  rayi  divergiag  from  some  In- 


PEND.VNT.  A  sea  term  for  a  narrow 
banner  or  streamer.  Tlie  bri>iid  |iendant 
Is  a  tiaj;  that  serves  to  distinguish  the  cliiel 
ofa  sipiadron. 

PENIJl'LUM,  A  heavy  body  so  sus- 
pended that  it  may  vibrate  or  swing  back- 
wards and  forwards. 

PENDULL'M  CLOCKS.  Clocks  thai 
have  their  niovenieiits  regulated  by  Ibe 
vibration  ofa  peiiduliiin. 

PENI)ULi;.M  ROYAL.  A  clock  whose 
peiiduliim  sw.ays  seconds,  and  goes  eight 
days  without  winding  up. 

PENETRATION  OK  BODIES.  A 
term  in  physiolocy,  denoting  that  the 
parts  of  one  iMxIy  occupy  the  interstice* 
lietween  the  parts  of  the  other. 

rElIMICAN".  Meat  cut  into  tliiti 
filices,  ilive»teil  of  fat.  and  diieil  iii  the 
sun ;  ciireil  meat  dried  to  liarilues.s,  then 
pulverized  anil  mixed  with  fat,  and 
Homuliiues  raisins,  and  iifterwards  com- 
jire.s.sed,  used  on  Ion;.;  journeys  of  ex- 
ploration, or  diirinjr  long  sea-vovage.s. 

PENOLOGY.  Tlio  scieiico"  which 
treats  of  ))ul)lic  ]>iiniMhtuents  us  they 
affi-ct  tlie  coninimiitv. 

PENTACHORD.  'A  musical  instni- 
nieiit  of  five  strings;  a  system  or  order 
of  five  soiiiid.s. 

PEXTACLE.  A  figure  composeil  of 
two  equilateral  triaii'jles  intersecting 
e.icli  other  so  a.s  to  form  a  (iix])ointed 
star,  n.sed  with  superstitious  iiniwrt  by 
the  astrologers  and  uiy. sties  of  the  mid- 
dle ages. 

PEN  rACOCCOUS.  Having  or  con- 
taiiiiiiiT  five  .seed.s  or 'irniiis. 

PENTREMITES.  In  geology,  a 
genus  of  fos.sil  .«tar-fish— so  called 
from  the  five  polygonal  plates  which 
compose  their  pear-shaped  recepUiule. 
PEN.NYWEKillT  An  EnL'!isli  trn/ 
weisht,  marked  thus,  dwt.,  containing  34 
grains. 

PENSION  (in  lAvr)  An  annual  allow- 
ance made  to  a  iierson  by  n  prince  or  gov- 
ernment  without  any  equivalent  in  return. 
PENSIO.NER.  One  who  receives  a 
pension ;  also  one  inainlained  at  Ui« 
charge  of  the  king,  government,  c<inipaa]r 

or  hospital. 

PE.N!^l<>.NERS,nE^TLKMKi»,or  K two's 
PKtsioNKBS.  In  England,  a  band  of  gen- 
tlenien,  to  the  number  of  40,  first  set  o8 


S8fi 


PEN 


foot  by  King  Henry  VII.,  whose  office  it 
it  Ui  guard  llie  king's  perunn  in  his  palace. 
PKNTA<JON.      A    geoiiiHrical    ligure, 
baviag  tve  aides  and  live  angles 


PENTAORAPII.  A  copying  machine, 
by  which  (lesianf  may  lie  cupied  In  any 
pro()ortion  Viy  (Hjrsons  who  are  not  skilled 
in  drawing.  It  consists  of  four  jointed  le- 
vers, as  in  tJie  subjoined  figure 


PENTAGYN'IA  (In  Botany).  An  order 
of  plants  in  the  Linnfean  system,  compre- 
hending such  as  have  five  pistils  in  an 
berinnphrudlte  flower. 

P1-:NTAMKTER.  a  sort  of  verse  in 
Latin  and  Greek,  consisting  of  five  feet  or 
metres. 

PSNTANDRIA  (in  Botany).  One  of 
ihe  Linii%an  classes,  comprehending 
plants  wiiich  have  flowers  with  five 
stamens. 


PENTATEUCH.  The  five  books  of 
Moses. 

PENTHOUSE.  A  shed  hanging  for- 
ward. 

PENUMBRA  (in  Astronomy).  A  par- 
tial siiade  otwerved  between  the  (lerfect 
•luulow  and  the  full  light  in  an  eclipse. 


PER 

PEPPER.  An  aromatic  ftiilt  ur  herr? 
boMight  from  India.  It  is  of  three  kinds 
namely,  blark,  white,  and  long.  The 
lilnck  is  Ihe  fruit  of  a  tree  that  grows  in 
the  Spice  Islands. 

PI^R.  A  l^alin  prepnsilinn,  sisnifying 
l>y,  used  in  many  phnises  ;  as, per  fHrre,  pr. 
or  per  annum,  |)er  cent,  or  perceiiium,  &.c 

FERA.MBIJI.ATOK.  An  in,-ruiiienl 
for  measuring  dititaiices,  olhc rw  *c  culled 
a  |H'di)ineter,  or  surveying  wheel. 


PER  CENTUM,  or  Pr.  Clnt.  Rate 
of  interest,  so  much  for  each  hundred;  as, 
five  per  cent,  tliiit  is.  fixe  dollars  for 
every  liiiudred  Tlollais. 

PERCH.  A  kind  of  fish  with  sharp,  in- 
ciirvate  teeth,  that  prey  upon  otiier  fish; 
the  flesh  of  this  tish  is  very  delicate 

PERCH  (in  Commerce).  A  measure  ot 
five  yards  and  a  iiulf,  or  sixteen  feet  and 
a  half 

PI:R  (CHANCE.     Accidentally 

PERCUSSION.  The  impression  a 
body  makes  in  falling  or  striking  upon 
another.  It  is  either  direct  or  oblique; 
direct  when  the  impulse  is  made  in  the 
direction  of  a  line  perpe:idiciilar  at  the 
point  of  impact,  and  obllc|ue  when  it  la 
given  in  a  line  oblique  to  the  place  of  im 
pact,  or  that  does  not  pass  throiis;!)  the 
common  centre  of  gravity  of  tiie  twostrik- 
iiig  biwlles. 

PEREMPTORY  (in  I^w).  Absoluts 
or  determinate,  as  peremptory  writ,  &c. 

PERENNIAL.  A  plant  Ihe  r<M.t  of 
which  continues  for  more  than  two  years. 

PERFORATION.  Boring ormaking a 
hole  through. 

PER  FORCE.  Against  one's  inclina- 
tion. 

PERiANTH,  The  calyx  or  cup  of  a 
flower  when  it  is  contiguous  to  tlie  flower, 
in  distinction  from  tlie  calyx  or  outer  cov- 
ering of  the  flower. 

PERICARIilUM.  A  double  membrane, 
which  surrounds  the  whole  conip.i:ss  rf 
the  heart. 

PERICARP.  A  viscous  bag  with  seeds, 
or  a  vessel  producing  seeds. 

PERICRANIUM.  A  membrane  whiek 
encloses  the  bones  of  the  skull. 

PERIGEE  (in  Ancient  Astronomy). 
That  point  in  the  heaven  in  which  ilw 
sun  or  any  planet  is  least  distant  'rom  tiM 
centre  of  the  earth 


PER 

rERIHELIONfin  Modern  .\«tronomy). 
TbiU  iMiint  <if  H  |il;nii-t's  orlii:  in  wliicli  it 
ta  nearest  to  (lie  sini. 

PEUI.MBTICIl.  The  ninliit  or  extent 
winch  hountls  a  n^iire  or  body,  wliether 
rtrtilinerir  or  mixed. 

PKKIOl)  (ni  '\:<tror.omy).  The  entire 
revolution  of  .t  pUnet. 

TERlOD  (in  llininoloKV).  Tlia  revolu- 
tion uf  a  certain  iiuinljerof  years,  as  tlie 
Julian  (teriod. 

PEKIOO  (in  Gnminar).  A  full  stop  at 
Uie  end  of  any  seiileiice,  marked  thus  (.) 

I'KRIOI)  (in  Aritlinieljc)  A  point  or 
com uia  aller  every  thin!  place  in  a  oeries 
of  Ii!;iire8;  aUoiii  tlieextraclionof  roots,to 
point  olftlie  tigureg  into  given  nunit>er8  or 
parcels. 

l'i;UIOn  (In  Medicine).  The  Interval 
between  the  coming  uf  fits  in  intermitting 
disordem. 

PEUIOECI  (In  Geopraphy).  Inhabit- 
ants of  the  earth  who  live  under  Uie  same 
parallel  of  latitude,  but  op|H)site  |KiralleUof 
longlliide. 

PEUIPIIERY.  The  circumference  of 
any  circle  or  curve,  &c. 

PERIPATETICS.  The  followers  »f 
Aristotle,  whoee  doctrines  are  distingii'sh- 
ed  by  tlie  name  of  the  Peripatelic  philos- 
ophy. Me  also  w;ui  called  tlie  Peripa- 
tetic because  be  delivered  his  lectures 
wulkine. 

PEUlPHRASrS.  Circumlorution,  or 
expresxiiit:  any  thing  by  iiiaiiy  words 
which  might  be  expressed  by  a  few. 

PERISCII.  Inhabilants  of  (he  earth 
whose  8had<iw  goes  round  them  in  a  day. 

PERISTALTIC  MOTION.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  intestines,  which  resembles  the 
motion  ol  a  worm. 

PKRISTYLE.  A  plazz-i,  ns  in  the 
middle  of  the  gymnasium  at  Athens. 

PERJ  tJU  Y.  Taking  a  false  oJith  know- 
ingly and  wilfully. 

PERIWINKLE.     A  kind  of  sea  snail 

PERMIT  (in  Law).  A  license  or  war- 
rant for  |>er8<ins  to  |>ass  with  or  sell  goo<l8. 

PERMUTATION.  The  same  as  coin- 
bioation. 

PERORATION.  The  epilogue  or  con- 
cludinc  part  ofan  oration. 

PERPENHER,  or  P«rp«i»d  Stokb.  A 
•tone  lilted  to  the  thickness  of  a  wall. 

PERPENDICULAR  (in  Geometry).  A 
line,  which,  when  it  fall*  upon  another 
line,  makes  the  angles  on  each  side  equal 
and  rii;hi  angles. 

PERPE.\I>ICULAR  (in  Gunnery).  A 
small  instrument  used  for  the  finding  the 
centre  line  of  a  piece,  in  the  operation  of 
poiiitiii;  It  at  any  ol^ject. 


PER 


pn 


PERPETUAL  CURATE.  In  England, 
a  curate  that  is  nut  removable  bt  the  pleas- 
ure of  any  one. 

PERRY  A  drink  made  ofthe  Juice  or 
|iears. 

PER  SALTEM.     At  once,  or  at  a  leap 

PER  SE  liy  or  in  itself;  things  con- 
sidered |)er  se,  that  is,  in  the  abstract,  or 
abstracted  from  all  others 

PERSECUTION.  The  inniction  of 
pain  on  another  designedly  and  with  force 
and  violence,  in  viulatiun  of  the  laws 
either  of  God  or  man,  such  as  the  |)erseru- 
tioiis  uf  the  primitive  Christian  thiin  h  ; 
the  first  haiipened  In  the  reign  of  Nero, 
and  the  last  in  that  of  Uiucletian. 

PERSEUS  (in  Heathen  Mythology).  A 
hero,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Ihinne,  who 
procured  the  Gorgon's  lieaj.  and  released 
Andromeda. 

PERSEUS  (in  Astronomy^.  A  constel- 
lation in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

PERSIAN  LILAC.  A  handsome  shrub, 
having  a  broader  leaf  and  a  liner  tiower 
than  the  common  lilac. 

PERSIAN  ORDER  (in  Architecture). 
An  order  wherein  the  entablature  is  sup- 
lH)rted  by  the  figures  of  men  instead  of 
colunius.  They  were  intended  to  repre- 
sent the  Persians  taken  captive  by  tlic 
Athenians. 

PERSIAN  WHEEL.  An  engine  foi 
watering  lands. 

PERSO.V  (in  Grammar).  A  term  for 
nouns  and  pronouns  which  express  the 
|ierson  of  the  s|ieaker ;  also  the  inflection 
of  verbs  answering  to  the  different  persons. 
There  are  three  jiersons,  namely,  the  first, 
or  the  (terson  speaking;  the  second,  the 
|iers(Ui  8|)okeii  to  ;  and  the  third,  the  per- 
son s|Miken  of. 

PERSO.NAL  (in  I^aw).  Belonging  to 
the  iwrson  and  not  to  the  thing,  as  per 
sonal  goods,  as  opposed  to  real  pn>|)erty  or 
estates  ;  (lersonul  action,  an  action  agaiii< 
the  |ierson. 

PERSON.'VL  VERB  (in  Grammar).  A 
verb  that  has  inflections  o'endings  to  ex- 
press the  iiersfms  of  the  agent. 

PERSONALTY  (in  Law).  Any  thing 
personal,  in  distinction  from  things  real. 

PERSONAT.*  (in  Botany).  One  of 
LinHa-iis's  natural  orders  of  plants,  which 
have  a  labiate  corolla  or  flower  with  the 
lips  closed,  as  the  aconite,  &.C. 

PERSONATING.  Representing  any 
one  by  a  fictitious  or  assumed  character, 
so  as  to  pass  for  the  person  represented. 

PERSONS.  The  three  persons  or  sub- 
sistences in  the  Holy  Trinity  ;  namely, 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost. 

PERSONS  (in  Law)  are  distinguished 


288 


PER 


PKT 


luto  natural  persmis,  vlioin  God  has 
formcal,  and  artit>:;ial  (wntons,  or  tlKise 
foriuf  d  by  guciety,  as  corpuratiuiis  or  bod- 
ieti  (Militic. 

PERSPECTIVE.  A  branch  of  mixed 
Biatlieinatica,  which  shows  how  to  repre- 
«eiit  (ibjects  on  a  plain  siitt'ace  as  naiiiriil- 
ly  as  they  would  appear  to  our  disht  if 
Mwii  through  that  plane,  supposin;;  it  were 
u  transparent  as  glass.  Perspective  is 
divided  into  Aerial  Persi>ective,  wliich 
has  principally  a  reference  to  the  colour- 
ing and  shading  of  distant  objects;  and 
Lineal  Persi)ective,  which  relates  to  the 
(tosition,  form,  magnitude,  &.c.,of  the  sev- 
eral lines  or  contours  of  objects,  &c. 

PERSPECTIVE,  Hi»ToRT  or.  Per- 
spective, as  a  bninch  of  optics,  was  known 
and  practised  at  an  early  period.  It  was 
taught  by  Democritus  and  Anaxagoras, 
and  treated  of  by  Euclid  in  liis  Optics. 
AUiasen  likewire,  in  his  optical  treatise, 
cpeaks  of  tliis  an,  and  of  its  importance 
for  the  painter ;  but  the  first  writers  who 
professedly  treated  on  iXTspective,  were 
Eartolemeo  Brainantiuo,  in  his  Uegole  di 
Perspectiva,  &c.,  dated  1440,  and  Pietro 
del  IJnrgo,  who  supi>osed  objects  to  l>e 
placed  'leyond  a  transparent  tablet,  and  so 
to  trace  Mie  images  whicii  rsiys  of  light 
emittcil  from  them  would  make  upon  it. 
Alliorl  Durer  constructed  a  inachiiie  u|Hin 
the  principles  of  Borgo,  by  whicll  he  could 
trace  the  pnrspecliRvnppeaianc«uf  nlijects. 
Leon  Battia'a  Allierti,  in  his  treatise  I»e 
Pictura,  speaks  chiefly  of  purs|iective  ;  and 
Balthazar  Peruzi.',of  Siena,  who  di«d  in 
1506,  wrote  asysteir  of  perspective,  which 
ap|>eared  in  1.540.  Ileiscaid  to  have  first 
recommended  points  of  ilistance,  to  which 
are  drawn  all  lines  that  make  an  angle  of 
45  degrees  with  the  ground  line  (luido 
Ifbaldi,  in  his  Perspective,  published  in 
1600,  showed  that  all  lines  are  parallel  to 
one  another,  if  they  \ie  inclinen  to  th 
ground  line,  ami  converge  to  some  |i«>irt 
in  the  horizontal  line  ;  and  that  through 
this  point  also  will  pass  a  line  drawn  from 
the  eye  parallel  to  theiri.  His  work  con- 
tained the  first  principles,  which  afler- 
vrards  formed  the  groundwork  of  Dr.  'J'ay- 
Icr's.  He  was  immediately  followed  by 
Giacomo  Barozzi,  of  Vignola,  whos«  Two 
Rules  of  Perspective  were  pKt'lished,  with 
m  commentary,  by  Ignatius  I >Ante.  .Marcn 
tois'  ivork  was  published  at  the  Hague  in 
1615,  \nd  that  of  Sirigatti,  wlilcli  u:as  an 
tbstract  of  Vlgnola's,  in  16-25.  But  the 
noat  celebrated  writer  on  this  subject  was 
D..  Brooke  Taylor,  who,  in  his  Linear 
Perstiecttve,  liaK  laid  down  principles  far 
■lure  general  ihan  ihuse  of  any  of  his  pre- 


decemors.  He  does  not  confine  his  rale* 
to  the  horizontal  plane  only,  but  he  haa 
made  lliein  apphcalile  to  ever>'  8|iecies  of 
lines  and  planes.  Likewise,  by  his  meth- 
od, which  is  e.xceeilingly  simple,  the  few- 
est lines  imaginable  are  re«|uired  to  pro- 
duce any  [lerspective  representation.  Aa 
a  proof  of  the  excellence  of  his  method,  it 
suffices  to  add  that  it  has  been  followed 
by  all  who  have  treated  on  this  subject, 
and  is  universally  adopted  in  practice. 
Mr.  Hamilton  published  his  Stereogniphy 
in  2  vols,  folio,  alter  the  manner  of  Dr. 
Taylor ;  besi<les  wliich  there  are  sinne 
g(K)d  treatises  on  the  subject  from  Ware, 
Cowley,  Ferguson,  Emerson,  &c.  ;  but 
Wr.  Kirby's  system  of  jwrsiiectlve  has  lieen 
generally  esteemed  for  its  practical  utility. 

PERSPECTIVE.  In  gardens,  or  at  tlie 
end  of  galleries,  designed  to  deceive  the 
eye  by  representing  the  continuation  of  an 
alley  or  a  building,  &c. 

PERSPECTIVEUJLASS,  The  glass  or 
other  tnins((areiit  surface,  su|)posed  to  lie 
placed  Iwtween  the  eye  and  the  object, 
|ierpendioulariy  to  the  horizon. 

PERSPIKATIO.N.  The  evacuation  of 
the  juices  of  the  IkmIv  through  the  pores  of 
the  skin.  This  is  either  sensible,  wliich 
is  called  sweating;  or  insensible,  which 
is  not  perceptible  to  the  senses. 

PERUVIAN  RARK.  A  drug,  the  bark 
of  a  tree  growing  in  Peru. 

PESTLE.  An  instrument  for  pounding 
in  a  mortar. 

PETAL.  The  leaf  of  the  corolla  or 
flower. 

PETARD  (in  Fortification).  A  hollow 
engine  sha|>ed  like  a  sucar-loaf,  made  fox 
breaking  oiwn  gales,  ilrawbridges,  &c. 

PETIOLE  (in  lloUiny).    The  leaf-stalk, 
or  the  stem  which  supjKins  the  leaf. 
'      PETITION  (in  Law).     A  supplication 
'  in  lieu  of  a  writ,  which,  in  England,  is  al- 
I  ways  made  by  a  subject  t<i  the  king  when 
I  the  latter  is  a  |>arty  in  the  suit ;  also  *nj 
supplication  dniwn  up  in  form,  and   ad- 
dresed  either  to  the  executive  or  the  legis- 
lature. 

PETITIO  PR  1  NCI  PI  1  (am<mg  I^gt- 
cians).  Begyiim  the  cpiestinn,  or  taking 
for  srantv^d,  that  which  is  the  n:aiter  in 
dis|iuia. 

PETREL  A  sea-bird,  which  n.-u  tli« 
faculty  of  s|HiuiiMg  pure  oil  from  Its  bill. 
It  is  a  s<ire  |iroi!Mostic  of  a  storm  at  sea, 
when  it  hovers  about  a  ship.  The  petrel 
is  alHiut  the  size  of  the  swallow  ;  its  legi 
are  long  and  slender,  and  its  colour  !• 
black.  It  IS  seeii^i  all  parts  of  the  ocean 
busily  en!!at!ed  In  seariliing  for  fiHid.  It 
braves  the  I'lnUNtl  fury  of  the  slc-rm,  sklii* 


p  n  A 


PH  I 


«8» 


mills  ninne  the  wavei*,  Miuieliiii)>s  alxivr    iD'ion.  nl  riifferent  liiiies.  in  rei^iect  to  llM 

tjit-ir  li>|is,   :iiii1    iiniiietiiiie))    s<'.rt->-iiiiiu  il-  j  8uii  uiid  i  iiitli 

sell  Iroiii  tilt- i<l;isl,  liy  Kiiikiiisj!  <ti»Mi  line 

the  hilliiu's    li«*i\Vfeii  tliciii.     Il  il<i<*!i  mit 

sit  iiiMiii   the  xv;iliT,    Imt    nrteii   |>l:irrH  it« 

frrt  ii|Kiii  il.  mill  siist.iiiis  itsflf  l>y  llif  aiil 

fril.<   ex|i;iiiilr-il    wiiias  wliilc   il    |>lrk«  up 

KuiiK-  \»erf  iit'f'iMiil.     KliH  ks  iil'  llicsf  liinld 

I'dllciw    vrsst-l!!   for  wliiile   itays,   :tiid   eat 

u'irti    t!>in2S    as    are    tiirnun    iiverlwuiril. 

Tlicse   Mnln  are   km-wii    niiicniL'    wiUurK, 

under  tlM  ikuine  u(  MuUier  Carey's  ciiick- 

eiu. 


-r-^.^^l^ZJ^^^^^^^^M'^r^ 


PETRI  FACTION'S  (among  Mineniln- 
gistn).  Stony  niaiieni  inrrnsti-rt  vviiliiii 
the  cavities  of  <iri;:inir.eii  iKnlies,  as  the  in- 
crii!)lution!i  of  limestone  or  seU-nile,  in  the 
form  uf  stalactites  or  dropstunes  fruni  the 
roofs  of  caverns. 

PKTRIFICATION.  The  conversion 
of  wood,  hones,  or  any  other  siihsiance, 
into  stone  ;  alsu  that  which  i:i  turned  into 
stone. 

I'KTROLEUM.  Rock  oil,  a  li.|iiid,  hi- 
tiiininous  substance,  which  distils  from 
rucks. 

f'KWTRR.  A  coin|winnd  inKtal,  or  an 
alloy  of  tin  with  co|>|ier,  lead,  r.inc,  liisi 
iiiulh,  or  antimony. 

PHAI.A.V.V.  A  Slacedonian  legion, 
formed  into  a  square  cuni|i:icl  hatliition  of 
pikemen. 

PHA.NTAP.M AflORIA.  An  optical  ex- 
hiliilioii  very  simihir  !o  the  iiiaL'ic  lantern. 

PIIARAOll.  A  name  common  to  «*- 
vetal  kinps  of  F.2y|it,  mentioned  in  .**crip- 
Hire.  The  fourtli  of  this  name  was  dmwn- 
e«i  in  the  Red  .>»ea. 

PIIAR.M.'\C01'CEI.\  A  iKJok  of  niedi- 
cinei". 

PIIARMACy.  The  art  of  preparin?, 
com|Hiumtiii?,  and  preserving  substances 
for  the  purposes  of  medicine. 

PI1.\K06.  A  watch-lower  among  the 
Micieiit.i. 

PI1.\SES.  The  various  aiipearanceu  of 
the  inooii  at  different  ajjes,  tieina  tir.st 
a  crCHcent.then  a  iH-micircle,  then  {jiililiuiis, 
and  lantly  full,  when  she  letiiriis  by  Ihe 
s.'iiiie  i^mdallon  Ic  the  stare  of  a  new 
nnxm.  The.*e  vai:oii<  apiiearaiices  arc 
cause  I  by    the  diM'ereiit   postilions   of  the 


PIIF.APA.NT.  A  bini  of  u:ime.  hichly 
e.«teeiiied  for  its  flesh.  It  is  a  native  of 
India,  but  is  now  common  in  Kiiro|w.  |Kir- 
ticularly  in  England.    S«e  Pahtkiuub. 


PMGO.N.  A  kind  of  niiosilp  wea|ion 
or  dart  with  a  fiarb,  which  is  sumellines 
lM>rne  in  co.ats  of  arms. 

PHI  A  I...  A  little  glass  bottle,  mostly 
used  for  medicine. 

PIIII.OI.ORY.  An  a-ssemhlaee  of  sci- 
ences, consisting  of  praminar,  rheioric, 
jioetry,  anti(|uities,  history,  and  crilicisui, 
called  by  the  French,  lielles  letters  ;  oiso 
the  science  of  Innsuaees. 

PIIII.dSOPHF.R.  One  wlio  Is  verged 
in,  or  addicts  himself  to  the  study  of  phi- 
losophv. 

PUir-dSOPHER'S  STONE.  The  ob- 
ject of  alchymy  by  a  lonL'soiiEht  fi>r  prejia- 
ration,  by  which,  as  the  alctiymists  pro- 
tended, the  base  metals  niight  be  conver 
ted  into  pold  .iinl  silver. 

PIIILOSOPUV.  Pro|>erly,  the  love  of 
wisdom,  a  term  applied  either  to  the  study 
of  nature  or  morality,  foiimled  on  reasoB 
and  e.xperieme,  or  the  systems  which  df 
fereiit  men  hnve  devised  rf  riplainiut  UN 


290 


PIIV 


PI  L 


variiiiin  phenomena  in  the  dtiira'  and 
moral  wiirt<l  ;  iis  the  I'ythimiirHaii  philiiAv- 
phy,  which  l.iii^lit,  aiuunu  uther  things, 
tlir  triii.'<iiii;;rHli(iis  of  sniils  ;  the  Aristote- 
lian |i|iiloso|ihy,  or  llie  doctrines  of  Aristo- 
tle, ixhirhure  to  be  toiiinl  in  his  worKs ; 
tlir  .Sotrulic  philos»|ihy,  which  is  to  be 
fuiiiiil  III  the  wntiiiits  of  Xeiiophoii  antl 
Plato;  K|iiciire:in  |ihiliis<ipliy,  a  sceptical, 
licentious  scheme  oC  morals  ascrilied  to 
Kpii'iiriis  ;  Stoic  philosophy,  the  iloctriiies 
ot'Zeiio  the  Stoic,  who  maintained,  among 
other  tliin::s,  llial  a  man  mi^lit  he  happy 
in  the  midst  of  the  severest  tortures  ;  the 
Cynic  philosophy,  the  followers  of  which 
affected  a  $;reat  contempt  of  riches,  and 
of  all  sciences  except  morality  ;  and  the 
Sceptical  philosophy,  hrojiched  hy  one 
Pyrrho,  who  alTecied  to  douhi  every  thing. 

PHOXOGnAPH.  An  apparatus 
■which  makes  a  pertnnneiit,  jrraiiliical 
recofd  of  spoken  woids  or  musical 
sonmls,  and  l>v  means  of  wliich  we  are 
able  to  reproiluce  at  any  liitiiie  time, 
in  niitlible  form,  tho  same  sonmls  it  lias 
recorded,  and  with  all  the  ]ieculiaritie8 
of  prouuuciatiou  and  inflection. 

PHOSPHATES.  Salts  formed  hy  phos- 
phoric acid,  with  the  alkalieo,  earths,  and 
metallic  <i\ides. 

PHOSPHITES.  SalU  fonned  with 
phosphorus  united  to  the  earths,  alkalies, 
and  metallic  oxides. 

PIIOSI'IIOIUC  ACID.  An  acid  form- 
ed by  the  combination  of  uniriatic  acid 
with  oxysen. 

PHOSPHOROUS  ACID.  An  acid 
formed  by  the  comhiiiatlon  of  phosphorus 
with  oxyjien.  It  contains  less  of  the  latter 
than  phosphoric  acid. 

PIIOSPHOKUS.  A  yellow,  semitrans- 
parent  substance,  of  the  consistence  of 
wax.  but  brittle  during  the  frost.  It  is  lu- 
minous in  the  comnnm  tem|ieniture  of  the 
air,  of  a  roimh,  disagreeable  taste,  and  a 
■inell  like  •nirlic. 

PHOSPIIUKET.  A  substance  formed 
by  the  union  of  alkalies,  earths,  and  me- 
tallic oxides  with  phosphorus. 

PHRENOLOGY.  A  newly  Invented 
■cience,  which  professes  to  teach,  from 
the  conformation  of  the  human  skull,  the 
particular  chantct«rs  and  pro|H-ii^ties  of 
men,  presiimini;  tliat  the  faculties  and 
operations  of  the  human  mind  have  their 
particular  seat  in  the  brain,  and  are  to  lie 
iTiced  by  (Kirticular  external  marks  See 
Ckanioluoi 

PHYLACTERY.  A  charm  or  amulet 
among  the  ancients,  winch,  bein:!  worn, 
was  supposed  to  preserve  people  (Voiii  cer- 
lain  evils,  lisea^ies,  or  dangers. 


PHYSICIAN  One  who  profesies  med 
iclne,  or  the  art  of  healiiii!. 

I'HVSICS,  or  Nati'kai,  PHiuoaorHT 
'I'he  science  which  explains  the  doctrina 
of  natural  bodies,  their  phenomena,  causes, 
and  ett'ects,  with  their  various  allections, 
niotiiuis,  and  0|ieratioiis. 

PH  YSIOG.NO.M  Y.  The  study  of  men's 
p:irticular  characters  and  rulin:;  passions 
from  the  features  uf  the  face  and  the  cast 
of  the  countenance. 

PHYSIOLOGY.  The  same  as  Physics ; 
also  that  liranch  of  medicine,  which  treats 
of  the  structure  and  constitiitiiui  of  the 
human  Isidy,  and  the  fuiictious  of  the  va- 
rious parts,  with  regard  to  llie  cure  of 
diseases. 

PIIV'lOLfKJY.  A  treatise  on  the 
forms,  properties,  and  kinds  of  plants. 

IMA  MA  TKR  (in  Anatomy).  The  ulte- 
rior membrane,  enclotiiiii!  the  brain. 

PIA.NO  KOlt'l'E.     A  well  km>vvn  key 
1  insiriiment  of  German  invention,  which 
sends  I'orth  sounds  both  piano  and  forte 
that  is,  soil  and  strong. 

PIAZZA.  A  tipacious  place  enclosed 
with  columns. 

PIC/E.  An  order  of  birds  in  the  Lin 
nrcan  system,  under  the  class  .\ves,  com- 
prehending such  as  have  their  bill  coiih 
pressed  and  convex,  including  the  parrot 
crow,  raven,  magpie,  cuckoo,  jay,  bird  of 
panidise,  &.c. 

PICKLE,  A  brine  or  liquor,  usually 
com|Mised  of  salt  for  seiusoning  meat,  and 
also  of  spice  and  vinegar  for  jireserving 
fruits;  also  the  fruits  preserved  in  pickle. 

PICaUET  (in  Military  Affairs).  A  cer- 
tain number  uf  men,  horse  or  t'oot,  who  do 
duty  as  an  oiit;fuard,  to  prevent  surprises. 

PIE  (in  Printini!).  I'he  com|Mised  in:it 
ter  broken  or  thrown  out  of  order. 

PIE-POWDER,  or  Cot;HT  of  Pie-Poo- 
DRE.     In  England,  a  court  held  in  fairs. 

PIER.     A  mole  or  niiiipart  raised  in 
harbour  to  break  the  force  of  the  sea. 

PIGEO.N.  A  doinerilic  bird,  of  whirk 
there  are  many  varieties,  as  the  rock  pi- 
geon, the  carrier  pigeon,  the  |iowter,  sIm 
ker,  tumbler,  &.c.  See  Dove. 
^TIGMENTS.  Artificial  preparations  in 
iiiiitatiim  of  certain  colours. 

PIG  or  LEAD.  AlHiut  two  humire* 
anil  fifty  pounds  weiuht 

PIKE  (in  lchlhyolo!.'y).  A  fish  w:,icb 
abounds  in  must  of  the  lakes  uf  Europe 
and  America.  It  is  remarkable  fur  its  vo- 
racity, and  also  for  its  longevity. 

PIKE  (in  Military  Altuirs).  A  long, 
slender  statf,  with  a  pike  ur  spike  at  til. 
end. 

PIL,A3TEK.     A  .*piare  pilla* 


PIN 


TIP 


29 


PILE  (In  Artillery).  A  heap  of  shot  or 
■tiells  piled  up  iiilo  a  wedi^clike  Idnii. 

PILtnUIVKK.  A  iiiarliiiie  lur  ilrl- 
▼inp  pilofi  or  (ttakes  in  tlie  Ix-ils  ot'  rivers, 
■a a  t'ouuduliuu  ou  wliich  a  liridge  is  raised. 


PILGRIM.  One  wli..  irivela  into  for- 
eign laudj  for  piirposc-is  of  devotion. 

PILL.  A  solid  inedii'iiie  Mi;ide  of  oeve- 
ral  iu;:rudient!i  into  the  sli;i|ie  of  a  liall. 

PiLLAK.  An  irregular  kind  of  column, 
as  a  biittinz  pillar,  ntised  to  sii|i|Hirt  a  wall. 

PILLION.  A  sort  of  sot)  saddle  for  a 
female  tu  sit  on  horseliack  behind  a  horse- 
man. 

PILLORV  On  I;.aw).  A  wooden  ma- 
chine in  which  olfeiiders  are  exposed  to 
Uie  pize  of  the  multitude. 

PILLOW.  A  cushion  on  which  the 
head  rests. 

PILLOW  (amonz  .Mariners).  A  piece 
oftitnlH-ron  wliirli  the  Isiltsprit  rests. 

PILOT.  One  who  is  einployeil  to  con- 
duct shiiM  Into  roads  or  harbours,  over 
burs  or  s;inds,  Slc. 

PI.ME.\TO.     See  ALi-sriCB. 

PIN.  A  small,  sliarp-|Niinled  piece  of 
wire,  with  a  head  to  it,  used  by  women  in 
faatenins  their  clothes  ;  also  any  tliini!  in 
the  sha|ieof  a  pin,  which  .serves  to  fasten, 
Its  the  linchpin,  which  locks  the  wheel  to 
the  axle  ;  also  the  screw  of  a  musket  bar- 
rel, and  the  like. 

PINCKRS.  A  sort  of  t(Kil  used  by  arti- 
ficers ia  drawing  nails. 


PINrrniRCK.  An  alloy,  containing 
tkt^e  paru  of  ».inr,  and  four  of  rop|ier. 

PINBAL  GLAND.  A  small,  heartlike 
•ubi  tance,  aboiil  the  size  of  a  pea,  situated 
al  the  *ia«is  of  lite  biaiu. 


PL\E-APri>E.  The  fruit  of  an  herba 
ceoiis  plant  whicli  h.is  le.ives  soiiie(hin| 
similar  to  those  of  the  aloe.  'I'he  Iruit  re- 
.senililes  in  sha|)e  the  cone  of  the  pine-tree, 
whence  It  hits  derived  Its  name,  lis  b»>- 
taiiical  iiaiiie  was  .\iiaiias,  and  in  the 
Liiiiiieaii  s\stem  Uriiinelia  Ananas. 

PI  .\  IVI'K  KK.  A  lar-ie  tree,  the  leaves  o( 
which  are  loii:2<;rthan  those  of  the  hr-tree. 

PINIO.V.  The  jiiint  of  a  bird's  wing 
remolesi  from  the  iMuly. 

I'l.NIO.N  (with  Walchmakers).  The 
nut  or  lesser  wheel  of  a  walch. 

I'lXlo.N  (with  Mechanics).  A  lesser 
wheel  which  plays  in  the  teelhof  a  larsier. 

PINK.  A  small  fni|;rant  tlower,  ot  di- 
vers rich  C4>loiirs.  The  superior  sorts  are 
named  cloves  and  cinnamon. 

I'l.N'K  (among  Painters).  A  faint  red 
colour. 

I'LVK  (among  Miuriners).  A  small  sail- 
in;!  ship. 

PI.N.NACE.  A  small  vessel  having 
suils  and  oars,  and  carr\  inc  three  masts  ; 
also  one  of  liiu  bouls  bvluni;ing  to  a  man 
of  war. 

PDfTTK.  A  crystallized  mineral 
found  in  tlie  inino  Pini,  in  .Saxony,  com- 
posed of  siles,alumiiia,an(I  oxide  of  iron. 

PLN.XIT,  abbreviated  Pim,  denotes, 
when  placed  at  the  b'>tlom  of  a  picture 
with  the  luiinter's  name,  that  he  jiaintud  it. 

PIONEERS  (in  .MiliUry  Tactics).  la- 
bourers who  attend  an  army,  in  its  march, 
to  clear  the  way,  by  ciittin<!  down  U-r» 
and  levellini!  r<-.ads,  as  also  to  cast  up 
trenches,  make  mines,  and  the  like. 

PIO.NY.  A  garden  plant,  bearing  • 
larae  flower  resembling  a  rose  in  shape. 

PIP.  A  disease  in  yonns;  birds,  whnfa 
consi.sls  of  a  while  skin  or  film  under  the 
loii^iie. 

PIPE.  A  tube  ni.nde  of  clay,  which  Is 
n.sed  III  smokins. 

PIPE  (in  l(iiildiii^).  A  conduit  for  th« 
conveyance  of  water  and  other  Holds. 

PIPE  (in  Music).  A  intisical  wind  In- 
stmiiient,  smaller  than  a  llute.  Pan  pi|ie« 
are  a  ranee  of  short  pipes  bound  logethei 
side  by  side. 

PIPE  (in  Anatomy).    The  windpipe. 

PIPE  (in  l.iavv).  In  England,  a  roll, 
otherwise  called  the  Greal  Roll  of  Ihs 
E.xche<iuer. 

PIPE  (ill  t^oramerre).  A  measure  U 
wine,  roiitainiiiK  Iti3  mllons. 

IMI'E  (aiiiun!(  Miners).  The  ore  whirh 
runs  endwise  in  a  hole. 

PIPEi-FISII.  A  ti>h  so  called  from  tte 
'eiiztli  and  slenderness  of  Us  ln.4ly. 

PI  PER.     A  pl.iyer  on  the  pip* 

PIPING.     The  slip  Ufa  pink. 


Z92 


PL  A 


PI,  A 


PKilJET.  A  Kaiiie  of  cards  pljiyed  by 
two  (tersuiia  Willi  only  ttiirlytvvo  cards, 
rejectinz  all  the  deiiccB,  threes,  fours, 
Aves.  and  Rues. 

PIRATE.  A  sea  rnblx-r ;  one  wfco  lives 
by  plunder  at  sea. 

PISCEri  (in  Ichthyology).  The  third 
class  into  which  LiniiuMis  divided  the  uiii- 
nial  kingdom,  consisting  of  five  orders, 
namely,  the  ahdoininales,  apodes,  cartila- 
ginii,  jiigiilares,  and  thoracici.   >:ee  Aboo 

MIN&LE9,  &c. 

PISCES  (in  Astronomy).  The  twelfth 
and  last  sign  in  the  zodiac,  marked  thus 

(K). 

PISCIS  VOLANS.  A  constellation  in 
Uie  southern  hemisphere. 

PISTACHIO.  A  nut  of  an  aromatic 
■mell,  prowini;  on  a  tree  in  Syria,  from 
which  an  oil  is  extracted. 

PISTIL,  or  PoiNTAL  (in  Hotany).  An 
organ  adherin<!  to  the  fruit  for  tlie  recep- 
tion of  the  pollen. 

PIROGUE.  A  kind  of  canoe  con- 
sisting of  the  iiollowe<l  trunk  of  a 
sinijle  tree,  used  in  tlio  southern  and 
eastern  seas;  in  North  America,  a 
narrow  ferryboat. 

PISTON.  A  sucker,  or  that  part  which 
acts  as  such  in  all  pumps,  &c. 

I'l'I'CH.  A  tenacious,  oily  substance, 
drawn  chiefly  from  pines  and  firs. 

PITCH  (in  Architecture).  The  angle 
to  which  a  gable  end,  and  consequently  a 
whole  building,  is  set. 

PITCH  (in  Husliandry).  An  iron  bar, 
with  a  iNiinted  end. 

PITCH  (in  Music).  The  acuteness  or 
gravity  of  any  particular  sound. 

PITFALL.  A  gin  orsnare  to  catch  beasts. 

PITH.  The  soft,  spongy  substance  in 
Ihe  stalk  or  stem  of  plants. 

PIVOT.  The  |)in  on  which  anything 
Urns. 

i'lX  (In  I«tw).  The  hox  in  the  mint  in 
Tvbich  the  pieces  of  coui  are  kept  that  are 
«[ected  for  trial. 

Pl.K,  Tbial  of  the.  In  England,  the 
Hal  of  the  coins,  previous  lo  their  being 
i*!r,.d,  before  a  jury  of  twenty-four  per- 
«n«,  twelve  of  whom  are  Boldsiniths. 

PLACARD.  A  proclamation  in  llol- 
'Hnd,  and  in  France  a  table  wherein  laws 
<ind  orders  were  hung  up ,  with  us,  vulgarly, 
hny  bill  posted  up  agiiinst  a  wall  or  post. 

PLA I H.  A  sort  I ;  Dtuff  worn  by  Scotch 
Highlanders. 

PLAOIARV.  A  literary  thief,  who 
purloi  IS  tf:e  wcrks  of  another,  and  pub- 
lishes them  in  his  own  nuine. 

PL.^iMJE  A  cunugious  «nd  malignant 
tbtemper 


PLA  ICE.  A  sort  of  flat  fish,  which  haf 
a  delicate  tlesn. 

PLA.N'.  The  representation  of  snniA- 
tiling  drawn  on  a  plane,  as  maps,  and 
charts,  &.c. ;  or,  more  particularly,  tha 
draught  of  a  building,  such  as  it  is  intend- 
ed to  appear  on  the  ground. 

PLA.N'E  (in  (ieoinetry).  A  plane  oi 
level  surface,  whose  parts  lie  even  be- 
tween its  extremities. 

PL.ANE  (ainoni!  Joiners).  An  edged 
tool  fur  paring  and  shaving  wood  sinootb. 


PLA.N'E  TABLE.  A  simple  instru- 
iiient  whereby  the  draught  of  a  field  la 
taken  on  the  spin. 

PLANETAltlUM,  orOnRBBT.  An  a»- 
tronoinical  machine,  made  to  represent 
the  iiiotions  of  the  heavens.  See  Orrekt. 

PLANE-TREE.  A  tall  tree  resembling 
a  maple,  which  is  a  native  of  .America. 

PL.ANE'J'S.  Wandering  brvlles,  or 
such  stars  as  change  their  position,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  fixed  stars.  They  are 
distinguished  into  primary  and  secondary. 
The  primary  are  those  which  are  siip|)osed 
to  revolve  round  Ihj  sun,  as  Jupiter,  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  ic. ;  and  the  secondary 
are  those  which  revolve  round  a  primary 
planet,  as  the  moon,  the  satellites  of  Jupi- 
ter, Saturn,  and  Uranus.  The  oriuiiial 
number  of  planets  w:is  six,  constitiitmi!, 
as  was  imagined,  the  whole  planetary 
system.  These  were  Mercury,  Venus, 
the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn, 
which  were  distiiimiished  by  some  mark 
or  attribute  of  the  deities  of  those  names. 
Thus  the  mark  of  Mercury,  ^  ,  represents 
his  caduceiis  ;  that  of  Venus,  a  mirror,  9 » 
with  a  handle  to  it ;  that  of  Telliis,  the 
earth,  <g,  to  denote  itsJ'irin  :  tiMt  uf  iMars, 
the  god  of  war,  a  spear,  _,  .hat  of  J  ipiter, 
the  first  letter  of  his  CrteK  name,  "H  ;  and 
that  ofSaiuni.a  scvtlie,  '; . 

PLAXTAGIXACEiE.  A  nnt.  order 
of    exoEceuous    herbaceous    plants,    of 

which  the  Plautago  is  the  seiius. 

PLA.\ISPHi;Ktr.  A  projection  of  the 
sphere,  niid  Its  various  circles  on  a  pl.ine, 
such  as  maps,  &c.  ;  but  more  particiil&iiy, 
a  projection  of  the  ceien...>l  sphere  upon  a 
plane,  representing  the  stars,  constella- 
tions, &c. 

PLANK.  A  piece  of  timber  sawed  foi 
carpenters'  work. 

PLA.NTAIN.    A  tree  in  the  West  I» 


PI. A 

i»u.  Pfiiiih  America,  and  .MeTlri\  which 
ha*  a  t't-nulil'ul  rulia(;e,  uiiii  beora  an  tMcu- 
ient  fruit. 


Pl.U 


xsa 


PLANTATION  (in  Politics).  A  colo- 
■y  or  Bettleinent  of  people  in  a  fureij;n 
eoiintr>'. 

PLANTATION  (in  Horticulture),  Any 
place  which  is  planted  with  slinibs  and 
trees. 

PLANTER.  A  proprietor  of  grounds  in 
the  West  Indies. 

PLASHING  IIEDfiES.  Bending  the 
buu)!hs  and  interweaving  Uieni,  so  a»  to 
thielcen  llie  hedge. 

PLASTER  (in  .Medicine).  An  external 
application  to  the  body. 

PLASTER  (in  Masonry).  Mortar  for 
liyins  un  walls,  &c. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS.  A  p.-uste  made 
if  K>psuni.  In  London,  the  term  is  also 
applied  to  sypsiim  itself. 

PLASTERER.  One  who  plasters  walls. 
The  company  of  plasterers  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1500. 

PLATE.  A  broad,  fl.it  utensil,  as  a 
plate  for  eatins  on,  and  a  copjier  plate  for 
printiniT  on  ;  any  tl:it  piece  of  ineUil  in  the 
Kirne  form  or  shape. 

PLATE  (in  Coinnierce).  Vessels  or 
ulensiU  made  of  g(<ld  or  silver. 

PLATFORM  (in  Architecture).  A  row 
of  beams  which  support  the  timber  work 
of  a  roof  ;  also  any  erection  consiiting  of 
boards  raised  above  the  ground  for  an  ex- 
hibition or  any  other  temporary  purpose. 

PLATFORM  (in  Fortification).  An  ele 
ration  of  earth  on  which  cannon  is  placed. 

PLATFORM  (in  a  Ship  of  War).  A 
place  on  ilie  lower  deck  ;  the  mainmast. 

PLATI.Vf;.  Covering  baser  rnet-ils 
With  a  tliiii  plate  of  silver. 

PLATI.M'M.  A  metal,  so  called  from 
the  Sp:ini><h  plate-silver,  liecause  il  resem- 
bles silver.  It  I*  reckoned  by  some  t.i  t>e 
the  hiaviest  of  all  metals.  It  ,s  malleable 
•lid  ductile  like  gold. 

as* 


PLATOON.  A  small,  square  bodr  oT 
forty  or  lirty  iniiskeieeni,  dr.iwn  rut  of  a 
battalion  of  foot,  and  placed  between  tlie 
squadrons  of  horse  to  sustain  them  ;  also 
in  ambu:<cades  and  narrow  defiles,  wlu-ra 
there  is  not  room  for  the  whole  liattalloo. 
It  is  also  used  to  signify  a  part  -if  a  loni- 
pany  of  soliliers. 

PLATYPUS.  A  newly  disoivered  ani- 
mal, the  mouth  of  which  is  slia|M-il  like 
the  bill  of  a  duck,  and  the  feet  are  wel  bed 

PLEA  (in  l«iw).  'I'hat  which  eitliei 
party  alleges  in  sup|Hirt  of  his  own  cause. 

PLEADER.  A  counsellor,  or  one  who 
argues  in  a  court  of  justice. 

PLE.ADING  Putting  in  a  plea  in  law; 
also  the  fonii  of  the  pleading. 

PLEAS  t)F  Tin:  LIUJWN.  In  Eng- 
land, suits  ill  the  king's  name,  for  nllen- 
ces  Committed  against  his  crown  and 
dignity. 

PLEIiEIAN.  One  of  the  pirba,  or  cmn- 
mon  (K-ople  among  the  Koiiiuiis. 

I'LED(;^*S  (in  I.aw).  Sureties  which 
the  plalntitf  finds,  that  he  shall  prosecute 
his  suit. 

PLEIADES.  A  cluster  or  assemhlaga 
of  stars  in  the  constellation  'I'aurus. 

PLENIPOTE.XTIARY.  A  comraia- 
sioner  or  ambassador  from  a  governaient 
invested  with  full  power  to  cuncluda 
Iieace  with  another  government. 

PLE.NX'M  (in  Physics).  A  term  deni-t- 
ing  tlmt  every  part  of  space  or  extension 
is  lull  of  matter,  as  is  maintained  by  iha 
Cartesians. 

PLEU.NAS.M.  A  form  of  expression  In 
which  more  words  are  used  than  are  ne- 
cessary. 

PLETHORA.    A  preiematural  futuesa 

of  bIcKid. 

PLEl'R.A  A  membrane  covering  the 
inside  of  the  chest. 

I'l.El'RiSV.  .An  Innaiiimation  of  the 
pleura. 

PLF.KI.''.     A  net-work  of  ve«».-l». 

PLICA  POLONICA.  A  disease  nmnna 
the  Polanders,  which  causes  the  hair  ta 
be  cintleil  together  so  that  it  c:innot  ba 
separated. 

PLIERS.  .An  instrument  by  whick 
any  thing  is  laid  hold  of,  so  as  to  tiend  lU 


PLOT  (in  Dramatic  Poetrx).  Th»  thMa 
of  a  tragedy,  coaiady,  or  aaj  Oclitioui 
Darrarive. 


tH 


PLU 


PLOT  (li  SurveyiiiK).  Thn  plan  <  y 
4rau^lit  of  i  field  ur  any  piece  of  cniiina, 
■urveyeil  u  .li  an  nisiruiiieiil,  and  laid 
duwii  lit  itu.  |iri)jier  ligiire  uiiil  iliiiieiii'iiiiK. 

I'LuniNU.  'llie  deKoriliiii!:  or  liiviiia 
duvvii  uii  |i»{>er  llie  several  lined,  aiii;le«, 
tec  ,  <if  a  (ticce  ul  land. 

l'Ut\Hil.  A  sort  (if  liird  which  fre- 
qiieiiu  tlie  shores  ot'  Kni^land  in  ujiriiig, 
ajid  migrated  iii  aiiluiun.  'J'lie  (folden 
pliiver,  black-bell ieil  pliiver,  and  VViUnn'd 
pUiver,  are  the  varirlies  uf  llild  bird  most 
Cdininun  in  the  Middle  and  Kaslern  Stated  I 
They  l'r«<|iieiil  cuasls  and  ii|ien  gruihids.      | 

CLOL'i^il  (in  Aifrirulture).  A  niactiine 
(ur  :urninj;  up  the  soil  in  preparatiuii  liir 
receiving;  the  seed.  It  coiiMists  ul'a  vvuud- 
eii  frame,  with  a  handle ;  u  share,  or 
■har|)eiied  piece  uf  iron,  lixed  on  the  JHit- 
U)in  of  the  plimjjh  ;  and  a  cuiiller,  anolh- 
ercuttiu;;  iruu,  thai  dtaails  uprij^ht  in  the 
plougii. 


PLOUGH  (among  Dookbinders).  A 
narhine  for  cultin;;  the  edpes  iif  hcHiks. 

PL()tr(;HSIlARI-:.  The  ciittinH  iron 
fixed  at  the  hiittum  of  the  wood -work  of 
tbn  pluu{;li,  which  forms  tlie  (urruwa. 


PLUM  A  well  known  fruit  of  differ 
ent  kinila;  also  the  dried  raisin,  that  is 
iiiip<irt>-d. 

PLUMItAGO,  or  Black  Lead  An 
ore  of  a  shining  black  colour. 

PLUMRKK.  A  maker  of  leaden  ves- 
eW,  or  Worker  in  lead.  The  company  of 
plumlHsri  in  L<ondon  wad  incorporated 
in  Kill. 

PLUMB  LINE  (among  Artificers).  A 
per|f  ndintlar  to  the  horizon,  formed  by 
means  of  the  plummet. 

PLUME.  A  set  of  feathers  for  orna- 
ment, jiarticularly  ostrich  featherd. 

PL  CM  MET.  A  leaden  weielit  attached 
toa  Htrinc,  by  which  depths  are  sounded 
perjM-nliculariy,  and  per[i<*iidicular8  are 
taken  by  ca:  penters,  masons,  &c. 

Pl.URAI  .TV  (in  I.iw).  In  England, 
» term  appi  til  to  any  number  of  benefices 
noni  than  Ane  held  by  a  clergyman. 


PNE 

;*l,trs,  i.  e.  MoRB.  A  tenr  in  alccbm, 
j>  denote  uildilioii,  marked  by  (he  si^n 
(  4-  ><  AB  4-{-ti=lU,  that  Id,  4  plus  6  equal 
to  1(1. 

I'LUSIL  Cloth  ma.le  either  of  silk,  bj 
velvet  J  or  of  hair,  as  ciliaa. 

PM:U.MATIC.S.  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  mechanical  properties  of  ail 
and  other  compressible  tlnids.  'J'he  pnn 
cipal  iiieLliaiiical  properties  of  air  which 
are  treated  of  umler  this  science,  are  it* 
rinidity,  weijjht,  and  elasticity. 

P.NEUMATICS,  lli.ToB»  OK.  Allhi»i<:h 
the  ancients  did  not  investii:a\|!  the  pro- 
perties of  air  witli  the  same  miniiteiu'ss  lUl 
the  nioderiis  have  done,  yet  the  subject 
evidently  en}!a;!ed  the  nttentioii  of  Aristo- 
tle aiitl  other  (Grecian  philosophers.  Arid- 
totle  was  aware  of  the  cravity  of  the  air, 
and  observed  that  a  bladder  tilled  with  a.r 
Would  wei^li  more  than  the  .same  bl:idder 
when  empty  ;  and  Empedo<:les  .-tscrilied 
the  cause  of  respiration  to  the  wemht  of 
the  air,  which,  by  its  pressure,  insinuate* 
itself  into  the  luii<:8.  Its  elasticity  also, 
ad  well  ad  its  iiravity,  must  have  beea 
known  and  made  the  subject  of  e.vperi- 
inetits,  if  it  be  true,  as  is  related  liy  histo- 
rians, that  Hero  of  Alexaiiiiria,  and  (.'lesi> 
bins,  his  contemporary,  invented  air-cung. 
'J'he  subject  w.is,  however,  for  a  bum  time 
neglected,  or  treated  sii|ierticially  ;  for  the 
etlects  which  are  now  known  to  arise  from 
the  gravity  and  elasticity  of  the  air  were 
for  a  loiiu  time  attributed  to  the  imaginary 
principle  of  a  Fusa  Vacui,  or  Nature's  ab- 
liiirreiice  of  a  vacuum,  a  principle  which 
(:alile<idid  not  altogether  discard,  although 
he  was  fully  aware  of  the  gravity  of  tho 
•tlr,  and  pointed  out  two  methods  of  de- 
moiistratiii!!  it  by  weighing  the  air  in  bot- 
tles ;  but  the  jiressure  of  the  atmosphere 
was  lirst  discovered  by  Torricelli,  and 
clearly  demonstrated  by  an  ex|ieriment, 
which  terminated  in  the  invention  of  tlie 
barometer  in  1043.  It  occurred  to  him,  on 
ooservine  that  a  column  of  water,  34  feet 
hizh,  is  du.stained  above  its  level  in  the 
tube  of  a  common  pump,  that  the  same 
force,  whatever  that  was,  would  sustain  a 
column  of  nny  other  fluid  which  weighed 
as  much  aa  that  column  of  water  on  the 
dame  base  ;  and  hence  he  concluded  that 
ipiicksilver,  being  about  14  times  ad  heavy 
as  water,  would  not  lie  unstained  al  a 
greater  height  than  29  or  30  inches.  Ac- 
cordinsily  he  tiKik  a  gl;L«»  tube  of  seveial 
feet  in  length,  and,  having  sealed  it  herme- 
tically at  line  end,  he  hlle<l  it  with  quick- 
silver;  then,  Inverting  it,  he  held  it  up- 
ri<!ht,  end.  keepin::  Ins  linger  aeuinst  the 
ojien  or  biwer  orifice,  he  )  nmerwil  »!»• 


POC 

Mid  In  a  ves!i(>l  or  quirksilver,  and,  on 
mritlKlrawiiig  lux  tincer,  lie  I'luiiiil  llnii  the 
quicksilver,  acrnrdiiig  to  hiH  exiiecuiioii, 
deitceniled  till  llie  culuiiin  of  it  w;u)  uIhiuI 
30  iiicheM  above  tliiil  in  the  hih;!)  vessel  ; 
whence  he  was  led  to  inter  lh:il  it  could 
be  no  other  than  the  wei!;lil  of  the  :iiinos- 
phere  incuiiilient  un  liie  externul  siirt'uce  of 
the  quicksilver,  which  cuunlerhalanced 
the  flnid  in  the  tulie,  and  tbim  intriHliiced 
the  (iriiiriple  tjiut  the  air  hud  not  only 
weijiht,  Itiit  that  iUi  weight  was  the  cause 
vf  the  unstiension  of  water  in  |miiii|is,  and 
of  the  ijiiicksjlver  in  the  tube.  'I'his  |iriii- 
ci|ile,  alter  repealed  ex|ieniiiriits  from  the 
philoMiphers  in  France,  Kiiglaiid.andlier- 
liiaiiy,  iMT-aiiie  established,  and  llial  uf  llie 
Vacuum  was  liiially  ex|>liHled. 

Kroni  this  lime  they  iirtx-eeded  to  lie 
more  minute  in  their  investi^nttioiis,  and 
Father  Mersenne,  who  Wius  the  first  plii 
loiHi|>her  in  Krnnce  that  was  a|i|irized  of 
Torrn-elli's  etperinient,  set  about  deter- 
niinine  the  specilic  uravity  of  air,  which 
he  made  to  be  as  I  to  400  ;  but  Mr.  Koyle, 
by  a  more  accurate  exp<?riment,  came  to 
a  nearer  result,  and  made  it  to  l>r  to  that 
of  water  in  the  proporiiun  of  I  lo  Hibi  ,  and 
Mr.  Hawksltee  sniceedeil,  alter  re|ieated 
e.\iieriiiienis,  in  obtalnliio  the  pro|H>rtiiur 
of  I  lo  ti65.  Expeiiments  were  made  by 
others  in  the  winter  as  well  as  Hie  Slim- 
mer, and  the  medium  of  all  is  about  1  to 
8a2. 

As  to  the  elasticity  of  the  air,  which 
also  became  the  subject  of  e.X|ieriineiit,  it 
was  shown  that,  with  moderate  pressure, 
it  IS  always  proportional  lo  the  density, 
and  thai  the  density  is  always  as  the  ctun- 
pressiiiK  force  ;  whence  also  the  elasticity 
of  air  is  as  the  force  by  which  it  is  com- 
pressed. 

In  consequence  of  these  Investicntions 
into  llie  mechanical  properties  of  the  air, 
not  only  was  the  banuneter  inventi'd,  and 
the  air-Eun  revived,  but  other  pneumatic 
machines  were  contrived,  as  the  air-pump, 
air-balloon,  thermometer,  &c.  ;  of  which 
a  more  |Kirticiilar  accniinl  will  be  found 
under  tbeir  respective  heads. 

POACHING  (in  l>aw).  In  F.nsland, 
taking  game  by  unlawful  means,  privately 
and  witlioul  authority. 

IHX.'K  KT.  A  larce  nort  c.f  bag  in  which 
wool  is  packed.  A  pocket  of  wool  usually 
contains  'J5  cwt.  A  pocket  of  hojis  is  a 
■mall  bag  in  which  the  best  ho|i8  are  coni- 
luonly  put. 

POCKET-BOOK.      A   small    bo<ik   for 
boldini!  pa|¥<ni  and  memorandums,  which 
li  carried  In  the  (Hicket. 
POCKET-dUERlFF    (in    Law)       In 


I'OL 


tst 


Encl-ind,  a  sheritf  appointed  by  th«  king 
liiiiiseir,  u  liii  ih  not  one  of  the  three  Ouio- 
liialed  III  tlie  Exclieijuer. 

POE'I'KY.  1'he  art  of  writing  poems, 
or  tictitiona  coni|Hi8iiioiis  drawn  out  in 
measured  laiinuage.  As  res|4-cu  the  sub- 
ject, it  IS  dividi-d  inlo  pastorals,  si.tires, 
ele;!ies,  epiuraiiis,  &.c.  ;  as  res|i«i:l:t  tlie 
maimer  or  form  of  representation,  into 
epic,  lyric,  and  draiiiuiic  poetry,  &i.c.  ;  as 
res|>ecU  the  verse,  lulo  blank  verse  and 
rhyme. 

I'OI.VT  (in  Heoiuelry).  Thai  whicit 
has  neither  length,  breadth,  nor  thirkneiw 

I'OIN'J'  (ill  Astronomy).  1'lie  itaiiie  lor 
certain  parts  in  the  heavens,  as  the  cardi- 
nal points,  the  solstitial  points,  &.C. 

IHJINT  (among  Artists).  An  iron  or 
steel  instrimieiil  used  for  Iniciiig  designs 
on  cop|>er,  wiKid,  sttuie,  Slc.  ;  in  com- 
merce, lace  wrought  with  the  needle. 

PtilN'l'  in.AiNK.  I'he  shut  of  a  gun 
levelled  liorizonlally. 

POI.N'l'EU.  A  dog  tlial  poinu  out  tb* 
game 


POINTERS  (in  Astronomy^  Two«»*m 
in  Ursa  Major,  the  hinileriiiostof  the  Wain, 
so  called  because  they  always  point  neat- 
ly in  a  direction  towards  the  North  Pol* 
star. 

I'OINTINO  (in  Gunnery).  The  level 
ling  a  gun  towards  an  object. 

POINTING  (in  (Jrainmar).  Dividing* 
discourse  by  means  of  points. 

POINT  OK  SIGHT  (in  Perspective) 
A  point  on  a  plane  marked  nui  by  a  right 
line  drawn  from  the  perpendicular  to  th* 
plane. 

POINTS  (in  Grammar).  Hebrew  char- 
acters, to  express  vowel  sounds ;  also 
characters  for  separating  words  and  sen- 
tences froK  each  other,  as  the  com  ma  (,,, 
the  semicolon  (;),  the  colon  (:),  period  or 
lull  stop  (.),  note  of  admiration  (!),nol«  oi 
interrogation  (?). 

POINTS  OF  THE  CO.MPAS8.  Thir- 
ty-two divisions  in  the  manner's  compass, 
each  of  which  Is  II  degrees  and  15  min- 
utes dislaiil  from  each  other. 

POISO.N'.  Any  substance  which  in  a 
particular  manner  iliTinges  the  vital  fu'  «v 
tions,  and  termuialed  mortally,  if  111.1  co  in 
teracled. 

P01..\KrrY      The  prop'.rty  of  poiiiliiu 


296 


POL 


to  the  pnlpfl,  which  is  the  characteristic  of 
the  inaj^et. 

I'OLii.  A  jng  bar  of  wood,  cut  anil 
(itted  for  various  purposes,  as  llie  puie  ul 
a  carriage,  &c. 

I'OLE  (in  Surveying).  A  measure  con- 
taining 16  feet  and  a  half. 

I'OLK  (in  Miitlieinatics).  A  point  nine- 
ty degrees  distant  from  llie  plane  of  any 
circle. 

POLE  (in  Astronomy).  Tlie  extremity 
of  tiie  axis  of  tlie  earth,  an  imaginary 
point  on  the  earth's  surface,  of  whitti 
tlif  re  are  two,  namely,  the  Arctic  or  North 
Pole,  and  the  Antarctic  or  South  Pole. 
Tliese  are  so  encompassed  witli  ice,  tliat 
every  attempt  to  approach  them  within  a 
considerable  distance,  has  tiitherto  proved 
inelferlual. 

I'OLKt'AT.  An  animal  of  the  weasel 
tril)e,  which  emits  a  most  fend  vaj>our 
when  pursued.  It  inliabits  Europe  and 
Asiatic  Kussia. 

I'OLE.MICS.  Treatises  concerning  dis- 
puted points  in  theoln;}'. 

POLES  (in  Magnetism).  The  two 
points  of  a  masciiet,  corresponding  to  the 
p<>le8  of  the  world,  the  one  pointing  to  the 
north,  and  the  other  to  the  south. 

POLE  STAR, or  Polar  Star.  A  star 
of  '.he  .-iecond  magnitude,  the  la.st  in  the 
tail  of  Ursa  .Minor,  which,  owing  to  its 
proximity,  never  sets,  and  is  therefore  of 
great  use  to  navigators  in  determining  the 
ialitudes,  &c. 

POMOE.  The  internal  governtnent  of 
«i,y  town  or  country,  as  far  as  regards  the 
preservation  of  peace. 

POI.U^'Y.  The  art  of  "overnment,  prin- 
cipally a.i  regards  Ibreign  affairs. 

PnjjCY  OE  I\SL'RA.\(E.  An  in 
gtrument  or  deed  by  which  a  contract  of 
Insurance  is  effected. 

POLITICAL  ARfTriMETIC.  The 
application  of  arithmetical  cairuiations  to 
political  uses,  as  in  estimatir.e  the  reve- 
nues, resources,  and  population  of  a 
country. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY.  Tb*  art  or 
jeory  of  managing  the  atfairsof  any  state. 

PofjL,  or  Deed  Pom  (Id  l>aw)  A 
deed  that  is  polled  or  shaved  even. 

POLL  (in  Elections).  The  recister  of 
those  who  give  their  vote,  containing  their 
name,  plare  of  residence,  &c. 

POM..E.V.  A  prolific  powder  contained 
In  the  anther  of  flowers. 

POM-CX.  A  star  of  the  oecnnd  mag- 
Bitude  in  the  constellation  Gemini. 

P'^LY.  A  preftT  in  many  words,  de- 
Botini!  H  multitude  or' indefinite  number. 
ha  •i>ilv<«<'ii'ahik,t  m  word  oi  luaiiv  svllablfi 


POL 

polyeon,  a  fiffiire  of  many  angles  j  pnly- 
adelpliia,  (Kilyandria,  tcr, 

PULYAIIEM'IIIA  (in  Botany).  On« 
of  the  Liniiiean  classes,  including  plants 
th;it  have  many  stamens  to  each  llower 
united  liy  their  filanienla  into  three  or 
more  distinct  bundles. 


POLYANDRIA  fin  Botany).  One  of 
the  Linnxaii  rix'^ses,  including  plants,  the 
tloivers  of  which  have  many  alamens. 


POLYANTlirs.  A  plant  with  a  per- 
ennial r<Kit.  that  yields  many  flowers,  ft 
is  nuuh  cultivated  in  cardeiis.  and  iireatly 
esteemed  for  the  richness  and  diversity  of 
its  colours. 

P<^)LVO.\MIA  'in  Botany).  One  of  the 
f.iniiiean  cl;isaes.  inrludini;  plants  that 
have  both  male  and  female  (towers,  as  the 
fig-tree,  date-tree,  planuiin-lree,  &c. 


POLYOAMY.  The  havlne  more  than 
one  husband  or  one  wife,  either  at  the 
same  time  or  in  succession. 

POEYCAMY  (in  Law).  The  having 
more  than  one  husband  or  wife  at  the 
same  time,  which  is  felony. 

POEYGLOTT,  1.  e.  Many  laninm?e*; 
as  the  Polyglolt  Bible,  a  Bible  printed  in 
many  lansniHces. 

POl.VC.O.N.  A  ngtire  of  many  sides 
and  many  angles. 

POI.VC.V.MA  an  Botany')  «)ne  of  the 
I^inniean  orders,  containing  plants  the 
flowers  of  which  have  maiiv  pistils. 

I'fJLYPE.  All  animal  of  the  worni 
trltie     loliatiUB*   the   ■rnmim  wvinr«   nl 


roo 

Eu-»>pe,  which  Is  reinarkuMp  for  thn  jtrn- 1 
pert),  lh;u,  if  nil  iiito  ever  so  iiiuny  p<trt«, 
e»ch  (Kirl  liecuiiies  a  (H-rlecl  aiiiiiial. 

I'OLVi'CS.  A  sealish,  resuiiililing  thn 
CiiUle-fiDli,  HO  called  because  it  has  numer- 
auH  feel. 

rul.VrUS  (in  Siirgeo')'  A  fleshy  tii- 
muur,  coiniiionly  met  with  in  the  nose, 
that  aliiiiiiiil:<  in  raiuiiications,  from  wliich 
it  has  its  name. 

l'(  J  h  V  ri  \'  Iv  L A  BLE.  A  word  of  many 
tyllahles. 

I'OLVTHEISM.  The  doctrine  that 
Uiere  are  nmre  gods  than  one. 

l'<).M.\(;KiE  (in  lloumy).  One  of  Mn- 
noiiis's  natural  orders,  coiitaiiiins  plants 
vhat  have  a  pulpy  tniil,  as  the  apple,  pear, 
fcc. 

PDMATHM.  A  sweel-«cented  oint- 
ment, onglnally  made  of  the  juice  of  the 
apple,  calleil  poinewaler,  but  now  of  bugs' 
lard,  rose-water,  &.C. 

Pt).Mi:-APPLE.  A  Bmall  apple,  of  a 
pleasant  taste  and  m'atuful  scent. 

PtJ.MEGUANATE.  A  round  fruit,  of 
the  |>onieuniiuile  tree,  full  of  kernels. 

PuMO.\.\.  A  goddess  ainons  the  Ro- 
mans, worship|)ed  aa  the  patrouesa  of 
fruits  and  tlowera. 


POR 


iyi 


POMPEII.  A  town  of  Campania,  nt 
the  fool  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  which  was 
huried  in  an  eruption  that  happeticd  *.  i,. 
79.  The  ruins  were  discovered  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

PO.N'TIFEX.  'llie  high  priest  among 
the  Romans, 

PONTI  PP.  The  high  or  chief  priert  In 
<iie  Romish  and  Creek  churches,  as  the 
pope  or  patriarch 

PONTI  PICAMA.  The  robes  in  which 
a  bishop  performs  divine  ser^■ice. 

PONTONS.  A  bridge  made  of  pon- 
toons, or  b»>ats  fitted  for  th*  purpose  of 
sonveying  soldiers. 

POOP.  The  'ipoermost  part  of  a  alilp's 
MIL 


POPE,  or  PiPA.    A  title  originally  piTeu 
to  all  bisliiips,  as  the  falhers  of  the  church 
by  order  of  Ijregury   V'll.,  it   became  tha 
[>eculiar  title  of  the  bishops  of  Home,  aa 
heads  of  the  Uoiiiaii  Catlmlic  church. 

POI'LAK.  A  tall,  slender  tree,  uf  swift 
growth.  'I'he  wood  is  8ul\,  white,  and 
stringy. 

Population,  The  aggregate  num- 
ber of  people  in  any  country,  which,  ow- 
ing to  lh«  increase  of  births  above  that  of 
the  deaths,  is  cuiitiniially  increasing  in 
most  parts  of  the  habitable  world. 

POKCEl-AIN.  A  sort  of  earth  or  clay, 
the  hnest  kind  of  which  is  found  in  China; 
also  the  ware  made  of  porcelain  ur  any 
fine  earths.  In  China,  this  earth,  Im'Iii; 
beaten,  and  steeped  in  water,  affords  a 
cream  nt  the  tup,  and  a  grosser  substance 
at  the  bfitlom,  the  former  of  which  is  used 
for  the  finest  kind  of  ware,  or  china ;  and 
tlie  latter  fur  the  coarser  sort. 

PORCUPINE.  An  animal,  native  of 
warm  climates,  resembling  a  hedgehog 
but  c<msiderably  larger.  Its  body  is  fur 
nished  with  bristles  or  spines,  which  It 
erecta  when  It  i«  frightened. 


PORES,  Cavities  in  the  akin,  which 
serve  as  passages  for  the  perspiraticm  ;  alsc 
small  interstices  between  the  particles  of 
matter  which  compose  bodies. 

PORPHYRY.  A  compound  rock,  con- 
sisting most  commonly  of  felspar  and 
quart/.. 

PitllPOlSI^  A  sort  of  dolphin,  having 
a  broad  back  and  a  bliintish  snout.  Mul- 
titililes  of  lliese  lisll  are  often  seen  at  Sea 
and  frequently  they  play  about  ships. 


PORT.  A  harbour  or  place  of  shruer, 
where  ships  arrive  with  their  freights,  and 
customs  front  goods  are  taken  ;  also  tha 
wine  that  comes  from  Oporto. 

PiiRTcri.I.I.-^  (in  Fortification).  A 
niacliine    like  a  hanow,  hung  arez  t*i 


4U8 


POS 


PRA 


^tes  ■/  a  city,  to  be  let  down  to  teep  out 
the  enemy. 

POU'I'KR.  One  wlin  carrlfn  (foods  for 
hire,  and  also  one  who  nttendM  nt  :i  pile. 

I'OK'I'EK.  A  kind  of  malt  liquor  made 
of  hioli -dried  maSt. 

POItTHOLES.  Holed  in  the  Bides  of 
Uie  vessels,  throiiph  which  guns  are  put. 

PORTMANTEAU.  A  cloak  l.aH.  to 
carr>'  (he  necessary  rlothinj!  on  a  journey. 

Pt)SITION  (in  Arithmetic).  A  rule  in 
which  any  supposed  nuuilier  is  taken  at 
pleasure,  to  work  tlu  question  by. 

POt^rriVE  DEGKKE.  The  first  de- 
gree of  any  quality  expressed  by  the  word 
itself. 

POSITIVE  ELEtrTRICITV.  A  term 
applied  to  bodies  tupposed  to  contain 
more  than  their  nati  ral  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity. 

POSSE  COM  ITATIJS  (in  I.aw).  The 
armed  power  of  the  coiiiily,  or  the  alten- 
J.ince  of  all  persons  charged  liy  the  sheriff 
ki  assist  him  in  the  suppression  of  riotn, 
&c. 

POSSESSIVR  CASE  (in  Orammar). 
Any  ending  of  nouns  which  denotes  pos- 
session, 

POST  (in  Military  AtTaira)  Any  spot 
of  iiriiiind  that  is  uiarked  out  to  be  occu- 
pied by  soldiers. 

POST  (in  t.'ommerce).  A  conveyance 
for  letters  and  desiialcliea. 

PO.'^T  (in  (•ramiimr).  A  prefix  to  many 
words,  implying;  alter,  as  postdiluvian, 
after  the  deluge. 

POSTIU'MOUS  CHILD  (in  Law). 
One  bom  after  bU  father's  death. 

POST.VI  AN.  One  who  delivers  the  let- 
ters from  llie  post-oltire  to  the  persons  to 
whom  they  arc  addressed. 

POSITION.  In  aritlimetic,  a  rule  of 
Biippositioii.  called  .'il.so  Kiile  of  PnUe. — 
In  fjecmietry.  a  line  is  said  to  be  j;iven 
in  position  when  it«  direction  is  known  ; 
JniHii;initu<le,  when  its  len<>tli  is  known. 
—In  painting,  tlie  placing  of  tbe  model 
in  the  manner  best  calculated  for  the 
end  wlilch  the  painter  has  in  view. 

POSOLOGF.  That  part  of  medicine 
wliicli  teaches  tbe  right  administration 
of  doses. 

POSTPOSITIVE.  In  gram.,  placed 
after  IX  word. 

POST-POSITION.  In  grammar,  a 
word  or  particle  placed  after  or  at  the 
end  of  a  word,  and  which  shows  tlie 
relation  it  bears  to  anotLier  word  iu  the 
sentence. 

POS  r  OBIT.  A  boTid  payable  after 
tlie  death  of  a  certain  persoii  named  iu 
it,  from  whom  th«  person  granting  it 
has  expectations. 

POSriL.  A  marginal  aote,  originally 
iu  the  Bible. 


POSTULATE.  Any  fundamental  piln. 
ciple  in  a  .science  that  i.-<  taken  for  granted. 

POTASH.  An  impure  fi.xed  alkaline 
salt,  procured  by  buriiuis  vegetables.  It 
is  a  brittle,  corrosive  substance,  of  a  white 
colour  and  acrid  taste. 

POTASSIUM.  A  metallic  substance, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  basis  of  potash. 

POTATO.  An  edible  root,  once  pecu- 
liar to  America,  but  now  coiniiKin  in  moat 
countries. 

POTSTONE.  A  mineral  of  a  ereenisL- 
gray  colour,  found  abundantly  near  tba 
lake  Conio,  in  Loinbardy. 

POTTERY.  The  <nanufartiire  of  earth- 
en [Hits,  or  eBrlbeii'var*  in  general,  but 
particularly  of  llie  coarser  sorts. 

POUNCE.  The  powder  of  gum  sanda^ 
rach,  sifted  "ery  fine. 

POU.VD.  A  weight  containing  12  ounces 
Troy,  and  16  avoirdu|)(us  weight. 

POUND  (in  Law).  Any  enclosed  place 
for  the  keepin-;  of  beasts  in,  particularly 
such  as  are  distrained. 

POUNDER.  The  name  of  a  great  gun, 
fri'in  the  weight  of  the  bull  it  carries,  as  a 
six.  twelve,  and  twenty-four  pounder,  &C. 

POWDER.  Any  thing  as  fine  as  dust 
as  gunpowder,  hairiKiwder,  &c. 

POWDER  CIIE.STS.  Triangular  chests 
on  board  a  vessel  for  holding  the  gunpow- 
der, &.C. 

POWDER-HORN.  A  horn  in  which 
gun|H>wiler  is  kept. 

POWDER-MILL-  A  mill  in  which  the 
ingredients  for  gunpowder  are  ground  and 
mingled- 

PoWER  (in  Mechanics),  Any  force 
which,  applied  to  a  macliine,  sets  it  in 
motion.  There  are  six  simple  Miachines, 
which  are  particularly  denominated  the 
six  mechanical  powers,  namely,  tbe  lever, 
the  balance,  the  screw,  the  wheel  and 
axle,  the  wedge,  and  the  pulley. 

POWER  (in  Arithmetic).  The  produce 
of  any  quantity  multiplied  by  itself  any 
number  of  times,  as  the  square,  culie,  bi- 
quadrate,  &c. 

KiWER  (in  Law).  The  ajithoritjr 
which  one  man  gives  another,  toact  for  him. 

POWEK-LOO-M.  A  loom  worked  by 
steam  or  water. 

POWER  OF  ATTORNEY  (in  I-aw) 
An  instmment  or  deed  whereby  a  peraoa 
is  empowered  to  act  for  another. 

POWER  OP  A  CLASS  (in  Optics). 
The  distance  betwevn  the  c  nvexity  and 
the  fc'cus. 

POWTER.  A  sort  of  pigeon,  whici 
swells  up  its  neck  when  it  is  displeased. 

PRACTICE  (in  Arithmetic).  An  easy 
and  f  .tpediiiniis  metb'-d  nf  re«oiving  quet 


PRE 

Mnti?  <n  the  Rule  nf  1'liree,  n*  applird  <n 
titr  tlitlly  hii!iiiie!«M  i>f<n  VmdrMiiiiii. 

PH.M  TlCt;  (in  Law).  Any  Iniudulenl, 
■nderliiiiid  iiicde  of  proceediiii;. 

PKACriCK  OF  THIi  COURTS  (In 
Lnw).  Tile  Airm  and  mannrr  of  onidiicl- 
liie  and  carrying  on  suila  at  law  or  in 
ei|iiity. 

|-K>..\IUNiaB.     See  Piie»iU!«iRX. 

PK/t-;TOK.  A  chief  njajjistrale  ainnng 
the  Koncins,  iiistioited  for  the  ndininiMm- 
tion  .'I'  lUHlice  II)  tile  nii!<ence  dftlie  coiii^iilx. 

niAIUIh:.  Literally  a  iiteadow,  hut 
applied  lo  the  open  (•rounds  in  the  west- 
ern couilry,  which  are  geuenilly  level, 
•nit  i-i.'iny  ol'  llieiii  nt°  va^t  extent. 

I'KAWN.  A  small  sea  fish  of  the  crab 
kind.  I;ir<!er  tliuii  a  shrimp. 

I'UKAMBLK  (in  Law).  The  introduc- 
tory mutter  to  a  statute,  which  cuntains 
the  reitsons  tor  making  such  an  enactment. 

I'REBKNDAKV.  In  Kniiland,  an  ec- 
cleciaslic  wlio  enjoys  a  prebend. 

I'llKCARIOL't!  (in  Unw).  An  epithet 
for  what  IS  timiited  to  one  upim  entreaty, 
to  use  so  luus  as  the  party  thinks  fit. 

rilW;KUfc:NCE  (in  iloraldry).  The 
right  of  taking  place  before  another,  which 
is  delerinined  by  authority,  and  followed 
exactly  <in  all  public  occasions  of  proces 
•ions  and  the  tike, 

rUKCKOK.NT  (in  Law).  An  original 
•vriiing  or  deed  to  drew  others  hy. 

I'REC'KIT  (in  Law).  A  command  in 
writing,  sent  out  by  a  magistrate  for  the 
Ariiicing  a  |ierson  or  a  record  before  hint. 

rUECHs^lON  OF  THK  EULU.NO.X- 
ES.  A  slow  motion  of  the  equinoctial 
points,  by  which  they  change  llieir  place, 
going  from  east  to  west,  or  liackward,  in 
■  niecedentia,  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  contra- 
ry to  the  order  of  the  sign* 

rilECIPlTATE  (in  Cheinwtryl.  Any 
■ulistance  in  a  solution  which  separates 
and  falls  to  the  bottom,  particularly  a  cor- 
rosive medicine  made  by  precipitating 
mercury. 

I'KKCtPITATIO.V.  The  falling  or 
Cftusiiig  to  descend  the  particles  of  any  me- 
tallic or  niineni  body,  which  are  kejit  in 
uir  iiieiistnium  that  dissolved  it  by  putting 
III  siiiiie  nika'  ,&c. 

PKKIilCATE  (in  lyigic).  That  which 
ia  predicated,  that  is,  atlirtned  or  denied 
of-  a  tiling,  as  '  smw  is  white,  ink  is  not 
Whice  ;'  whiteness  is  here  predicated  of 
Oh;  snow  and  the  ink. 

I'RKKECT.  In  Europe,  the  governor 
of  a  place. 

PRELATE.  An  epithet  applied  to  a 
dlenified  cJergyinun,  as  a  bishop  and  orch- 
feishop. 


PRE 


J9> 


,  PREMISES  (in  Lncic)  The  two  rjrs* 
pr<>|n>.->itii'ii.si>l  a  a>  lluL'isni,  which  afe  pre- 
viously siippiised  to  be  proved. 

PKE.MISE8  (in  Uiw).  Thine*  spoke* 
of  or  ivUenrsed  before,  aa  lands,  tenenienls, 
&.C.,  before  mentioned  in  a  tease. 

PKE.MIUM.  Tbe  sum  of  money  given 
for  the  insuring  of  huiwes,  goods,  shi|>«,&c. 

PRE.MUMKE  (in  i.aw).  In  Knclai  I, 
•  writ  ongiiially  directed  against  these  of- 
I  fences  which  artecled  tJie  k.-iig  or  his  g'>v- 
eniment,  winch  were  cuuiuiilted.  uiu'er 
the  sanction  of  the  pope.  It  was  i:*er- 
wnrds  extended  lo  all  such  offences,  fn>m 
whatever  cause  they  werecoiiimilled  ;  alsq 
tbe  offence  itself,  u  Inch  subjected  the  of- 
fenderto  be  put  out  of  the  king's  protection. 

PKEf'BVTERIANS.  A  sect  ofprofe.-w. 
Ing  Christians,  so  called  from  iheir  admit- 
ting lay  elders  into  their  church  govern- 
ment. 

PRESCRIPTION  (in  Medicine).  Thai 
which  is  prescrilied  by  a  physician  to  be 
taken  hy  the  p.ilieiit, 

PRE.sCRiPTIO.\  (in  Law)  A  rigtl 
and  title  to  a  thing  grounded  npon  a  con- 
tinurd  possession  ol  it,  beyond  the  mem- 
ory of  man, 

PRESENTATION  (in  Law).  In  Eng- 
land,  the  offering  a  clerk  to  the  bishop  by 
his  patron,  to  be  instituted. 

PRliJiENTMENT  (in  Ijiw).  A  decla- 
ration  or  report  made  by  jurors  or  others, 
of  any  oflenre  to  be  inquired  of  in  the 
court  to  which  it  is  presented. 

PRI-:SERVE.  In  Eiieland,  a  small 
enclosed  place  in  centlemen's  grounds, 
where  mme  W  preserved. 

PRE.^S.  A  machine  by  which  thing! 
are  compressed.  It  acts  by  means  of  the 
screw,  and  serves  for  dlHerent  purposes, 
as  for  pressinu  the  juice  out  of  gni|)es  and 
other  fnrts  for  making  wine,  the  pressing 
of  the  curd  in  making  cheeses,  &c 

PRt^S.  The  printing  machine,  and 
also  printing  itself,  as  the  liberty  of  the 
press,  that  is,  the  liberty  of  printing  whiit 
ever  one  pleaseji  without  any  restriction 
from  the  government 

PRI-^S,or  PRKfsniKo.  InEne1nnd,a 
number  of  men  heaned  by  an  oftirer,  and 
appointed  toimpress  seamen  in  time  of  war. 

PRE.-<rMPTIVE  EVIIlENCEiin  Law). 
That  which  amounts  almost  to  full  proof. 

PRESUMPTIVE  HEIR.  One  who,  if 
tbeancertoTshotild  (tie  immediately .  would, 
under  present  circumstances,  t>e  his  heir, 
tis  distinguished  from  the  hiir  apparent. 

PREVENTIVE  SERVICE.  In  Kng 
land,  a  numner  of  men  employed  on  Uia 
coast,  to  keep  natch  aod  prevent  saiuf 
igliiig. 


300 


PRI 


PRO 


PRIMA  FACIE.  Oothe  fir.t  view  of  i  PRESSrROSTER  In  ornitholof-v-,  » 
«nT  qucition  tribe  ot  wadiug  birds,  iiicludins  those 

PRIMARY  PLANETS.  Those  which  ^^^'^^^  ^'^^e  "^  flattened  or  compressed 
revolve  round  the  Bun  as  a  centre,  as  Mer 


cury,  Venas,  the  Earth,   Mars,  Japiier, 
Saturn,  and  Her«chel. 

PRIMATE.  In  England,  the  firrt  or 
chief  archbishop. 

PRIMATE  (in  Zoology).  The  first  or- 
der in  the  Linnman  clusa  of  mammalia,  in- 
elnd  ing  man,  the  ape,  baboon,  monkey 
&c. 

PRIME  FIGURE.  That  which  cannot 
bo  divided  by  any  6gaTe  bat  it«elf. 

PRI  ME  OF  A  GUN.  The  powder  put 
into  the  toochbole. 

PRIMITIVE  (in  Grammar).  The  root 
or  original  word  in  a  language,  from  which 
others  are  derived. 

PllIMAGE.  In  commerce,  an  allow 
a7ice  paid  to  the  master  and  sailors  of  a 
shin  for  loading  or  uiiloadinjr  a  cargo, 
aiict  for  the  use  of  cables  and  ropes. 

I'RIMARY.     Au  epithet  of  frequent 
application  in  art  and  science. — In  as 
planets    are    those 


PRISM  (in  Geometry).  An  oblong  sol- 
id contained  ondor  more  than  four  planes, 
whose  bases  are  equal,  parallel,  and  alike 
situated. 

PRIS.M  (In  Dioptrics).  A  solid  glass  ia 
the  form  of  a  prism  much  used  in  ex- 
periments on  the  bAtore  of  li^ht  and 
colours. 

PRIVATEERS.  Vessels  fitted  oot  by 
private  persons,  with  the  license  of  the 
prince  or  «tate,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
prizes  oftbe  enemy's  ships  or  goods. 

PRIVET.  A  shrub  much  used  for 
hedges. 

PRIVY  (in  Law).  One  who  is  partak- 
er of,  or  has  an  interest  in,  any  action,  as 
privies  in  blood,  that  is,  heirs  to  the  ances- 
tor ;  privies  in  representation,  as  execu- 
tors or  administrators  to  the  deceased. 

PRIVY  COUNCIL.  In  England,  the 
principal  council  belonging  to  the  king, 

PRIVY  SEAL.    The  king's  seal,  whic^ 


tronoiny,   primai.y 

■which  revolve  rounii   the  sun  as  their 

centre,  in  distinction    from  secondaryl  is  first  set  to  such  grants  as  pass  the  Great 

planets    or    satellites,     which    revolve  Seal  ofEngland. 

round  the  prirauries.-Iu  painting,  prij      pRizg  (;„  ^aval   Affairs).     A   vessel 

niarv  colors  are  those  into  which  a  ray^  .  t.      e       .l 

of   sohir    light    may    be    decompose(\.j  ^"^^^  ^"""  ^^°  '"«"'y- 

Newton   siipiiosed  ithem    to  be  seven:'      PROBATE  (in  Law).     In  England  the 

red,  or.ange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,]  proving  of  wills  in  the  spiritual  court. 

and  vi.let.-In   geology    primary,  is  .o^      PROBATE,  Couht  or.     In  the  United 

terra   sonietune.s   applied   to  those  old  „.  .  .  .u  .  •      i         .       ... 

formations   composeTl   of   gneiss,  raicaj  ^'"^«»'  "/""'^  '''"  »  charged   with  the 

slate,  chlorite  slate,  and   clay  slate  or 

other    rocks    which    have    undergone 


great  change. 

PRIME.  In  dialling,  jaimc;  vertical 
is  a  vertical  circle  which  is  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  meridian. — In  arithmetic, 
prime  numbers  are  numbers  which 
have  no  divisors 

PRIMITI^.  The  first-fruits  of  any 
production  of  the  earth,  which  were 
uniformly  con.sectated  to  the  Ueity  by 
all  the  nations  of  antiquitv. 

PJUMITIVE.  A  term  frequently 
npi)lied  to  scientific  objects. 

PlilMOGENITURE.'  The  right  that 
belongs  to  the  elde-st  son  and  his  heir  to 
succeed  to  property  or  to  an  estate, 

PRIMORDIAL.  Existing  from  the 
beginning;  first  in  order;  oiigiual. 

PREPUCE.  The  skin  -which  is  re 
moved  by  circnmcision ;  that  fold  of 
integument  wliicJi  surrounds  and  en- 
velops the  glaiis  penis. 

PRESBYOPIA.  In  pathology,  a 
state  of  the  eye  observed  in  advanced 
age,  arisin<5  from  a  flattening  of  the 
corne.-i,  and  partial  loss  of  the  refrac- 
tive power  of  the  eye. 

PRETIBIAL.  In  anatomy,  situated 
(Ulteriorly  to  the  tibia. 


cttling  of  estates. 

PROBATION.  In  England,  the  trial  of 
a  student  who  is  to  take  bis  degrees, 

PROBATIONER,  h  England,  a  schor 
ar  who  undergoes  a  probation  at  the  uni- 
versity. 

PROBE.  A  surgeon's  instrument  for 
searching  the  depth,  &.c.,of  a  wound. 

PROBLEM  (in  Geometry).  A  projiosi- 
tion  in  which  something  is  proposed  to  be 
done. 

PRO  BONO  PUBLICO.  For  the  pub- 
lic good. 

PROBOSCIS.     An  Elephant's  trunk. 

PROCEEDS.  What  proceeds  or  arises 
from  any  mercantile  transaction,  as  the 
net  proceeds  of  a  sale 

PROCTOR.  In  England,  an  advocate 
in  the  civil  law. 

PRODUCE.  What  any  country  yieldt 
from  labour  and  growth,  which  may  serve 
either  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitauta, 
or  be  exported  to  foreign  countries.  The 
crops  of  grain,  &.e.,  are  the  prod«ee  gf 
t'efiehi* 


PRO 

PROnirri NG  {in  Geometry).  The  con- 
.inuing  a  line. 

I'KODIj'CT.  The  number  or  quantity 
produced  by  niulliplyiiii;  iwuoriiiure  nuiii- 
itera  i<ii;«ltiL-r,  as  ax-^^ii^,  tlie  |.ioducl  re- 
quired. 

I'RODUCTION.  A  work  either  of  na 
ture  or  art,  iis  ijie  prnductioiis  or  tlie  field, 
or  the  prixliictions  u(  the  prmM. 

I'KDKliSSDH.  A  leiiurer  or  reader  on 
any  art  or  Hcieiice  ;  oue  who  publicly 
leaclies  any  art. 

IKOKILl-;  (in  Architecture).  The 
irau^ilu  fif  a  buildinz,  rurtifioations,  &.c. 

I'RdKII.K  (in  ^iculplure  and  Painting). 
A  head  or  p<irtrait  when  repreisenled  side- 
Ways,  or  in  a  fide  view. 

I'ROKrr.  What  18  gained  by  imy  nier- 
caulile  intnsaction. 

niOKIT  A.NU  LOSS  (in  Commerce.) 

The  proiit  or  lois  ariaing  from  goods  bou;:ht 

■nd  «old  ;  the  former  of  whic4i,  in  iKtok 

et-piiii;,  is  placed  on  the  creditor's  side, 

tbe  laller  on  the  debtor's  side. 

PIU)  KuKMA.     By  wny  of  form 

PKOi;!<A.\lMA.  A  bill  or  advertise- 
ment containing  the  notiie  of  any  exliibi- 
tion  or  rereninny. 

I'KOi;RKSS1()N  (in  Arithmetic  and 
Geometry).  A  series  of  quantities,  keep- 
ing a  certain  ratio  aiiionf;  themselves ; 
when  lliey  decrease  or  increase  witlieqiinl 
differences,  it  is  called  arithmetical  pro- 
gression, a<i  1,3,  5.  7.  9;  when  they  in- 
crease by  a  coinujon  mullipi.er,  or  de- 
crease by  a  coiniiiim  divisor,  il  is  culled 
geometrical  projrrrssion,  a.«  I.  9,  <,  8,  Ifi, 
which  increase  by  the  coiiimon  multi- 
plier, 2. 

PKOIIiniTEI)  GuODi?  (in  I  Jin).  Such 
as  are  prohil)ited  to  be  carried  out  of  or 
brocsht  into  any  country. 

PIlvjJKirrn..ES.  Bodies  which  are 
thrown  forward  with  any  violent  force,  as 

st<ine  cast  from  a  sline,  or  a  bullet  shot 
from  a  Kun.  The  curve  line  represents  tlie 
path  of  3  projectile,  or  ball  shot  from  the 
cannon 


PKO 


30 


PROJECTION.  The  represe«it.ation  of 
an  object  on  the  perspective  plane. 

PROJtX'TION  (In  Architecture).  The 
out  juttiiii!  or  prominency  of  columns,  tc, 
bsyond  the  naked  wall. 

PROLEGOME.NA.  An  introduction  or 
p  eliminary  discoiir;*. 

PiiOMISSOKV    NOTE-      A    note   of 


hand,  promifniig  the  inymenloTa  certtls 
sum  ut  a  Certain  ciuie. 

PRO.MONTORY.  Any  high  grouna 
niniiiiiK  out  into  ^lic  tea. 

PRU.MPTEll  One  who  dicLates  to  th« 
actors  during  the  peribriiiaiice. 

PRU.VOUN  (in  Gramm.ar).  A  word 
standing  in  the  place  of  a  noun,  and  mark, 
ing  tlie  ditferent  person.s.  They  are  |K-r- 
8<iiial,  when  they  simply  denote  the  per- 
son, as  'I,  thou,  he,'  tc.  ;  |Hjsj"es*ive, 
when  they  also  denote  |KitiseKsion,  as  '  luv. 
thine,  his,'  &.C. ;  relative,  »  hen  tliey  ex- 
press a  relation  to  something  going  before, 
as  'which,  what;'  interrogative,  when 
they  serve  to  ask  a  ipiestimi  ;  deuKmstra- 
tive,  when  they  point  out  things  precisely 
as  'this,  that;'  indeiinite,  when  they 
point  out  things  indefinitely,  as  '  any, 
some.' 

PROOF  (in  Printing).  An  impression 
from  a  copi>er-plate,  to  show  the  sunte  of 
the  engraving  ;  also  an  impression  taken 
s<ion  aftertheengraving  istinisHed.  Proofs 
often  sell  at  double  the  price  of  other  im- 
pressions. 

PROOF  OF  A  GUN.  The  trial  to  as- 
certain that  il  is  well  cast. 

PROO  F  SUE  ET.  The  sheet  of  a  bo«k 
taken  olf  to  be  corrected. 

PROOF  SPIRrl■^^.  SpiriU  which,  on 
proof  or  trial,  are  found  to  be  of  good 
quality. 

PR(jPER  NA.ME.  The  name  of  a  par 
ticniar  person  or  thing. 

PROPERTY  (in  Law).  The  highest 
right  a  man  h.-is  to  any  thing. 

PROPERTY  (in  Physics).  Any  attri- 
bute of  a  thing  which  is  not  essential  to 
its  existence. 

PROPORTIO.N.  The  equality  or  sinii 
lituite  of  ratios  ;  thus  the  four  nunil>ers,  4, 
8,  15,  30,  are  proportionals,  or  in  pn>iH>r- 
tion,  because  the  ratio  of  4  to  ri  is  e«|ual  •" 
similar  to  that  of  l.*)  to  :tO,  it  beiiiL'  in  both 
cases  as  1  to  2.  Between  proiKirtion  and 
ratio  there  is  Ibis  dill'ereuce,  that  the  prc^ 
portion  consists  always  ot  four  teriiis,  and 
the  nitio  only  of  two. 

PROPOfSITIO.N  (in  M.ilhemntirs).  .\ 
thing  propt>8ed  to  be  deiiumstnted  or  pro- 
vided. 

PROPOSITIO.N  (in  Ixieic).  Any  sen- 
tence or  speech  wnich  alf.rms  or  denies 
any  thing  ;  consisting  of  tlie  subject,  oi 
that  of  which  any  affirmation  or  denial  is 
made ;  the  predicate,  or  that  which  is  af- 
firmed or  denied  of  tlie  subject ;  and  the 
copula,  which  unites  the  two. 

PROROGATIO.N.  In  England,  the  inter- 
ruption or  putting  off  a  session  of  p-irlta- 
uirnttoacertain  time  appointed  by  ihe  king 


9fi 


PRO 


I'RfJSECLTTION  Mn  l.nw).  The  rom- 
mriiri'ig  a  suit  agamsi  any  une  ih  a  cuuri 
of  In'.v. 

rilOSODY.  That  branch  of  ptammar 
which  leaches  tlie  proiiuiiciatitm  of  words 
•cco'ding  to  a  certain  rule  or  me;i!«ure. 
riio  TKMI'ORK.  For  llie  time  being. 
PR(^TK.t>T.  la  Knglaiid,  the  dec)aia- 
tion  ol  any  peer  in  parliament  stating  his 
dissent  from  the  vote  of  the  house,  and 
his  reasons  for  such  dissent,  wliich  he  lias 
a  rijrht  of  entering  on  the  journals  of  tlie 
house,  also  a  declaration  against  the  pro- 
ceedings of  a  court. 

PUOTKSV  (in  Commerce).  The  act  of 
the  master,  on  his  arrival  with  his  ship 
from  parts  beyond  the  seas,  to  save  hiiu 
and  his  owners  harmless  and  indemnified 
from  damage  sustained  during  astorm  ;  also 
the  declaration  made  by  the  holder  of  a  bill 
of  exchan'^,  that  the  same  is  dishonoured. 

PROTESTANT.  The  name  first  given 
to  the  followers  of  Luther,  who  protested, 
at  the  diet  of  Spires,  against  a  decree  of 
Charles  V. ;  a  name  since  given  to  all 
members  of  the  reformed  churches. 

PROTEUS.  A  sea  deity,  who  was  laid 
to  assume  various  shapes. 

PROTIIONOTARY.  In  England,  a 
chief  clerk  of  the  king's  bench  and  com- 
mon pleas. 

PROTOCOL.  The  first  draught  of  a 
deed,  contract,  or  instrument. 

PROTOMARTYR.  The  first  martyr  or 
witness  that  suffered  death  in  testimony 
of  the  truth  ;  a  title  given  to  St.  Stephen. 

PROTOTYPE.  The  first  pattern  or 
model  of  a  thing ;  the  original  of  a  copy. 

PROTRACTOR  (in  Surgery).  An  in- 
f  1  rumeni  for  drawin^  out  extrdneous bodies 
from  a  wound. 

PROTRAt;TOR  (in  Surveying).  An 
instrument  for  laying  down  on  paper  the 
an-gles  in  a  field.  The  prolracfor  is  a  small 
semicircle  of  brass  or  other  material,  the 
limbor  circumference  of  which  is  nicely  di- 
vided intoone  hundred  and  eighty  degrees. 

PROV.  An  abbreviation  for  Proverbs. 

PROVISO  (in  Law).  A  condition  in- 
serted in  a  deed. 

PROVOST.  The  mayor  or  chief  magis- 
trate in  Scotch  cities  and  towns. 

PROVOST-MARSHAL.  An  officer  In 
the  army,  whose  concern  it  is  to  appre- 
hend deserters  ;  and  in  the  navy,  to  take 
cha'ce  of  the  prisoners,  &c. 

PROVV.  The  head  or  fore  part  of  a  ship. 

PROXY.  One  who  acts  or  stands  for 
another  in  his  absence. 

PRO.KY  (in  the  House  of  Lords  in  Eng- 
land), llie  peer  who  is  deputed  by  anotb- 
f  to  vote  for  htiii  in  his  absence. 


PUL 

PRITNKLLA.  A  preparation  of  purt 
lied  saltpetre. 

PRU.MNtJ.  I»pping  off  superfluout 
branches  of  trees,  in  order  to  make  theK 
bear  fruit  the  l)etler  ;  an  important  part  of 
gardening,  which  can  be  learned  only  by 
practice  and  experience. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE.  A  pigment  of  a 
dark  blue  colour,  now  procured  from  bu^ 
lock's  blood,  carl«inate  of  potash,  vitricd 
of  iron,  alum,  and  muriatic  acid. 

PRI'SSIC  ACID.  An  acid  procured 
from  i'russian  blue,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  violent  poisons. 

PSEUDO,  i.  e.  Falsi.  A  prefix  used 
to  mr.ny  words,  as  pseudo  martyr,  a  cuuii- 
terfeii  martyr. 

P'J'OLL.MAIC  SYSTEM.  The  system 
of  astronomy  laid  down  by  I'tolemy,  ths 
celebrated  astrtuiomeraiid  mathematician 
of  Pelusiuni  in  Egypt.  This  system  is 
founded  oh  the  hypothesis  that  the  earth  is 
immovably  fixed  in  the  centre,  not  of  the 
world  only,  but  also  of  the  uiiiverne,  round 
which  the  siui,  mmui,  planets,  a:id  stars  all 
move  from  east  to  west  once  in  24  hours. 

PUBLICAN.  A  laxgatherer,  or  farmei 
of  the  public  revenues  amwng  the  Romans; 
now  the  keeper  of  a  public  house  or  com- 
mon place  of  entertainment. 

PUBLICATION.  In  England,  the  gl». 
ing  out  copies  of  depositions  in  the  Court 
of  Chancery. 

PUBLICATION  (in  I>iterature).  Tho 
editins  and  printinz  a  book  ;  also  any  book 
or  |>amphlet  offered  to  the  public. 

PUBLISHER.  One  who  puts  forth  any 
printed  book  to  the  world,  particularly  h» 
who  prints  and  publishes  the  manuscript 
copies  of  authors. 

PUDIIINO  STONE.  A  mineral  aggr«»- 
gate,  consisting  of  Hint  pebbles  imbedded 
in  a  silicious  cement. 

PUFFI.N.     A  sort  of  auk  orsea-gull. 

PULLET.     A  youMi!  lieH. 

PULLEY.  One  of  the  six  mechanical 
powers,  consisting  of  a  sniiill  wheel,  hav- 
ing a  groove  around  it,  and  turning  on  an 
alis,  aa  in  the  subjoined  cut. 


PULLEYS,  Stitcm  of,  or  Poltspa* 

Ton.    An  aasemblage  of  Mveiai  puller* 


PUM 

eroibtnsd  tneether,  some  of  which  are  In 
B  Miick  or  ca.<e,  wliicli  m  tiled,  and  (.tb»-r« 
In  a  iiiovatile  bluck,  Uial  riMw  and  tails 
Willi  Uis  weuttt 


PUR 


30S 


Pt'LP.  Tho  toft  part  of  fruiu,  roots 
&c. 

I'L'I.PIT.  A  sta^p  amonp  tli*  Rom.ins, 
ctn  winch  tiie  actom  perfuniied  ibeir 
parts. 

PI'LPIT  (m  the  Chrwtian  t'hiirch).  An 
elevated  desk,  where  the  sernii>n  it  de- 
livered. 

PLU^ATION.  The  bratin;  of  the 
piilw> :  al!<o  a  mortiid  Mensation  in  the  body 
like  the  lieatins  of  tlie  piilxe. 

Piri«*K(in  Anatomy).  Thebeatingof 
the  arteries,  or  their  allemale  contrtction 
and  ililatmion.  by  u'hirh  the  hloud  is  im- 
pelled lorward  to  all  part*  of  the  body. 

Pri>K  (in  I'hysirsl.  The  stroke  with 
whirh  any  mediiirn  is  etTected  by  the  mo- 
tion uf  lipht,  !«iind.  &c. 

I'l'I^R  <in  Kol.'iny).  All  sorts  of  grain 
contained  in  hii^ikK  or  shells, 

ni.VKRIZATln.N.  The  n*dufinB 
any  wolnl  sobmanre  t<i  powder ;  or,  in  re- 
gard to  the  mil,  rediiring  it  to  a  state  of 
fineneHU  lit  fur  the  receplinn  «if  the  seed; 
an  iiii|Hirtaiil  part  of  husbandry. 

Pr,MA.  'I'he  cougar  of  America.  It  is 
found  both  m  the  northern  and  iwHithern 
divisiiinti.  In  North  America  it  is  vul- 
garly called  panther.  It  i!<  now  seldom 
found  in  the  .Atlantic  SL-ites,  tho  <ph 
It  was  formerly  common  in  all  |Kirt>.  of 
the  country.  It  is  alioiil  the  8i7.e  of  a 
laree  dog,  and  is  of  a  general  a.«h  ci>loiir. 
It  is  sometimes  called  tie  Smitli  Aiiiericjin 
lion  :  it  is  of  siilhrient  strength  to  bear 
the  body  of  a  man  tip  a  tree. 

PIT  .MICE  STONK.  A  spiiney,  licht, 
crunihlins  stone,  which  is  cant  out  from 
volcanic  moiii.taiiis. 

PIT.MP.  A  machine  for  drawine  water 
or  any  other  fl  iid,  the  invention  of  which 
is  ascribed  to  t  "tesibiiis  ;  piini|>Mmy  either 
m;  (brcing  piiinps,  or  liding  and  sucking 


pumps,  whiOi  latter  are  in  mnet  consul 
use. 


PUMPKtN.  A  well  known  Tecetabk 
that  erows  upon  a  vine,  and  in  New  EBf* 
land  is  much  used  fur  pies. 


PUN.  A  plar<n«  with  words  whiek 
agree  in  sound,  but  dilTer  in  sense. 

PUNCH.  A  liipior  made  with  water, 
sugar,  and  the  juice  of  I*  inons  or  omnires  ; 
also  an  instninient  uf  iron  or  steel,  used  in 
piercing  holes. 

PU.NCH  K(  )N.  A  block  or  piece  of  «eel 
having  figures  engraven  on  it,  from  which 
impressions  are  taken  ;  it  is  used  by  gold- 
smiths, cutlers,  pewterers,  &.c. 

PL'.NCTIIATION.  That  branch  of 
grammar  which  leaches  the  right  nieihod 
of  dividing  sentences  hy  means  of  points 
or  sto|is.     See  PoinT*, 

PUNtrrUATION  (In  Rnrgery),  The 
operation  of  making  punctures  or  small 
wounds  in  the  skin  with  a  neeille,  fur  re- 
lief in  certain  disorders,  as  rheiiniatiMn. 

PI'.N'T.     A  sort  of  tiatbottomeil  Isiat. 

PUP.A.  The  chr}'8.ilis or  quiescent  stnt« 
of  an  insect. 

Pl'Plh  (in  Anatomy).  The  round  ajier- 
iiire  in  the  middle  of  the  iris,  the  ball  or 
apple  of  the  eye,  through  Wliich  the  llglM 
passes. 

PL'PIL  (In  the  Civil  Law).  One  undef 
the  care  of  a  tutor. 

PI' no  ATIO.V.  The  clearing  one's  seU 
of  a  crime  ;  a  mode  of  trying  |)er»  lis  ac- 
cused of  any  crime,  M  hich  ua:i  loi'.lterly 
in  practice  in  EniclaiK' 


304 


QUA 


QUA 


Pf.'RGATORY.  A  place  where,  ac- 
eordinc  t<>  the  Koinan  (.'nlholic!),  liie  miuls 
of  the  failhliil  are  piintieil  by  tire,  Iroiii  the 
•ina  which  they  carry  with  ilieiii  out  of 
this  life,  before  they  are  ailinitled  to  a 
Btate  of  |)erfect  hliwj. 

PURITAN.  In  England,  a  name  given 
originally  in  den^ioii  to  ilissenierK,  who 
professed  to  have  a  purer  doctrine  and 
discipline  than  others. 

PURPLE.  Aniixed  rolourof  red  and  blue. 

PURSER.  An  olfir.er  ou  board  a  man 
of  war,  who  takes  charge  of  the  provisions. 

PUS.  The  corrupt  niatti^r  issuing  from 
a  sore,  which  usually  precedes  the  heal- 
ing, and  in  sucli  cases  is  termed  healthy  or 
good  conditioned  pus, 

PUTRtFACTlO.V.  The  spontaneous 
decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable 
mutter,  accompanied  mostly  with  a  fetid 
smell.  Water  and  atmospheric  air  are 
active  agents  in  this  process  ol  nature. 

PUTTY.  Whiting  and  linseed  oil 
poundea  toaetlier  into  a  paste,  which  is 
used  by  glaziers  in  fastening  the  panes  of 
glass,  and  also  by  painters  in  stopping 
crevices. 

PUZZULANA.  A  gray  kind  of  earth 
used  in  Italy  (itr  building  under  water. 

PYRAMID  (in  Architecture).  A  solid 
massy  edifice,  constructed  in  the  figure  of 
«  pyramid,  a*  described  in  Uie  next  article. 


Of  these  ertifires  the  Egj'ptians  have  lefl 
some  S[ie<-mic'iis,  as  wonden'ul  iiionuiiienU 
of  hiini^ui  skill.  The  lamest  pyramid,  or 
the  (Treat  pyramid,  as  it  is  called,  is  sitna- 
ed  with  others,  near  Memphis,  and  is  at>out 
50lMeelliigh. 

PVRA.MID  (in  Geometry).  A  solid 
standini!  on  a  Iriiineulnr.  square,  «r  poly- 
gonal biisis,  and  lerntinaung  in  a  vertex  m 
point  at  the  top. 

PYRITES.  A  mineral  composed  af 
iion  and  sulphur. 

PYROLU;.\EOUS  ACin.  An  arid 
obtained  from  beech  and  other  wimhIs, 
which  is  a  liipiid  of  tbe  colour  of  white 
wine,  of  a  strong  acid,  nnd  siigliMy  astrin- 
gent taste.  It  18  an  antiseptic,  unJ  serves 
instead  of  wood  smoke,  of  which  it  is 
the  principle,  for  preserving  aniical  sub- 
stances. 

PYROMETER.  An  instrument  foi 
meai<urinc  high  temperatures,  |Kirticularly 
the  one  invented  by  Mr.  Wedgewood  for 
determining  the  expansion  of  solid  bodies 
by  beat.  This  instrument  is  founded  on 
the  principle  that  clay  progressively  con- 
tracts in  its  dimensions  in  pro|>ortion  as  it 
is  exposed  to  higher  degrees  of  heal. 

PYROPHORUS.  A  preparation  from 
alum  by  calcination,  which  takes  fire  on 
exposure  to  the  air. 

PYROTECHNY.  The  science  which 
teaches  the  management  and  application 
of  tire  in  several  operations,  particularly 
in  the  construction  of  artificial  fire 
works. 

PYTHAGOREAN  SYSTEM.  The 
systeai  of  astronomy  taueht  by  Pythagoras, 
which  was  founded  on  the  hypothesis  that 
the  sun  was  a  movable  sphere  situated  in 
the  centre,  round  which  the  other  planets 
revelved.  This  is  now  called  tlie<"oper- 
nican  system,  because  it  was  revived  bj 
Copernicus. 

PYTHIAN  GAMES.  G.imes  celebrated 
in  Greece  every  five  years,  lu  honour  oi 
the  Pythian  Apollo  at  Delphi. 


Q,  the  seventeenth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
as  a  numeral,  stood  fo:  HM;  with  a  dash 
over  it,  thus  (i,  for  5000  ;  as  an  abbrevia- 
tion among  the  Romans  for  Uuiutus,&.c. ; 
among  Mathematicians,  (X.  E.  D.,  Q,uod 
erat  demonstrandum,  i.  e.,  which  was  to 
be  demonstrated,  &c.  ;  among  Physicians, 
Q..  S.  Quantum  siifficit,  af  much  as  was 
necessary. 
QUACK      A  medical  im'  lostor 


aUADRANGLE  (in  Geometry)  A  fig- 
ure consisting  of  four  sides  and  four  angles. 

QUADR.\NGLE(in  Architecture).  Any 
range  of  houses  or  buildings  with  foot 
sides  in  the  form  of  a  square. 

aUADRA.NT  (in  Geometry).  An  arc 
of  a  circle,  containing  the  fourth  part,  ot 
ninety  degrees. 

aU.VDRA.NVI'  (in  ,\stronomy  and  Na- 
vigation).    An  instrumen*.  for  taking  tbe 


QUA 

»ltitiii1<H<  of  the  xun  and  siars.  Qiiadnintii 
areoriliirerfliiriiriiis.  Inmlif  iiuisl  f<tetin 
ed  in  llndley's  (|iiiiilmnl,  iu  reprt-sfiiifd 
unrtrniraih.  Tliis  <-iiiisi8U<  o(  an  ncintit, 
or  the  «it'lilh  part  <i«  a  rirrlr.  thr  imlrx. 
the  siifciiiiiiii.  two  hnriziiiiCil  gl:i»irs,  two 
•crtwna,  and  twu  vigbi  vaiiea. 


QUA 


306 


rop*".    'Hip  bird  called  unail  in  New  ting- 
land,  18  called  (larlrulge  nl  lAc  isouitl 


an.ADRATnH  (in  Printing).  Square 
pjeces  nr  metal  for  fillitii;  up  void  s|iaceM 
between  letlen,  words.  &.C. 

UUAIHiATK;  KUI'ATIOV  (in  Alge- 
bin).  An  ef|uatiiin  in  wliicli  the  unkU4iwn 
quantity  i»  a  xqiinre. 

Ul.'ADKAIt'H  K.  The  (indinR  a  iiqiiare 
e<]iial  ici  tlie  area  nf  any  rienre  civen. 

UlIAItKATt'lU:  <)K  TIIK  CIRCLE. 
The  findiii)!  some  other  rieht  lined  llaiire 
equal  to  the  area  of  a  rirrle,  ur  a  rielit  line 
equal  to  itj4  cirriiiiiierenc«,  a  prohlem 
which  haK  employed  the  niatheinaliriann 
of  all  n<!e«,  tint  a^iyet  in  vain.  It  depend.t 
upon  the  ratio  of  the  diameter  to  the  |M-ri 
phery,  whirh  wa."  never  yet  determined 
in  precise  niinitx-rs.  Arrhiiiiedes  showed 
tliat  the  diameler  of  a  circle  ia  to  the  nr- 
ciiiiiference  a.*  7  to  K,  and  the  area  of  a 
Circle  to  the  (qiiare  of  llie  diameter  aa  il 
to  14  nearly. 

QUADIIATCRR  OF  CITRVES.  The 
finding  a  rectilineal  Rpace  equal  to  a  pro- 
powd  cnrviliiieal  one. 

tiUADRII.AI  T.KAL.  Four  sided;  an 
epi'het  for  a  square,  parallelogram,  and 
other  ficnres  havine  four  i«ideg. 

Ul' ADRI  LLC.  A  game  at  cards  played 
by  four  per»ii\.<. 

UUAIiRUI'KD.  Any  four-footed  ani- 
mal 

UI'AnR'ni'R-     Fourfold. 

<il'/F.S'r<iR.  An  officer  amons  the 
Roniann,  who  li.td  the  charse  of  the  puhlic 
leveniies. 

ttl'ACflA.  A  upeciea  of  wild  ag»  in 
B<»uthern  Africji. 

m'AII.  A  bird  of  same,  nbont  hiilf 
(jMaizeof  I  partriilse.  The  quail  of  Amer- 
ica it  not  txactly  the  Kiiiie  u  that  of  I'.ii- 


arJAKHRS.  A  relicioiis  sect  of  pro- 
fesmnc  (t|iri!<tiaii»,  reni.-irkahle  for  their 
8tii^iilnr  iieatiictiH  of  dress,  anil  many  olher 
peculiarities,  'i'hey  are  also  denoniinaled 
Friends,  because  they  address  all  personi 
by  the  style  of  friend 

UCAMTY  (in  Physics).  The  property 
of  any  body  whirh  affects  our  iiei,>es  in 
such  manner,  aa  tliat  It  may  be  distin- 
Ciiii'hed. 

UCANTITY  (In  Physics)  Anything 
raiKible  of  estimation  or  inensiinition, 
which,  beine  compared  with  another  thing 
of  the  same  nature,  may  be  said  to  ha 
greater  ot  less,  equal  or  unequal  to  it. 
Nat  :nil  quantity  is  that  winch  nature 
furnishes  us  with  in  matter,  and  its  ex- 
tensions. 

ULA.NTtTY  (in  Grammar).  An  alfee- 
tlr>nnf  a  syllable,  or  that  which  deterniiiiea 
a  syllable  to  be  long  or  short. 

CirANTl'M  SIFFICIT.ora.S.  Tliat 
which  is  necessary. 

UUA.Vn;.\|  VALEBA.NT.  As  much 
as  they  were  worth  ;  applied  to  giMxia 

tilMUA.N'TI.NK.  The  space  of  forty 
days,  the  time  which  every  ship,  susjiected 
of  infection,  is  oliliued  to  remain  in  some 
appointed  place,  without  holding  any  in* 
tercoiirse  wiih  ihe  shore. 

(iUARRUL.  UF  GLASS.  Asqnareor 
glass. 

tllJARRY.  A  place  underground,  out 
of  which  are  got  marble,  freestone,  s|;ite, 
limestone,  &c. 

UI;aRTA.\.  a  fever  or  ague  that 
comes  every  fourth  day. 

UdARTF.R  (in  Arithmetic).  The 
fourth  part  of  any  thing. 

(ilTAKTKR  (in  Commerce).  A  corn 
measure,  coiilaiiiin!!  eitilit  bushels. 

tlCARTER  (In  Car|ieniry).  A  pieca 
of  timlHT  fi>ur  inches  sipiare. 

UIARTER  (in  Naval  Architecture). 
That  pi!  t  of  a  ship's  hull  which  lies  frua 
the  •iieerase  lo  Ihe  Iriiisiim. 

Hi"  A  ill"  ER  (in  I  ;eoi.'raphy).  A  nama 
for  the  lour  divisions  of  the  (.'lobe. 

UUAllTEK  (in  Mi'ilarY  Affaiia)      ITw 


906 


R 


RAB 


•parins  o(  men's  lives,  and  pivlne  good 
treHtuiciil  lo  a  v;iii(|iiislit^(l  pneiiiy. 

ULAIMKR  DAY'S.  Tlie  duys  which 
becin  the  t(mr(|ii,'tr(ert)  of  llie  y«*:tr,  n.iinely, 
lln*  i'lih  111  .Miirrli,  or  Lady  Day  ;  iliet'4tli 
of  Jiuiv.  or  Miilsiiiiiiiier  Itiiy  ;  the 'i!Uli  of 
fe|iieiiil>er,  or  .Mlrliarhiia.i  Hay  ;  and  the 
2.')lh  'if  Decciiilicr,  or  Christmas  Hay. 

aaARTKlll.Vt;  (m  l.avv).  Tlie  divid- 
ioe  the  hody  of  a  traitor  Into  four  parts 
after  It  Is  heheaded. 

Cil.'AKTKKI.\<;S.  The  partitions  in 
an  ei<ciilrheim,a('r(irdtii2  to  the  niiiiiherof 
coata  of  arms  that  are  to  lie  upon  it. 

tltIARTlCfl-.MA.STtiR.  An  officer 
whose  duty  it  is  t^i  provide  quarters  or 
lodcinp.*  for  the  soliHem. 

arAltTKR  SKrtSlo.VS.  In  England, 
a  court  held  every  quarter  by  the  uiauis- 
tralfs  of  the  roicnty ,  to  hear  and  iletermitie 
ciuises  hoth  civil  niid  criinlnal ;  an  appeal 
lies  froni  these  sessions  lo  a  sujierior 
court, 

UtfARTtlTTO.  A  piec«  of  music  for 
four  voices. 

UUARTO  fin  PrintlncV  The  form  of  a 
book,  the  slieets  of  which  are  divided  into 
four  |uirt9  or  leaves,  niakini;  a  sipiare  ;  it 
is  mostly  abbreviated  in  this  manner, 
4to. 

aiTAIlTZ.  A  snrt  of  siliceous  earth, 
consistins  of  sUica,  with  a  small  portion 
of  alumina  and  carlionate  of  I' me.  It  is 
lil^  fusihie  per  se,  hut  with  soda  it  runs 
into  a  nard  jiellucid  glass  ;  when  broken 
it  becMines  sand. 

aUASSIA.  A  sort  of  plant  which  Is 
sometimes  used  by  brewers,  in  the  stead 
of  hops.     It  is  also  n  valuable  medicine. 

ai'EK.N  C'().\S(n{'r.  In  England,  the 
wifeof  thekini:,who,thou!!h  a  siihject,  h.is 
nevertlkeless  sevenrl  prerogatives  above 
other  women. 

ttUK.'K.  The  younp  pUiits  of  the  haw- 
thorn, with  which  hed2«ji  are  first  made. 

aUICKMME.     Unslucked  lime. 

ClUICKSANIt.S.  Hands  that  move  and 
■hake,  into  which  those  who  pass  over 
them  are  ofit  to  mnk. 

'AUICKSET  HEI»OE.  Any  live  hedge. 
In    distinction   from   that  made  of  dead 


wrvid.  hut  parliriilarly  that  which  i*  aM 
with  quick 

tilliKSILVER.  The  vu  gar  name  fl>: 
merrury. 

(.triliN't^NC.  A  curious  person  alwayi 
a^klne  aller  news. 

Ulir»  IR(»  KlVO.  An  equivalent  or 
return  for  any  thing  given. 

UiniX.  The  fe;tt.)er  of  a  goose  or  o 
crow,  &c.,  particularly  that  itf  which, 
when  cured,  pens  are  made. 

llL'i  .\'(  'E.  A  sort  vt'  apple  with  a  rough, 
acrid  taste 

Ul'I.NTE.SSE.\CE.  A  preparation  of 
the  essential  oil  of  some  vegeliihle  biiIh 
staiic*  incorporated  with  tlie  spirit  of 
wine. 

Ul'IRK.  An  odd  piece  In  a  eroiind  plot 
which  remains  alter  the  square  lists  been 
formed. 

UI.'I  TAM.  A  sort  ♦f  popular  action, 
on  a  penal  statute,  brought  at  the  suit  of 
the  commonwealth,  as  well  as  the  party 
or  inforina/it. 

aUITRE\T.  In  England,  a  small 
rent,  payable  liy  the  tenants  uf  m'ist  ma" 
nors,  whereby  they  gu  quit  and  free  from 
all  other  services. 

tit'OITS.  A  game  which  consisted  in 
throwing  a  tpioit  or  round  iron  toa  certain 
distance. 

UUIVER.    A  case  for  arrowa. 


QUORirSf.  Jiisilcej  of  the  peace, 
so  named  because  in  the  c^rnh..ssion 
they  are  said  to  be  those  before  whom 
all  matters  of  importance  are  transacted 

aUfiTIEXT.  What  results  from  the 
division  of  one  number  by  another,  as 
0-7-2=3,  the  quotient. 

tll'O  WARRANTO  A  wrtt  to  inquira 
by  what  authority,  right,  or  title,  any  per- 
son or  corfioration  holds  a  franchise,  exer- 
cises an  otfice,  and  the  like 


R,  the  eighteenth  letter  of  the  alph;ihp|, 
aa  a  numeral  stood  'or  >*0 ;  with  a  dash 
over  It,  R.  lor  80,11(10;  as  an  abbreviation, 
R.  for  Roma,  Rex.  ai  i  Koyal ;  R.  C,  for 
Romana  Civitas,  &.c 


RARRRTrXO.      The  cutting  of  chan- 
nels or  urtKives  in  n  board. 

'■  '  "HI.     A  doctor  in  the  Jewish  lav. 
It       .'IIT.     An  tinimal  of  the  hare  kind. 


but  r 


smaller     Tliere  are  two  sort* 


RA  U 


HAK 


307 


ttte  tanK>  a  <l  the  wild  rabbit.     It  U  not  a 
native  uf  Aiucnca 


RACCOdN.  An  animal  of  the  bear 
tribe,  which  lives  in  bolbiw  yreea.  It  ■!> 
MkI  Ui  i:atrh  cniti«  by  lettins  It.'  Uil  inlu 
Uie  water,  an<t  pulluig  them  out  when 
lliev  fiuten  a(Kui  it. 


RACE  A  Bport  which  ronslrts  In  nin 
niim  on  foot,  or  with  Imrses,  !is  a  trial  of 
■kill,aii<1  f«ir  a  certain  |ireiiiiiim  w  reward. 
Races,  by  which,  abs(»lutely  taken,  are 
meant  hurse-nices,  are  carried  on  at  New 
market,  Kjwim,  and  many  other  |>arts 
of  Eiicland  at  certain  aeasoiis  of  tlie 
year. 

RACB-IIORSE,  or  n«  .««.  A  particu- 
lar breed  (if  hi>r»es,  «  hith  are  tniiiied  fur 
llie  iKirpoee  uf  rufiiiing  race* 


RACK.  An  engine  of  tortore,  formerly 
Msed  ill  Ensilniid.  occasionaJly,  and  on  tlie 
continent  very  comiiionly,  for  the  piin>oso 
•f  extiintns  confession. 

RACKRE.NT.  The  full  value  of  tlie 
laiid  let  bv  lease. 

RADIANT  POINT  Any  poin'  f™" 
which  lays  froceed. 

lADICAI..  Hie  distiiijaiisliing  part  of 
an  acid,  that  which  unites  with  oxygen, 
■Dd  IS  cuiiinion  tu  all  acids. 


RADIUS  (,ii  Geometry).  The  seinl- 
diameter  of  a  circle,  or  a  rieht-line  draw* 
from  the  centre  to  the  circumference. 

RADIL'S  (in  Anatomy).  The  bone  o( 
the  fore  arm. 

RAKT.  A  sort  of  float,  conairtinc  of 
boards  fartened  tocetlier  side  by  side  ;  a 
mode  of  conveying  timber  by  water. 

UAFTER."*.  The piecesof timber, which, 
standiiie  by   (uiirs  on  the    rai.'iii!!  piecet, 
meet  in  an  angle  at  tlie  top,  and  fonii  th 
roof ofa  biiildinj!. 

RAC-UOWLKY,  or  Raostose.  A  sort 
of  sloiie  of  the  siliceous  or  Mint  class. 

RAIL.  A  migratory  bini,  wliicii  inhab- 
its sediiy  jilaces.  In  the  Middle  and  South- 
ern States,  this  bird  is  abundant  on  ilie 
rocky  shores  of  the  rivers,  an  t  aflbrds  a  fa- 
voiiiite  aiiiii.<«mrnt  to  sportMiien. 

KAIl.S.  A  wii.ideii  fence  fur  enclosing 
a  place. 

RAILWAY.  A  way  coiintructeil  of 
tracks  of  iron  called  rails,  on  «liiih 
the  wlieels  of  the  railway-can iii^e.s 
Kill.— liiiilway -chairs  arc  pieces  of  ii-oii 
made  to  r«-ceivo  au<l  siii>iMirr  tLe  ijiiIh, 
ami  wliieli  rest  on  the  sleei«is  or 
blocks— liailway-sleepeii*  arc  the  iiji- 
(lerlyiiis  tiuibeis  to  which  the  chaira 
are  iixed. 

RAIN.  A  vapour  drawn  np  by  the  sun, 
that,  after  lieiiii;  condensed  by  the  cold, 
falls  to  the  earth  in  drops  from  the  cicuds. 
It  is  siip|iosed  that  ram  Is,  in  almost  every 
instance,  iiiimedi.ately  occasioned  by  th« 
electrical  action  of  the  clouds  upon  on« 
another. 

UAl.NBOW.  A  meteor  In  form  of  a 
party-coloured  .irc,  exhibited  in  a  rainy 
sky,  opposite  the  sun,  by  the  refraction 
and  reflection  of  his  rays  in  the  drops  of 
fallinj!  rain. 

RAI.MiOW,  Marixb.  a  phenomenon 
sometimes  iibserved  in  an  aeitated  sea, 
when,  the  wind  carryinc  the  lotw  of  the 
waves  alott.and  the  sun's  rays  falling  up- 
on them,  they  are  refracted. 

RAI.N  CA.CH.  An  instniment  for 
me.xsiirin!!  the  quantity  of  ram  that  falls. 
R.MSI.V.  The  cra|ie  perfectly  ri|>e,  and 
dried  either  in  an  oven  or  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun  ;  in  this  latter  case,  they  are  ric!iei 
and  sweeter  than  when  dried  in  an  oven 
The  finest  sort  are  iiiifiorted  in  jara,  and 
thence  called  jar  raisins. 

RAIPI.NG  A  SIKCE.  Gi ring  over  the 
attack  of  the  place. 

RAKE.  An  implement  of  husbandry 
provided  with  leeth,  for  making  the  earth 
IiL'lit  and  smooth.  It  is  al.-o  used  for  galh- 
erine  hay  and  grain.  The  corn  rake,  a 
lars«e  kind  of  iron  mkr    u—H  'r  S'-ff^'* 


508 


KAN 


RAT 


knd  Norfolli,  Englniiil,  fnr  mkinc  Uarley 
■tubUaa,  U  represeuletl  uuilei-iiealli 


RAKE  (amnns  Mariners).  So  miirli  of 
the  hull  Ud  liaiigii  uvrr  iMitti  eiiUii  uf  lier 
keel. 

RAM.     The  male  of  the  sheep. 

RAMAHA.N.  The  .Mahniiieilan  fa.«i, 
kept  iluriiig  the  iiintli  inoiitli  of  liie  Aniliic 
year. 

KAMIFICATtON.  Any  small  hraiirh 
i!i.-<iiiiii;  froiii  a  larae  one,  partiriilarly  the 
very  iiiiiiiiie  hniix'hes  iiiiiuiii^  from  the 
larsier  arteries. 

KA.M.MKIt.  All  iiisiniiiieiit  for  driving 
stones  or  piles  liiln  the  LTimtul. 

K.v.MI'AXT  (ill  llenil.lry).  An  epithet 
for  a  liea.-<l  iitaniling  ilirertly  iipriglit  on  hi;i 
hunter  le^s. 

RAMPART  (in  Fortifnation).  .^  massy 
bank  of  earth  raised  round  a  fortretu,  to 
Cover  it  from  the  tire  of  the  enemy. 

RAM'S  IIKAI).  All  iron  lever  to  heave 
up  ureal  stones  wiili. 

RAM'S  IIKAI)  (among  Mariners).  A 
great  hlock  or  pulley,  iiilu  which  the  ropes 
railed  halliards  are  put 

R.VNA  'I'he  geneuc  name  for  that 
class  of  animals  In  tli*  I.iima'an  system,  of 
which  the  frog  and  the  toad  are  the  prin- 
cipal spi'cies. 

RANCIDITY.  The  chance  which  oils 
undergo,  hoih  in  snieli  and  taste,  by  expo- 
sure lo  the  air. 

RA.NDUM.  The  shot  made  from  a 
piece  nut  designed  to  shoot  directly 
forward. 

RANCE  (in  Gunnery).  The  line  which 
a  shot  descrilies  from  the  inoiith  of  a  piece 
lo  the  point  where  it  linlpes. 

R.\.\'<;i'  (aiiiG;.(;  Mariners).  A  suffi- 
cient lencth  of  the  cable  druvn  up<m  the 
derk  before  the  anchor  is  cast  loose  from 
the  bow. 

RANflER.  In  Rnsluiwl,  an  offirer 
whose  duty  it  was  to  walk  through  the 
forest  and  present  all  tres|Kissc8  at  the  iijxt 
Ciwest  court :  us  the  forest  laws  are  uow 


but  little  in  use,  the  duty  of  ttie  ranget  k 
not  of  the  same  im|H>rlaiice  as  formerly. 

RA.NK  (III  Dome.-itic  I'olicy).  The  situ- 
ation which  one  man  holds  in  res|>ect  to 
siioilii-r:  this  IS  [larticiilarlv  deliiied  m  re- 
U.ird  to  the  nobility  in  Knglaiid,  as  also  in 
all  oiKces  of  state,  as  also  iu  tlie  olhc«/s  uf 
tiic  army  and  navy. 

KA.\K  (in  Military  Tactics).  The 
slraiuht  line  which  the  soldiers  of  a  hat- 
talion  or  sipiadruu  make,  us  lliey  slaiid 
snle  liy  side. 

KANSij.M.  Money  paid  for  the  redeein- 
liii;  a  captive  or  the  liberty  uf  a  prisoner  uf 
war. 

R.A.N  UNCI' I.U3.  A  perennial,  much 
cultivated  III  gardens,  lie:irii)i:  a  Itowcr  of 
a  tiloliiilar  sha|te  j  also  the  iMitanical  name 
of  a  ueliiis  of  plains,  of  wlilcli  llie  glolie 
niiiiinciiliis,  the  crowfiMit,  and  tbe  spear 
wort,  are  the  principal  sjiecies. 

UAKHKAC'IKJ.N  (in  I'liysics).  The 
act  wliereliy  a  Niily  is  brouiilit  to  possess 
more  room,  or  ap|>ear  under  a  larger  bulk, 
wiihont  the  aixessioii  of  any  new  matter. 

RA.'^II.     An  eruption  on  the  skin. 

R.Asr.  A  steel  instrument  with  sharp 
teeth,  used  in  rulibing  things  smtKith. 

RAT.  A  tierce  and  voracious  aniin:U 
that  infests  houses,  barns,  corn  stacks,  &c. 
The  common  rat  is  a  native  uf  aliiio.st  all 
countries,  as  is  also  the  water  nit,  which 
has  the  faculty  of  swimming,  aud  lives  urn 
the  banks  uf  rivers  ur  diiciiea 


RATAFIA.     .A  delirious  liquor,  made 

of  tlie  kernels  of  apricots,  cherries,  &.C., 
stei-pril  in  bniiidy. 

R.\TK(in  Law).  A  valuation  of  ex-ery 
man's  estate,  for  determining  the  pro|iur- 
tioii  Ihaleai'h  is  to  pay  uf  any  tax. 

R.'VTF,  (III  Naval  Arihilecture).  The 
rla.ss  or  deiiree  by  whirh  vessels  are  dis- 
tingiiished,  as  reg:irds  tlieir  furce,  biirdeM, 
&c. 

RATI  K\.     A  thick  wmillen  stuff. 

RATIFICATION.  In  England,  the 
continuation  of  a  clerk  formerly  piven  him 
by  I  he  bishop  ;  alsu  the  amlirinatiun  ul  a 
tre.ily. 

R.ATIO.  The  mutual  habitude  or  rela 
tion  of  two  magnitudes  of  tlie  same  k.nd 


RAY 


RKC 


S 


tn  respec*  to  rjiiantily  ;  ilius  ihp  ratio  of  2 
to  I  18  (liiiilile,  ii|':Ui>  I  Iniilr.  a:.n. 

IIA'J'ION.  'I'tie  sliiirr  or  |irii|N)rtli>ii  ol' 
meal.  (Iniik,  forage,  ace,  given  to  soUlieni 
or  scaiiirii. 

RATION' A  I. K.  Thp  account  or  solu- 
tion III' any  plirnonic non  or  liy|Mitlirsi.i,  «-.\- 
plainins  the  iirniiiiili-."  on  uliiili  it  de- 
penils,  aird-evKry  otli«-r  cirrninstaiice. 

KATLliN'KS  (ainoi;^  Marinerii,  railed 
Ralliiis).  Lines  which  niakr  the  ladder 
stepM  I'ur  goin;;  up  the  shrouds,  and  I'ut- 
tocks. 

KATI'l.r.PNAKR.  An  animal  of  the 
MT|ieiit  kind,  haviiii!  a  tail  rurtiished  with 
a  raltle.  wliii:h  It  .«hake:'  when  aiiury.  It 
inhaliits  riHky  and  iiioiiiitainoiiii  places  in 
North  America,  and  althoii<;h  itti  liite  is 
|Kiis(iiiMiiM,  yet  it  duen  not  attack  any  one 
iinlesii  provoked. 


RAVF.I.INS.  Works  raised  on  the 
ooiiiilrr.-<carp  before  the  curtain  of  a  place. 

RAVKN.  A  tiird  of  the  crow  kind,  that 
feeds  on  carrion,  is  lone  lived,  and  lias  an 
exquisite  sense  of  smell.  It  ts  comnion  in 
Eiiro|ie,  and  is  found  in  America  north 
of  latitude  5C. 


i:.;>sS!!*«i^^(a.-'3 


RAY.  A  beamof  liiiht,  propagated  from 
a  radiant  point,  said  to  lie  direct  when  it 
comes  direct  from  the  point,  reflected  if  it 
Drst  strike  iiiion  any  body,  and  is  t'lenre 
transmitted  to  the  eye.  Rays  are  also  dis- 
tinguished into  parallel,  con  verging.diverg- 
Ing,  fee. 

RAY.  A  peniis  of  fishes  of  the  class 
•.nphibia  in  tlie  Liniwuti  system,  the  pri»- 


cip.il  s(iecies  of  wliicli  are  llie  skate.  in» 
Uiornliack,  llie  slursieoii,  the  ru>,  uml  ■>< 
lor|iedo 

KA'/Uli.     An  iiistninieiit  for  shaving. 

KKACTIO.N  u"  I'hyKiis).  The  ie.«i4- 
aiu'e  iiMile  l)y  all  lioilies  lo  the  ai  tion  or 
impulse  of  otiiers  tlial  eiidertvoiir  lochaiigs 
their  sta'.e,  whether  ol  iiioiioii  or  rest 

KEAlJI.MiS.  The  dirlereiii  m.iiinerof 
reaiiiii);  the  text  of  authors,  purlicularly 
tiiat  of  cla.Ksical  writers. 

RKAIJI.NUS  (in  haw).  Coninieiitarica 
or  glosses  on  the  law  text. 

RBAUENT.  'I'lie  name  given  by  che 
mists  to  such  iHuiies  ■A.<  serve  to  detect  the 
coiii|Hineiit  parts  id'  others  ;  thus  the  '"fu- 
sion of  galls  is  a  reagent  which  detects 
iron  by  a  dark  purple  precipitate. 

RKAIilJAU,  or  Ueo  OnriMCNT.  A 
n>etatlic  siilistaiiee,  the  siilpliuret  of  arse> 
p.o,  which  IS  either  native,  ami  dugout  uf 
the  earth  in  (iniia,  or  it  l.<  t'actillous.  pro- 
cured liy  boiling  orpimeiit  in  siililimmg 
vessels. 

RKAM.    Twenty  quires  of  paper. 

REAI'I.NR  .MAi;lll.\t:.  An  implement 
of  hiishandry  for  cutting  down  grain,  ta- 
stead  of  reaping  witli  a  sickle. 


REAR.  A  military  term  for  behind,  w 
rear-guard,  a  body  of  men  that  follows  an 
army  In  iw  march,  to  pick  up  stragglers 
and  the  like. 

REAR.  A  naval  term  applied  to  the 
squadron  whicti  is  lii;idermost. 

RE  HATE  A.M)  IHSCdl'.NT.  A  nile 
in  arithiiiPtic,  by  which  discisints  u|>nn 
ready  money  payments  are  calculated. 

REC.  or  RECEIPT.  An  acknowledg- 
ment in  vvritiiig  of  money  received. 

RECEIVER  (in  Law),  due  who  re- 
ceives stolen  goods ;  also  the  name  of 
gome  otRcers  apiK>inied  to  receive  nione> 
as  tlie  receiver  of  rents,  or  receiver  of 
fines,  liC. 

RECEIVER  (in  Pneumatics).  The  re- 
ceiver of  ihe  air-pump,  a  glass  vessel  pla- 
ced on  the  fop  of  the  apparatus  out  of 
which  the  air  is  to  be  exhausted. 

RECEIVER  (in  Chemi.Mry).  A  vessel 
for  receiving  any  disiilleil  lupior. 

RECIPE.  Hirertioiis  lor  preparing  »r.y 
mi.xtiire  i>r  coni|Hiund,  as  a  physician's  le- 
ciiie,  a  cook's  reci|ie,  and  the  lilte. 


310 


RED 


RfcIF 


RECIPROCAt..     An   epithet  for  what 

aci8  riv  altfriiaiiiin. 

KK(:II'R(k;aI,  terms  (in  Losic). 
Terms  whirh.  having  the  njiiiie  siL'fiili<a- 
(i(i|i,  art-  cniivfrtililr,  as  man  anil  rilional 
animal  :  t'ur  man  i.«  a  ratmtial  aiiiiiiul, 
and  a  ralmrial  animal  is  man. 

RK<:||'R(»i;AL  I'RoI-oRTION  (in 
Arithmetic)  is  when,  in  t'oiir  numhera, 
the  I'iMirlh  i»  lesK  than  tlie  second  hy  sii 
luiirli  na  the  third  u  less  limn  the  hrst, 
u.iil  (he  contniry. 

IU;CIIM{t»<;AL  VERBS  (in  Oranimar). 
i^iich  as  reilert  the  artiim  <m  the  acent 
himself,  as  1  luve  myself,  Ihuu  lovest  thy- 
self, Ate. 

RKCITATIVE.  The  rehearsal  of  any 
thins  on  a  slaue  in  niiisical  tailence. 

RECKU.MNG,  or  Ship's  Rkcko<(ino. 
'J'he  accuiiiil  kept  of  a  ship's  way,  hy  which 
it  may  be  known  at  any  time  where  she 
is  ;  the  accoiini  taken  from  the  logbook  is 
called  the  dead  rerkoiiliii!, 

RECO(JM7.A.\CE.  A  bond  or  ohliea- 
tion  arknowled!;ed  in  some  court,  or  be- 
fore some  jnd^e. 

RKCoRft  A  public  act  enrolled  and 
preserved  in  courts  of  record. 

RECORDER.  An  officer  associateU 
with  the  mayor  of  a  town  for  the  udmin- 
imration  ofjustice  .iccording  to  the  forms 
•f  law 

RLCOVElvV  (in  I.,aw).  The  r.htaining 
of  any  thin;;  by  jiiilgment  or  trial  at  law. 

RECTANCJLE.  A  figure  having  right 
angles,  as  a  stpiare,  &c. 

RECTIFICA'I'KJN  (in  Astronomy). 
The  setting  the  glol>es  in  such  (Misition  as 
to  fit  them  for  the  performance  of  prob- 
.ems. 

RECTIFICATION  (in  Oeometry).  The 
Sliding  a  right  line  equal  in  length  to  a 
curve 

RECTIFICATION  (in  Chemistry). 
The  rejieating  a  distillation  or  suhlliiiation 
several  limes,  in  order  to  render  the  sul>- 
stanre  purer  and  finer. 

ItErnjR.  In  England,  the  parson  <.J 
the  parish  church,  who  has  the  cuie  ••r 
charge  of  the  parish,  and  receives  all  the 
tithes,  glelies,  and  other  profile 

RECTUM.  The  last  portion  of  the  large 
intestines. 

RF^:USANTS  (in  Law),  A  name  for- 
merly given  to  the  Roman  Calhullcs  who 
refused  to  conform  to  tlMi  cburcii  of  Eng- 
Und. 

RED.  One  of  the  simple  or  primary 
ColiHirs  of  iMidies,  which  is  di.<tinsuished 
into  different  shades,  as  scarlet,  vermilion, 
ntmson,  &.C. 

KEO  BOOK  OP  THE  EXCIIEaUER. 


In  England,  an  ancient  manttacript  m 
record,  in  the  keepini;  ol  the  kinu's  n 
meiiitininrer,  which  rimtnins  many  things 
relati  i>!  to  tiie  times  before  and  aflei  tlM 
Coiii|uest. 

REDRREAPT.    See  Rosiw. 

REDEMI'TION  (in  Law).  The  rirht 
of  reenierine  upon  lands,  &c.,  that  have 
lieen  nssiuned  or  sold,  upon  reimbursing 
the  purchase  money.  This  right  is  soiue- 
limes  leriiied  the  eipiity  of  redemption. 

REI)Oi;»T  (III  Fortification).  A  smal. 
sipiare  fort,  without  defence  but  in  fnuit. 

REDPOEE.  A  finch  with  a  red  spot 
on  the  crown. 

REDSHANK  A  bird  of  tlie  enrUw 
tribe. 

REDSTART.  A  European  bird  that 
is  miunitory,  and  sings  very  swertly. 
Though  very  timid,  it  often  builds  its  nest 
ill  cities. 

REDSTREAK.     A  sort  of  apple. 

REDIJC'J'ION  (in  Arithmetic).  A  rule 
by  which  nuuiey,  weights  or  measures 
are  reduced  tti  their  least  or  greatest  giarts. 

REI>i;CTl()\  OF  EUL'ATIO.VS  fin 
Algebra).  1'lie  reducing  them  to  the  sim- 
plest state,  or  clearing  Miem  of  all  super- 
fiuous  ipiantities. 

REDUCTION  (in  Surgery).  An  ope- 
ration  whereby  a  dislocated  bone  is  re- 
stored to  its  proper  place. 

REDUCTION  OF  A  DESIGN  OB 
DRAUGHT,  &c.  The  making  a  copy 
lliere(>f  either  larger  or  smaller  than  the 
oriiniial. 

REDWING.  A  Eumiwan  bird,  about 
the  si/e  of  the  llirNsh. 

REDWING-IJLACKRIRD.  A  well 
known  American  bird,  tiiat  builds  its  nest 
on  low  buslies,  near  ))onds,  and  in  marshy 
places. 

REED.  A  kind  of  long,  hollow,  knot, 
ted  grass,  that  grows  in  fens  and  watery 
places. 

REEFING.  A  sea  term  for  the  rolling 
or  taking  up  a  sail  in  a  gale  of  wind. 

REEL.  A  machine  tiiniins  round  on 
:in  axis,  on  which  lines  of  dilfereiit  kinds 
are  wound 

REENTRY  (In  Ijiw).  The  resum'ng 
or  retaking  possession  of  lands  lately  li.tit. 

REEVE.     *»ee  RuFr. 

REFERENCE  (in  Law).  Referring  a 
matter  in  dispute  to  the  decision  of  an  ar- 
bitrator ;  also  in  the  Court  of  I  baiicery,  ia 
Enslaiut,  referring  a  matter  to  a  master. 

REFERE.NCE  (in  Printingi.  A  marlt 
in  the  text  of  a  work,  referring  to  a  similar 
one  in  the  sidr  or  at  the  bollnin  }f  the 
page  ;  also  the  aulhoriUes  referi«4  lo  luk- 
ier  such  luarlts. 


REG 


R  F.  L 


RnFINfNO.  The  art  of  purifyinc  nny 
thin;;,  hut  particularly  the  aiMayins  m  re- 
finine  e«l>l  aii»l  .^ilvfr,  by  aepanaing  all 
other  ImhIih^  rriiiii  the  in 

KKPLKCTJO.N  (»K  TIIE  RAYS  OF 
LIGHT.  A  iiiotiiiii  (if  the  my8,  whereby, 
ader  iiii|iiiiinni:  t>ii  llie  mini  parb<  of  IhkJ- 
les,  tln-y  rmeite  iir  are  driven  tlierefmni. 

RKKUKM  IN  PARMA.MKNT.  A 
charii-e  jii  the  repreja  iitative  (Kirt  of  the 
English  coiidtitiitiiin,  (>y  an  extension  of 
the  elective  rrj"uhise  to  inixlern  larjje 
Uiwnri,  KMcli  ns  Mitni:liester,  Kirniinghsui, 
&.C.,  wliirh  liHve  lieretolure  sent  no  mem- 
bers to  parliument,  ami  liy  Uikini:  away 
their  fnni'tiise  from  reduced  places,  such 
as  Did  Sarum  and  otherx,  which  at  pre- 
sent ron8l^4  of  only  a  few  linuse:*. 

REKURMATION.  'Jlie  change  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  to  the  Prolesuint  reli- 
gion, which  w.-u  lirat  set  on  t'lHit  in  l<rr- 
many  by  Luther,  but  had  been  previously 
Segun  in  Enjilnnd  by  Wic-klitfe,  ami  com- 
pleted by  Henry  VI II.,  whti  assumed  the 
litle  of  Head  of  the  Church. 

REKKACTKJ.V.  The  deviation  of  a  ray 
of  licht  from  that  right  line  in  which  it 
would  have  continued,  if  not  prevented  by 
tlie  thickness ofthe  medium  thniiigh  which 
itpaiwes.  Thus  the  light  in  pn^iii<; through 
the  atmosphere  is  refracted  or  lient  down, 
which  causes  the  heavenly  bodies  to  ap- 
pear hielier  th.in  they  reiil'y  are. 

RKKUtlE  FOR  TIIE  l)E.>*TITUTR.  A 
charitable  institution  for  the  leinimniry 
relief  of  those  who  are  houseless  and  des- 
titiile 

RBOALIAOn  LawV  The  rights  and 
preroealives  of  a  kini» ;  also  the  ensigns 
of  royalty,  the  cniwn,  sceptre,  &c.,  worn 
by  the  kings  of  Entila.nd  at  the  coronHtion. 
REGENT  (in  I«-«w).  One  who  governs 
diirinz  the  minority  of  a  king,  or  while  he 
is  inrapnble  of  reisiiing. 

REtj'lME.N  (in  Medicine).  A  rule  of 
living  as  to  diet,  &c.,  prescrilied  for  a 
patient. 

RECIMEX  (in  Grammar).  The  gov- 
emnientof  one  word  by  another,  as  nouns 
by  verbs,  &.C. 

R  EG  I  .M  ENT.  A  body  of  soldiers,  eon- 
■isting  of  wveral  companies. 

REGISTER  (in  Law).  A  book  of  pub- 
Be  records. 

REGISTER  (in  a  Parish  Church)  A 
book  in  which  marriages,  tiaiitisms  and 
burials  are  registered. 

RE(;l.STER  (in  Chemii'iry).  A  rnntri- 
▼anre  in  fiirnsres  for  inire.isingor  dimin- 
ishing the  intensity  of  llie  lie:il. 

REGISTEIl  lamoni!  l.etterfoiinder<<). 
Vim  of  the  inner  pnrls  of  the   mould    in 


which  the  printinc  types  are  cntH.  Its  use 
is  to  direct  the  juiniiis  ilie  mould  ju<itl) 
together  acnin,  after  opening  it  to  taae  out 
the  new  cast  letter. 

REGISTER  (amone  Printers).  Dispos- 
ine  the  foniisiui  the  press,  mi  that  the  lines 
and  paces  printed  on  one  si>le  of  the  sheet 
fall  exjiclly  on  those  of  tlie  other. 

REGI.ET  (in  Arrhitertiire).  A  little, 
flat,  narrow  moiildiiis  in  pannels,  &c. 

RE<;RAT(JR  (in  Law).  In  Enslaml, 
one  who  buys  and  sells  in  the  s.ime  market 
or  fair,  or  within  five  miles  thereof. 

REGULAR.  AsTee.nbletothenilesofarl, 

REtil'LAR  (in  Geomflr>l.  A  reiriiliu 
figure,  one  whose  sides  and  angles  are  iiU 
equal. 

REGULAR  (In  Grammar).  A  reeiilar 
verb,  one  that  is  conjuffiiled  by  some  role. 

REtJULAIlS.  S.ildit-rs  retularly  dixt  i- 
plined,  and  at  the  entire  dis|MiKil  of  the 
government. 

REGULARS  (in  the  Roniish  Churrb). 
Clergy  that  live  under  some  rule  of  oliedl- 
ence. 

REGULATOR  OF  A  WATCH.  A 
small  sprins  hehinsinc  to  the  balanre. 

REGULUS.  A  star  of  the  first  inacni- 
tude  in  the  cimstellatioii  l«o. 

REGULUrf  (in  Chemistry).  An  im|ier- 
fect  or  impure  metallic  substance. 

REIN-DEER.  An  animal  of  tl  e  deer 
kind,  that  inhabits  the  northern  rcgiiiiis, 
rhietly  in  Norway,  Lapland,  and  (Jroen- 
land  ;  it  is  five  feet  in  height,  horns  long 
and  slender,  besides  a  pair  of  brow  ant- 
lers. It  is  used  by  the  natives  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  but  not  in  America,  for  drawing 
their  sledges  and  fur  other  purposes. 


REJOINDER  (In  I^w).  The  defend 
ant's  answer  to  the  plaJntilTs  rejily. 

RELATIVE  (in  Gramir.-ir).  A  sort  o 
pronoun  »hich  relates  to  gome  noun  goin^ 
before,  as  which  and  who. 

RELEASE  (In  Law).  An  instnirienl 
in  writine  by  which  estates,  righu,  **., 
areexlmcuished 


sn 


ri  i:  I' 


II K  ft. 


RKMKVO,  i.r  Uki.ikk  (in  Sciilptiire). 
The  projectinii  or  Ktainlins  out  ura  >i;!ure 
above  llie  ground  or  |>l:kue  wliereoii  it  is* 
iiirnied.  Tliere  are  three  kinds  of  relievo, 
iviinely,  tlie  alto,  wlilcli  projecln  as  iiiiirli 
ad  life;  tlie  biia-.so  relievo,  wiieii  the  work 
is  raised  but  a  little  :  :iiid  ileiiii  relievo, 
wlien  one  half  of  the  tis-ure  rises. 

UKLKJIOUS  HOUSKS.  Convent'!, 
mtinasteries,  nunneries,  and  the  like,  in 
llie  Koniish  <,'lnipcli,  where  [lersoris  live 
under  certain  rules,  ami  are  bonnd  l>y 
their  vows  to  lead  a  reliiiious  life  ;  at  the 
Kel'nrnialion,  these  religions  honses  were 
dissi'lved  in  i:nt;land,  and  their  wealth 
wjis  seized  liy  Henry  VIII. 

KEM  \IM)ER  (in  I«iw).  An  estate  in 
lands,  tenements,  &c.,lnnited  li>  lie  enjoy- 
ed after  the  eX|Hration  of  another  estate. 

KUMAINDEK  (in  Arithmetic).  T.'ie 
difference,  or  that  which  is  left  after  sub- 
tractin>!  one  i|uaiiIUy  from  another. 

KK.MKMKRA.Nt.'KK.  In  England,  an 
otlicer  in  the  exchetpier. 

K  KMri"l'A.\Ct;.  A  sum  of  money  sent 
from  a  distance. 

Kli.MollA.  The  generic  name  for  the 
■uckin?  tish. 

RKNDK/.VOi;.^,  An  apiminted  place 
of  ineetiiis,  particularly  for  soldiers. 

RKN.NT.T.  The  uastric  juice  and  con- 
)«nts  of  the  stoniai'h  of  a  calf,  used  in 
turninc  milk  lomnls. 

RK.\T.  A  priillt  issuing  yearly  out  of 
lands  or  teneimiils. 

RKNT.\L,  or  Ukxthom,.  In  Knuland, 
a  roll  in  whicli  ilie  renis  of  n  i.pinoi  are 
■et  down  ;  the  collective  amount  of  rents 
from  any  man's  estttes. 

RE.Vr  CHARUi:.  In  Knuland  a 
charge  of  rent  uixm  land,  with  a  clause  of 
{distress  in  case  <ri'n<in-p.iyineiit. 

RKPEATKR.  A  kind  of  watch,  which, 
by  means  of  a  sjiring,  reiieata  or  strikes 
the  hour. 

RKPBLLANTS.  MMticines  which 
drive  the  humours  from  tlie  ]iarl  where 
they  have  settled. 

REPERTORY.  A  plar^  where  thinj.'s 
are  deposited  ;  also  a  b<K>k  in  which  thingii 
are  methodically  entered. 

REI'LEVI.N  (in  l,aw).  A  rele.ise  of 
cattle  or  goods  tlint  are  distrained. 

REPLICATION  (in  Uw).  The  plain- 
tUTs  reply  to  the  defendant's  answer. 

REPORT  (in  Law).  A  relation  of  cases 
iudiclally  debated  and  decided  upon. 

REPREj«E.\TATION  (in  Law),  llie 
personating  another,  as  In  the  case  of  an 
hetr  by  representation. 

REPRESENTATIVE  (In  T^w).  One 
who  rejiresents  i  district  or  cor|ioration. 


as  a  inenilier  of  parliament,  a  member  ol 
congress. 

REPRE8E.\TATIVE  MONARCHY. 
A  government  having  national  ciuincils, 
consisting  of  persons  chosen  by  the  (leople, 
to  represent  tlieir  pers.ms,  and  consult 
their  interests . 

REPRESENTATIVE  OR  FREE  GOV- 
ER.XiMENT.  A  government  ill  \\  hicli  ilia 
laws  are  made  by  representatives  freely 
chosen  by  the  jieople  ;  such  is  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States. 

REPRIEVE  (in  Law).  A  warrant  for 
sus|H'mliiig  the  execution  Of  a  malefactor. 

RKI'RI.NT.     A  iHHik  printed  again. 

REPRIS/M^.  The  sei'/.ing  the  vessels 
or  giMids  of  merchant  strangers,  as  nn 
eipiivaleiit  for  some  loss  sustained  fro/a 
the  iiiition  of  which  they  are  subjects. 

RKPRdDUCTION.  The  power  in 
some  bodies  of  being  restored  by  a  procesn 
of  nature,  after  having  lieen  destroyed,  as 
the  reproduction  of  a  tree  from  a  slip,  but 
more  pariiciiliirly  the  reproduction  of  ani- 
mals which  have  lieen  cut  into  pieces,  as 
tlie  piily|ie,  and  some  other  worms  ;  also 
the  limbs  of  crabs,  lobsters,  &.C.,  are  re- 
proiiureil  when  broken  off. 

REPTILES.  The  rir:«t  order  of  animals 
under  llie  class  amphibia,  in  the  J.iniiican 
system,  compreliending  the  load,  the  frog, 
the  dragon,  the  lizard,  crocodile,  &.c. 

REI'U<;.\ANCE  (in  Law),  A  contradic- 
titui  of  what  has  been  said  liefore,  as  in 
deeds,  grants,  &.C.,  which  makes  thein- 
void. 

REPULSION  (in  Physics).  A  power 
in  iMHlies  of  o|iiK>siii>j  the  approach  of  other 
txMties,  as  oil  and  water,  which  for  n  tima 
refuse  to  be  Incorporated  )  it  Is  opposed  to 
attraction. 

REUUESTS,  CovRT  or.  In  England, 
a  court  for  the  rec<ivery  of  small  debts. 

RESCUE  (in  I«iw).  The  violent  tak- 
ing away,  or  causing  to  escape,  one  that 
is  taken  by  lawful  authority. 

RESERVE.  A  iMidy  of  men  kept  apart 
in  the  day  of  battle  for  some  particuiai  ser- 
vice, as  occasion  may  require. 

RESIANT(in  Uiw).  One  nrsiding  in 
a  certain  place. 

RESIDENT'E  (in   Law).     In  'ii-i », 

the  contiiiiiaiice  of  a  |iursun  or  vicar  o..  .iia 
benefice. 

RESIDEN'T.  A  minister  of  state  stnl 
to  reside  at  K<iiy  court. 

RESIDUARY  LLC.ATEK.  HetnWi  id 
the  residue  of  a  personal  estate  is  g\<ia 
by  will. 

RESIDL'IJM  The  rf^idne,  or  wcat  it 
lett  alter  any  chumlcal  process. 


ui:t 


RKV 


313 


KKf^IN,  or  R<»i  N.  A  ooUd  Inflnmina- 
rt«  siibniance  exiulin:  fri»u  irfru,  nf  tlii* 
common  resin,  ur  iiir|wiitine.  Irniii  the 
pine;  niiixtirti  from  llir  inslairii ;  ^i;:lllt:t- 
rat  li  fruiii  Hit-  iliii\n;  l:i<laniiiii  fn^ni  iJie 
cvMlii!),  &c.  {'lire  resins  are  suliible  in  al- 
(uiIkiI,  but  the  uiipure  resina  are  not 
soluble. 

UESISTANCK,  or  Resijtiwo  Force. 
Any  |H)\ver  ubuli  acts  in  an  opposite  ili- 
rerlinn  !<■  aiiotlier. 

UK.-!<»I-I.1IU.S  (in  Jlatlienialics).  A 
ineliiiHl  by  wliitli  tJie  tnilli  ur  falsehood 
of  a  |>rii|Hisiiiiiii  IS  discovered. 

KK.«il.|JTM).\  (in  Clieniistry).  The 
rediu'iii:!  a  iMMly  to  its  coni|Hiiieiit  partn. 

KKSDl.inio.V  (in  Surgery).  Tlie  dis- 
pcrsiii!!  iif  luMiciurs. 

lll^>;tiLL"ni).\  OF  FORCES  {in  Me 
cliaiilr;!).  Tlie  diviilifi;;  any  forfe  nr  ifio- 
tinii  into  scventi  Millers  in  i-Ilier  directions, 
bill  u'liM'li,  t.'iken  li><.;ellier,  shall  have  the 
■aiiie  elfri'l  3t  Uie  sint'le  one. 

UKSI'IK.\TI«».\.  .\ii  iiiiporlant  fiiiir- 
tion  of  the  aiiiiiial  ImmIv,  winch  mnsisls 
in  the  aiternale  inhalation  aii<l  exhalalion 
of  air,  by  which  the  hums  and  chest  are 
•Iteriialely  dilated  and  contracted. 
KCTAIXER.  .Anaillierentorde|iPiidant. 
RETAIM.N'GFEE.  A  fee  siven  lo  a 
biirrister,  or  lawyer,  to  keep  hiin  Iroiii 
ple.'uling  for  the  other  side. 

RETALIATIO.V.  The  act  of  retum- 
tnc  like  for  like 

KETAKKATIO.N  (in  Phy»ir«).  The 
artof  diinlnishiiig  tlie  velocity  of  a  niuving 
body. 

KETE  ML'Cf>Si;M.  A  mucous  mem- 
brane lietweeli  the  epideriiiM  and  the 
cutis,  vvliich  19  one  part  of  the  iiitegunieiit 
of  tne  iikin. 

RETIl'LT.A.  A  rontrivanr*'  anioni!  »»- 
tnuioniera  (or  ineasuriHg  the  quaiilily  of 
ecl^lHies. 

RETI.\.\.  The  third  or  innertinist 
ineiiibraiie  nf  the  eye,  which  is  the  iiiosl 
imporUiiifiKirt  of  the  ornn  of  visum 

RETORT.  A  chemical  vessel  of  a 
round  litiiire,  with  a  hollow  peak  or  tube 
curved  downw.^rd. 


RETREAT.  The  rrtrofrade  movement 
of  any  srmy  or  body  of  men. 

RET  R  K.NfHM  ENT.    Any  work  r:»nt.d 
to  cover  a  p  >st 

37 


RETRO.  Backward  ;  a  prrflx  to  many 
words,  a.-.  reln>ressiiin,  reir^-Brulaiion,  &.C 
KEIKOCKStilo.N  OK  IHK  Elil.'l- 
NOXES.  The  gouiE  backwards  of  th« 
et|iiinocli:il  imuiiIs  of  th>-  iipis  Aries  and 
Taurus. 

RETROURADATION.  A  moving 
backwards. 

REIUR.N.  A  c*rtiflcale  from  sherilfii 
and  Unilitfs  of  what  w  done  in  Uie  execa- 
tioli  of  a  writ. 

RETI.K.N  DAVS  (in  l-aw).  Certaia 
days  in  lerni  time  for  the  return  of  writs. 
UEI'l.'K.N'S  (ill  foiiiiiierce).  That 
which  is  returned,  whether  in  goods  <ir 
S|>ecie,  for  iiienhaiidise  sent  abriKid  ;  also 
the  return  of  money  laid  uut  in  Uie  way 
of  iride. 

REIUR.VS  OF  A  MI.NE  .in  Fortifi- 
cation). The  windings  and  turnings  of 
u  gallery  leading  to  a  iiiine. 

REVELATION.  The  uiiraciilonsrom- 
iiiuiiications  made  by  (jihI  of  Ins  will  lo 
man,  which  are  contained  in  the  llible. 

REVE.NCE  (ill  Ljiw).  The  yearly 
prolil  that  accrues  lo  a  man  from  Ins  lands 
or  |M issessioiis.  In  England,  the  revenue 
of  the  crown  is  that  which  peculiarly  .-ic- 
crues  by  way  of  profit  to  the  king ;  in  an 
e.xteniled  sense,  the  public  revenue,  nr  the 
yearly  income  derived  from  tlie  taxes  and 
other  S4iiirces,  for  tlie  support  of  llie  gov- 
ern ment. 

REVERBER.ATORV.  A  very  strong 
furnace,  used  for  calcining  minerals,  &.c 

REVERSAL  OF  JUUGME.NT.  Th« 
making  it  void. 

REVERSE  OF  A  MEDAL.  Thelmck 
siiie,  or  that  which  does  m>t  contain  the 
prinri|ial  tisure. 

KEVER."^IO.\  (in  Law)  is  when  the 
p<issessii>ii  (if  an  estate,  which  was  (larted 
wiih  for  a  time,  returns  to  the  donor  oi 
Ins  heirs. 

REVIEW  (in  .Military  Affairs).  The 
displav  nf  a  iHidy  of  iiien  liefore  the  gene- 
ral, that  he  may  judae  of  their  condition 

REVIEW,  liu.L  OF  (in  l-iw).  A  bill 
in  chancery  for  the  re-exaiiiination  of  a 
cause 

REVTEW  fin  Literature).  A  perUMli- 
cal  publication,  wlibli  professes  to  cive  a 
criticism  <if  piiblic;iln'ii<  as  Ihey  ap|iear. 

REVI.'^E.  A  seM.iid  pnsif  sheet  of  a 
work,  for  the  revisal  i>r  re  examination  of 
the  errors  cnrnTted. 

REVO<;.A'i'H  'X.  The  recaJlingar  M>«k 
ine  void  any  grunt. 

REVOLt'Tlo.V  'In  Astron-  loy).  The 
mntioii  "I  an>  iieavenly  b<Ml>  in  a  ch.iilaf 
line,  iinlil  )t  returns  to  tlie  same  jmiAI 
again. 


814 


RH  C 


RID 


KKVOUTTIONiar       A  favourer    of 

poliiiial  revdUiiuns. 

KliKA.  A  hirije  liird  of  the  ostrich  spe- 
cifK,  found  III  the  (iluiiis  nf  riitau>>ni;i,  and 
inrorreclly  called  the  iSuuth  Aiiiericaii  ud- 
irirh. 

KIIKTORIC.  The  art  of  sptiaking  on 
any  iiuliject  with  propriety,  and  the  force 
of  purwiiasioii. 

UilHUM.  A  thin,  Remua  humour,  that 
oiizeii  oct-asionally  from  the  glands  about 
the  throat  uiid  iiioiith. 

RlllirMATISM.  Wandering  pains  in 
the  body,  acootupanied  with  heaviiiesM, 
dilliculty  of  motion,  and  sometimes  a 
fever. 

RHINOCEROS.  A  large l»east in  India, 
■nd  the  largest  of  all  quadrupeds,  except 
the  elephhnt,  having  a  horn  in  his  fnuii 
and  a  skin  full  of  wrinkles,  wiilch  is  so 
bard  that  it  can  scarcely  be  pierced  by  a 
■word 


RIIODOOn.VnRON.    A  shrub  bearing 
a  very  fine  tlower. 

RlioMKOil).  A  quadrilateral  figure, 
whose  opposite  sides  and  uimles  ureeipial, 
but  it  is  neither  equilateral  nor  rectan 
pilar. 


nHOMBIJS.  A  quadrilateral  figure 
which  is  eiiuilateral,  but  not  rectan- 
gular. 


UHL'BARB      a  perennial,  the  root  of 
vtita  it  much  used  iu  medicine,  puilicu- 


larly  what  comes  from  Turkey  ;  the  stalk 
of  the  lCuro|H':in  rhuliurb  is  also  much  e» 
teemed  in  taru. 

KIIUMli.  A  vertical  circle  of  any  place, 
or  the  iiitfrsei'tion  ol  part  of  such  circla 
with  llie  liorlKoii. 

R II V  .M  K.  A  sort  of  verse  \v hii 'i  termi- 
nates with  words  of  the  same  sound 

RIIS  (in  AuaUiiiiy).  A  side  bone  of  :1m 
body. 

RIR  (In  Carpentry).  Any  piece  of  Uil»- 
ber  that  strengthens  the  side. 

RIB  (in  Ship-liuilding).  The  timlier  nf 
the  fiittocks,  when  llie  planks  are  i>tf, 
which  resemble  the  ribs  of  the  body. 

RIUltON.  A  narrow  sort  of  silk,  chietljr 
used  tor  iiead  uriiaments. 

RIUK  KTS.  A  diseiise  in  the  back  b<me, 
incident  to  children. 

itlCK.  A  sort  of  esculent  grain,  culti- 
vated in  warm  countries,  which  grows  ta 
hiislca  of  an  ovsJ  Cigur*. 


RICK-CIX)TH.  In  England,  a  tarpaw- 
ling,  which  is  set  up  by  stacks  or  ricks  of 
hay  or  corn,  while  it  is  stacking.  It  ia 
worked  with  pulleys,  aa  repreof-nted  uo- 
dernenth 


RIDER.  A  leaf  interted -n,orattache« 
to  other  leaves. 

RIDKR  (in  Commfrce).  One  \vi>a  tra- 
vels for  a  trading  or  uiercantile  h»us«  to 
collect  orders. 

RlhER  (infSunneryV  A  piece  of  wood 
equal  to  the  lengTli  of  the  b«irty  of  the  ax.j,- 
tree  of  the  gun  carriage. 

RIUER  ROLL  (in  I^w).    A  achedol* 


RIO 

nt  «man  pie  :e  of  parchment  added  to  corns 
^rt  ••('  a  full  or  record. 

UlUKltS  (lu  hhip  building).  Timbers 
bolu-d  u|>on  ottiers  lo  Hiren^nlien  iheiii. 

KiDCJU  The  lop  of  a  liouse  tlial  rii<ef 
to  an  acute  angle  ;  also  the  tup  of  the  ver- 
Ijiiia  of  ttie  back 

KlDt;E(in  Husbandn).  The  highest 
part  of  the  land  between  t»'o  furrows. 

RtUING.  A  divisiiiii  of  a  ruMrily,  n.i 
the  eaiit  and  west  ridin;;  of  \'orkbhire, 
England. 

RIUI.VG-CI.ERK.  rn  England,  one  of 
the  six  clerks  in  clianctfry,  who,  in  his 
turn,  keeps  tlie  ctiniplmlnient  book  of  all 
gruuls^that  paifs  the  great  '•'ul. 

UlUING  SCIKJOl..  A  public  place 
where  |)er8ou8  are  tiiugJit  to  sit  gracefully 
on  a  horse,  and  use  the  bridle  with  pro- 
priety. 

UIFLR.  A  gun  having  spiral  channels 
in  the  barrel. 

KIFl,i;.ME.\.  Soldiers  armed  with  ri- 
fles, and  employed  as  niarksnieii  to  tire 
behind  hedges. 

RUi<;i.\G.  All  the  cordaae  or  ropen 
belonging  Ui  the  ditl'erent  |Htrts  of  a  ship. 

RKillT  (UI  Law).  Any  title  or  claim 
by  virtue  of  a  coiulition,  mortgage,  &.c. 

KI(;HT(in  Geometry).  iStraight,  as  a 
right  line. 

RIGHT  ANGLE.  The  angle  formed 
by  one  line  falling  perpendicularly  U|>on 
another. 

RIGHT  SPHERE  (in  Astronomy).  That 
position  of  a  sphere  by  which  its  jioles  are 
in  the  horizon. 

RKiLET  (In  Architecture).  A  Hat,  thin 
piece  of  wood,  like  what  is  drsiuned  for 
Uie  frames  of  small  pictures,  before  they 
are  moulded. 

RIG  LET  (in  Priming).  A  thin  slip  of 
wood  used  in  making  up  a  form,  for 
tit^litening  tlii-  paui-s,  &.c. 

RINU.    The  skin  of  any  fniit. 

RINtJDOVK.  .i  European  variety  of 
the  pigeon. 

RLVGHEAD.  An  instrument  for  stretch- 
ing woollen  cloth  with. 

RING  LEA UER.  The  head  of  a  party 
or  faction. 

RINGOUGRL.  \  Knropean  bird, 
marked  with  a  crescent  «rf  white  up<m  the 
under  part  of  the  neck. 

RINGWORM  A  cutaneaiis  disorder 
that  C4>me8  on  the  skin  in  rings,  aud  is 
eoniaaious. 

Rio'l"  (in  I.aw).  The  forcible  doins  an 
Kjilawful  ihiHg  by  three  or  more  (lersoiis, 
assembled  loL-etlier  for  ihal  |iur|M>se. 

BIOT  ACT.  A  legislaiive  act,  prohib- 
klng  riotouB  or  tuiiriltiiuus    usseuibliev. 


ROE 


sn 


which,  being  read  by  a  magistrate  or  peac« 
otiii-er  (o  the  mob,  obliges  all  persons  to 
disperse  within  an  hour,  on  pain  of  being 
appiehriiiled  as  rioters. 

RISING.  The  appearance  of  any  star 
or  planet  above  the  horizon,  which,  before, 
was  bid  beneath  it. 

UITU.AL.  A  book  directing  the  order 
and  inaiiner  to  l>e  observed,  in  celebniting 
r>.-ligious  cereiiiiiiiies,  and  perl'oriniiig  di- 
vine  service  in  the  cliiirch. 

RIVER.  A  stream  or  current  of  fresb 
water,  lliiwiim  in*a  lied  or  channel,  as  II10 
river  Aniazon  in  S<iuth  America,  the  iMis- 
sissippi  and  ^^allll  l..awreiice  in  North 
Anierii-.a,  the  Nile  In  Egypt,  the  Euphratea 
and  (iaiiues  in  India,  the  Rhine  and  Da- 
nube in  (iermany,  itie  Rhone  and  c<eiiie  in 
France,  the  Tiber  ih  Italy,  the  Taciis  in 
Portugal,  the  Thames  in   Great    Britain, 

&.C. 

RIVET  A  metal  pin  clinched  at  botli 
end.N. 

UIX  DOLLAR.  A  coin  tn  Germany, 
worth  from  sixty  ceiit.s  to  one  dollar. 

ROACH      A  lish  of  the  carp  kind. 

ROAD.  A  highway,  or  away  prepared 
for  travellers  ;  it  is  either  a  carriage  road, 
where  carriages  may  |hiss,  or  a  fmit  riKid, 
or  iKilfTfor  foot  passengers.  Military  roadi 
were  formerly  coiM<triu'te4l  by  the  Romans 
for  the  (Kissage  of  their  armies,  of  which 
there  are  still  vestiges  in  England.  RcKids 
in  the  latter  country  are  now  principally 
made  by  small  stone»  IkiuiiiI  together  with 
the  earth,  which  is  called  Macadamizing. 

ROAD.  A  sea  term  for  any  place  lit 
for  anchorage,  at  some  distance  from  the 
shore. 

ROADSTER.  A  horse  accusUimed  tc 
travelling  on  the  road 

RoBI.N,  or  R(>Bi!<  Rkdireait.  A 
pretty  little  European  bird  with  a  red 
brenist,  which  is  very  tame,  and  m  wiiiler 
time  comes  luto  the  hou.-<e.  The  Ameri- 
can robin  18  larger,  but  is  a  great  favourite, 
and  sings  very  sweetly. 

ROt;HE  ALi;.M,  or  Rooi  Avtru.  \ 
niiner<il  salt  of  a  very  bindinsqual'iy- 

ROCK.  A  stony  mass,  of  which  niiuin- 
tains  are  for  the  most  part  formed.  Kockt 
are,  however,  to  be  met  with  in  immensely 
large  separate  masses. 

RIK'KET.  A  sort  offireworkr.  which, 
when  let  •ff.  go  lo  a  very  great  ht-ight  >n 
the  air  l>efiire  they  burst. 

RiH'KltlL.  A  bitummoos  nibstanrc 
found  in  riM'.Ks. 

ROE.  An  animal  of  the  deer  kind: 
also  the  spawn  of  ti«li  ;  that  ol  the  ii,ulef 
is  called  sort  roe  or  melt,  ihot  of  tju  fir 
mules  hard  roe  or  »pawB 


516 


ROS 


ROGATION  WEEK.  The  week  pre- 
tediug  VVhiuuntide. 

KOLLliii  t^aw).  A  schedule  or  parch- 
ment which  may  be  rnlled  up. 

KOLl^KU  (in  liusliandry  and  Garden- 
ing). A  wooden  or  iron  ln^n^llItllMU  of  a 
circular  shape,  and  filled  ftir  rolling  along 
the  ground  lo  level  jTrass  land,  break  the 
Clods  of  arable  land,  and  to  hiud  the  grav- 
•1  ia  grayel  walks. 


SOLLER  (in  Surgery).  A  long,  broad 
liirature,  Tor  keeping  the  parts  of  the  liudy 
in  their  places. 

HOLLER  (in  Ornithology)  A  sort  of 
bird  the  «i/,e  of  a  jav. 

ROLLING  Mli.L.  A  machine  for 
working  metals  into  plates  or  bars.  This 
sort  of  mill  is  chiefly  used  for  drawing  out 
the  iron  bars,  after  they  have  been"' manu- 
factured into  bar  iron  by  the  foriie  lianmier. 
ROiMAN  CATHOLICS.  Those  who 
hold  the  doctrines,  and  submit  to  the  dis- 
CilHine  of  the  Romish  church. 

KIX)I>.    The  fourth  part  of  an  acre. 
HOOK.     The  covering  of  a  building. 
ROOK.     A  sociable  European   bird  of 
the  crow  kind. 

ROiyr'in  Arithmetic).  A  numl)er  or 
quantity,  which  multiplied  by  itself  produ- 
ces a  higher  power,  as  -2,  the  sipiare  root 
of  4  or  the  cul>e  root  of  8. 

Rf)OT  (in  Botany).  That  part  of  a  (ilant 
which  is  uhiter  ground,  and  by  which  the 
plant  derives  its  nourishment  from  the 
earth. 

R  )OT  (in  Grammar).  The  original 
words  from  which  others  are  formed. 

ROPE.  The  larger  kiml  of  cordage, 
formed  by  the  twisting  of  several  strings 
of  yarn  together;  the  smallest  sort  of 
ro[ie  is  called  cord,  and  the  larger  kinds 
cable,  which  is  u-^ed  for  the  ringing  of  ships. 
ROPKMAKLNG.  The  process  of  twist 
ing  yarn  into  ropes  by  means  of  a  wheel. 

ROPEVARN.  The  rope  of  any  yarn 
untwisted. 

R<  )SE.  A  shrub  equally  celebrated  and 
admired,  by  both  ancients  and  moderns, 
for  its  sweetness  and  its  beauty.  The 
most  esteemed  ••(lecies  of  this  favourite 
(hriib,  are  the  hundred   leaved  rose    da- 


KOU 

mask  rose,    Provence  rose,  white    to* 
moss  rose.  to. 

ROSE  ACAGIA.     A  prickly  shnih,  the 
Bow  er  of  winch  resembles  the  rose  in  foria 
Ro.SE.M.\RY.      A   medicinal   and    fra- 
grant (ilanl. 

RiJSEWATER.  Water  dislillfcd  from 
roses. 
RO!^IN.  See  Resin. 
RoS'l'RL'M.  A  place  in  Rom*  wh^re 
orations  were  made  and  pleadings  carried 
on  :  it  W!i8  so  culled  from  rostrum,  tlie 
lieak  ("fa  ship,  because  it  was  made  of  the 
beaks  ol  the  ships  taken  at  Antium. 

R<  )T.  A  disease  among  sheep,  in  which 
their  lungs  are  wai^ted  and  their  throaiii 
swollen. 

ROTACEyK.  One  of  Linnipus's  natural 
ordi  r  ol  plants,  CKiisisiiii!!  ol'siich  as  have 
one  wheel-shaped  (lelal  w  itliciut  a  lube. 

ROTA'IIO.N  (III  Groiiulry).  The  cir- 
cumvolution of  a  Hiirlarc  rniiiid  an  immo- 
vable line,  by  whicli  solids  are  cimceived 
to  lie  generated. 

ROTTE.N  STO.NE.  A  mhienil,  found 
in  Oerhysliire,  which  is  used  for  all  sort* 
of  liner  grinding  and  polishing,  and  aoiiie- 
tiiiies  for  cutting  of  stones 

ROTUNDA,  or  RoTUNDo.  A  circular 
build  ing  at  Rome,  which  was  anciently 
called  the  Pantheon  ;  also  nny  circulai 
building. 

ROTUNDITY  OP  THE  EARTH 
Roundness  of  form  ascribed  to  the  earth 
from  various  appe,inuces  which  serve  to 
|>rove  It,  as,  for  liislajice,  ihattlie  niastijof 
a  vessel  come  in  sight  before  the  hull  it 
visible. 

ROUGE.  A  red  paint  extracted  from 
the  plant  called  by  bo'auists  the  carthainus 
tiiictiirius. 

RolHJH  CASTING.  A  kind  of  mortar 
used  as  a  covering  for  external  walls, 
which  IS  thrown  <m  roughly,  instead  of  b»- 
ing  plxstere  I  on. 

RoUGHItlUKR.  A  non-commissioned 
officer  in  the  cavalry,  who  assuts  the  rid- 
ing ina-ster. 

ROUNDHOUSE.  In  England,  a  tem- 
imrary  prison  in  a  parish,  where  thiaa 
who  are  apprehende<l  by  the  constable  are 
confined. 

ROUNDHOUSE  (among  Mariner*). 
The  uppermost  roiun  or  cabin  in  the  iiteia 
of  a  ship,  where  the  master  lies. 

ROUNDS.  A  watch  mmmanded  by  an 
officer,  who  goes  in  the  right  time  round 
a  ffirtrese. 

ROUND  ROBIN.  A  paper  containing 
a  statement  c.f  griewnces,  on  the  part  of 
any  niiinher  tifdisconteiiied  persons  in  the 
army  or  navy,  who  sign  iheir  nainet  in  a 


S  A  B 

circular  manner,  that  it  may  not  he  >eeii 
who  sijincd  first. 
fiOWEL.  'J'be  |ioinU>d  wheel  in  a  spur. 

RUBELLITE.  IJe.l  t<mini:tliiie  con 
tiiiiiiii^  :i  C(>ii.siiler:il)lt;  |ii'<i]Mirti<in  ot 
HiMiiuaiifSf,  jreiieriilly  Jiccuirinj:  in 
closi'l\ -:mj:r»>^ate<i  ciystnls.  vnrvinj; 
from  iisli^:lii  tinge  of  red  to  a  tine  pink 

lirHEZAllL.  N  iinibfrNip,  iifHmuii.x 
ln'<uittaiii-si>ii'it  of  Gi-iinanv. «onu-tinie» 
fiiemlly.  sonit^times  niischievuns,  coire- 
8|iiiiiiliiV^  to  Eii<:lisli  Fuek. 

UU1UCEK[,E.  A  gem.  a  variety  of 
riibv,  of  a  vellow  or  oraiijje  red. 

ItUIUCOX.  A  snmll  river  whicli 
formed  tlio  Uoiiiidnry  betwe<'U  ancient 
G:ml  and  Italy,  by  ']ia8.sin<;  which, 
Julius  C'assEir.  tiie  famous  Hoinaii  peu- 
enil,  declared  war  against  liis  country. 
Thin  stream  was  probably  the  nioderu 
Pitta  tello. 

RUBRIC.  The  dirwtions  given  in  the 
Book  of  Common  I'niyer. 

Rl.'BV.  A  preciouH  stone,  neil  to  the 
diamond  in  v.-ilue  ItM  roMsiitnent  parts 
are  aliiuiina,  silica,  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
oxide  of  iron. 

RUDOtuR.  A  piece  of  timber  hung  on 
ninjen  at  the  steru-piMsis  of  a  ship,  whiclt, 
by  lieiiiit  turned  either  way,  directs  llie 
course  of  the  vessel. 

RUUI.\It:.N'TS.  The  first  eleinenta  or 
principles  of  any  art  «ir  science. 

RUUOLI'HI.NE  TABI.fS  A  celebra- 
ted !iet  of  astronomical  tables,  published 
by  Keplfr,  and  thus  entitled  in  honour  of 
the  emperor  Rudolph  or  Kudolphus. 

RUKK.  .\  Kuropean  bird,  nb<iiit  a 
fbt>t  in  lenjnh,  with  long  feathers  standin:! 
out  round  the  neck,  like  a  rulf.  'J'be  fe 
male  is  called  Reeve. 

RL'LE  OF  THREE  (fn  Arithmetic). 
A  rule  which  teaihes  by  means  of  three 
numlwr"  in  nnft  a  fourth. 

RULE,  cr  Uri.EIt.  An  instrument  of 
wood  or  meial,  m.-\rked  off, so  as  to  be  of  use 
Id  mensuruiiou. 


SAB 


317 


R(7I>E,  ^LiDixn.     A  mnthematical  in  - 
atniiiient,  serving  to  |>erforiii  coin|>ulatii>ni 
iu  f;uueiiij:,  mcasiiriiij;,  &c.,  witliout  the 
use  of  compasses,  merely  by  the  sliding  of 
the  parts  of  the  tnstmment  one  by  another. 

Rl.LES  OK  CUURT.  Certain  i>rder« 
made  from  time  to  time  in  the  courts  of 
law ,  for  regulating  the  practice  of  the  ctmrt. 

RUM  A  spirituoiu  liquor  distilled  from 
sugar  canes. 

RUMEN  (in  Comparative  Anautmy) 
The  paunch  or  first  stomach  of  such  aiii 
mals  as  chew  tlie  cud. 

RUMIXANTIAGUKUMIXAXTS. 
In  zoolofry,  an  onler  of  lii'i'liivonuis  niii- 
mals,  pi-ovidcd  with  four  stomachs — 
the  first  .so  .situated  as  to  receive  a  lai  ;:• 
quantity  of  vej;etalilo  matter,  coarsely 
bruised  by  the  first  mastication,  whiclt 
]>a.ssea  into  thn  second,  vlierc  it  is 
lii:>istei!ed  and  foniieil  into  little  ]iellet.s, 
which  the  animal  has  the  power  of 
briu^ili;{  avraiii  to  the  month  to  be  re- 
cbeweil.  alter  wliicli  it  is  sw.illoned 
into  t'lio  third  sloniach,  mid  tliciico 
]ias.ses  to  the  fouilli.  It  coiupreheiiiU 
the  antelopes,  oxcu.  Stags  musics,  uud 
j;iia(r>-s. 

UUNTC.  rertJiinlug  to  the  ancient 
Golhs,  or  tlieir  laii;:iiase  and  It-tters. 
Tlie  letters  of  the  iilpliabet  of  the  an- 
cii'iit  Sciindinaviaiis,  principally  formed 
of  >tr:ii.'lit  lines. 

JiUTIIE'XICM.  A  prey  metal,  very 
liMi'd  and  brittle,  and  very  fu.-ible.  ex- 
tracted from  the  ore  of  jdatimim. 

ItnriLE.  Titaiitic  acid  of  a  dark- 
red  color,  or  reddish  brown,  occurring 
in  four  or  ei;:lit  sided  prisms,  mas-sive. 
iiml  in  crystals — a  mineral  found  in 
many  places  in  Scotland. 

UV.VCOLITE.  A  mineral  of  a  whito 
or  !:rev  color,  with  a  vitreous  Instro, 
resembliu;:  jilassy  felspar.  • 

IIVE.  A  cere!"il  of  a  quality  infetior 
to  wlunt,  but  more  liardy.  ai!<l  lienco 
much  cultivated  iu  uorthcru  countries. 


S,  the  nineteenih  letier  cl  our  alpnaliet,  i 
tcanuiner:i!.>to«d  for  neven  ;  in  .Music,  as 
an  abbreviation,  it  Fiauds  for  solo ;  in  navi- 
Itation,  for  south  ;  6.  E.,  for  south  ea.'^t  ; 
S.  VV.,  for  south  west ;  S.  S.  E.,  for  south  I 
■oiilh  east ;  S.  ri.  W.,  for  s..iitli  s<iiilb  we.«l.  j 
t^AUBATII.  The  wveiilh  day.  i*- 1 
nerved  by  the  Jews  as  a  fe.stivaJ  or  day  of  j 
retX,  in  lomniBinoraiioD  of  OoJ's  resting  ( 


on  tne  seventh  day,  afler  the  work  of  the 
cre:i:io,i.  The  Je.vvish  sabbath  comnien- 
ce-i  at  sunset  on  the  Friday,  and  ends  ct 
cunsel  on  tlie  ^Salurday.  The  term  ."*«b- 
halh  IS  applied  by  Christians  to  the  l/ord'i 
Day,  viilLTirly  railed  Sunday,  wliirh  bat 
been  substituted  for  the  Jewish  Sabbnlh. 

SABLE  (in  Zooloey).     An  animal  of  tb* 
weasel  tribe,  having  a  dark  la'^ny   body 


ST8 


SAP 


SAL 


tt  intMhit*  thi)  nonli<>rn  regions,  and  Is 
Bucb  eateeuied  fur  lU  fur. 


SABLR  (in  Ileralilry).  The  tincliiieof 
black  representeil  in  engraving  by  perpen- 
iicutar  and  horizontal  lines. 


iiiBiiii 


SABRR.  A  sworrt  with  a  broad, 
heavy  blade,  worn  by  ilie  heavy  cavalry. 

SABELLIAX.  A  followor  of  Siibel 
Iin8,  aiiliil(>.soi>)>(M-  ill  tlio  tliinl  cciiturv, 
Wlio  tauy;lit  tliiit  tlieio  is  only  ono  per 
son  in  tlie  Godliead,  and  tliar  tlie  Son 
anil  Holy  Si)irit  are  «)nly  (lifFerent  attri 
biites.  Of  functions  of  God  the  Father. 

sJACKBUT  A  sort  of  truuipel  fit  for 
playin'i  hass. 

SACI. ACTIO  AOIH.  A  powder procnr 
ed  from  the  sugar  of  iiillk. 

SACK  AM  K.\T.  A  sign  of  a  holy  tiling 
•ontaiiun^  a  divine  mystery. 

SAlllll.B.  A  seal  for  a  hnrspnian  fitted 
to  a  horse's  tmck.  It  is  sii|ipused  that  sad- 
dles did  not  come  into  use  till  about  the 
time  of  Coiistantiae  the  Ureat,  in  the 
fourth  century. 

SADULKK.  One  who  makes  and  sells 
(addles.  The  coiii|iany  of  saddlers  in 
(  ondon  is  of  great  anti(|uity,  liavnig  lieen 
incorfHirated  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Rd- 
ward  I. 

SADnUCEES.  A  sect  among  the  Jews, 
tvhirh  were  esteemed  as  iteists  and  free- 
thinkers. 

SAFE  CONDUCT.  A  security  given 
by  the  king  under  his  great  seal  to  any 
person,  for  his  (jiiiet  coming  into,  or  pa-s- 
■age  out  of  his  realm. 

SAFEGUARD.  A  protection  given  by 
ft  prince  or  his  general  to  an  enemy's 
country,  to  protect  n  from  being  ravaged 
by  an  army. 

SAFETY-LAMP.  A  lamp  invented  by 
Bir  Humphrey  Davy,  for  the  use  of  miners 
%i  Uie  coal  mines,  to  prevent  the  fatal  ex- 


plosions which  have  arisen  from  the  um 
of  common  lamps.  The  satel)  lamp 
transmits  its  lignt  through  a  cylinder  u( 
inui  or  copper  wire  gaute,  tlieaiiertuies  in 
which  are  not  above  one  twentieth  of  an 
inch  square  As  tile  lire-damp  is  not  ig 
niled  by  heated  wire,  the  tliicknesx  uf  tlta 
wire  is  of  no  iniporlaiice.  Tile  pnncipiu 
parts  of  this  lamp  are  a  brass  cistern  con- 
taining tlie  oil,  the  nm  on  which  the  wire 
gan/.e  cover  Is  lixed,  an  ajiertiire  for  supply- 
insoil,  a  central  aiiertiire  fur  tlie  wick,  and 
the  wire  gainte  cylinder. 


SAFFRON  A  biilboiis  root;  also  the 
flower  of  the  crocus  ;  also  a  substance 
formed  from  the  stigmata  of  the  orocin 
oflicinulis  dried  on  a  kiln  and  pressed  inlc 
cakes. 

SAr.lTTA  A  constellation  in  the 
northern  hemisphere. 

.»^A(;iTTARirf5.  The  ninth  sign  of  the 
zodiac,  marked  thus  (  /  ). 

SACO.  A  sii'iple  produced  from  the 
pith  of  a  kind  of  piilm  growin-!!  in  the  Hast 
Indies,  called  by  botanists  the  cycas  cir- 
■  Mialis. 

SACJOIN.  A  fouth  American  animal 
about  tiie  size  of  a  nibbit. 

SAIL.  A  large  piece  of  canvass  com- 
posed of  several  breadths  sewed  togtthel, 
which,  when  extemled  liy  means  of  lint>9 
on  masts,  catches  the  wind,  and  dnvesthe 
vessel  along. 

SAII.INd.  The  conducting  a  vessel 
from  one  p<irt  to  another,  which  ia  tlie 
practical  part  of  navigation. 

SALAMANDER.  A  sort  of  lizard, 
which  exudes  from  its  (mres  a  milky  li- 
quor, by  whirl!  it  is  i-nahled  for  a  time  to 
resist  the  actiun  of  fire.  From  this  virtue, 
it  was  furmerly  supposed  cajiable  of  liviiij; 
in  lire. 

SAL  AMMf)NIAC.  A  fossi"  salt  which 
was  said  to  be  dug  out  <>f  the  sands  id  Am- 
monia in  Libya,  from  which  it  timi  it« 
name.    There   is   no  native  suit  uf     hi* 


3AL 

■am«  known  to  the  nnvlenn.  but  a  ftrtl- 
Uous  Kilt  ronipoaed  ui  a  vnlalilf  alkaline 
ftnd  ttir  arid  ol  8pa  Hall,  wbeiice  it  is  call- 
ed tli«-  muriate  (>('aiiimi>riia. 

fAI.AKY.  'I'lie  :<tipriid  or  rfiniinera- 
ti<iii  iii:tde  to  a  man  liir  lux  services,  in  ilis- 
tiiir.tiiin  froiii  waijeM,  tvtiich  is  tor  iluy 
lalMiiir,  and  pay,  wliicb  ia  for  iniritary 
•ervire. 

8ALK  (in  I<aw).  Transferring  the  pn>- 
perty  uf  i;(h><N  froiu  one  lu  anottier,  U|Min  a 
Tahiable  canHidemllon. 

SALh:SMAN.  tine  who  sells  rinihes 
or  other  C4>iniiloditie<.  It  is  iU«f>  applied 
to  one  III  a  nieicniitile  estatillsliineiil,  who 
■ells  ilie  eoodg. 

SALIKN'r  ANr.I.R  (in  Portifiuilion). 
An  aM;;te  projeciiii;;  outwanid. 

SALIVA.  An  excretion  from  certain 
ghinil!<  of  the  nuMiili,  which  serves  to 
aioixten  the  liKid  t^fi.re  i'.  IR  s^wallowed. 

SALIVATION.  A  draivina  humours 
out  of  the  mouth  by  ni<riMiij:i!  prepara- 
tions ;  alM>  a  preternatural  increase  uf 
•aliva. 

SAI.I.OW.     A  sort  of  willow. 

SALLY.  The  issmns  of  the  besieged 
from  tlieir  fort  and  tower,  and  lulling  un 
tUe  liesiecers  to  cut  them  otf. 

SALLY  PtMl'I'S.  Doorwaye  on  eacHi 
qti.irter  uf  a  tire  ship,  out  of  which  the 
men  make  their  escape  into  the  boats 
as  Moon  as  the  train  i.s  laid. 

SALMON.  A  fish  that  lives  in  either 
fresh  or  salt  water,  hut  shuns  that  which 
!•  taal      It  IS  niucti  esteeiiiixl  fur  its  llesh. 


SAN 


S» 


SALMO.N  TROUT.  A  species  of  the 
Mimon,  having  a  body  sp«>tted  with 
black. 

SALOON.  A  »p«.-iou8  room  much  used 
in  Italy  a-f  a  stnte  room  for  the  reception 
of  ambassador*. 

SALOP.  A  gnlwtince  brought  from 
Persia,  and  prepared,  as  is  supposed,  from 
a  siiecirs  of  the  plant  bolanically  called 
orchis. 

S.ALT.  A  name  given  by  modem  chy- 
Blists  to  three  s«.rUi  of  siilistaiices,  namely, 
•elds,  alkalies,  and  the  com(Miiinds  fomi- 
ed  by  acids  in  union  with  ulkalifs,  earths, 
•nd  metallic  oxides.  These  latter  are 
Mitt,  pro|erly  so  called,  aa  I   are  suiue- 


l'm»«  distinguished  from  the  two  others 
by  the  name  ol  neutral  salts,  as  Kpsont 
8.111s,  nitre,  &.C.  Salts  are  likewise  dis- 
tinguished according  to  the  prtiresti  by 
wliicli  they  are  pre|>ared.  Coiiiinnn  salt, 
or  hay  salt,  a  munale  of  msla.  heini;  • 
coiii)iound  of  muriatic  acid  and  msla,  ia 
pnHMiied  hy  eva|Hinihon  t'roiii  sea  water. 
Ivwentiul  salts  are  drawn  from  the  juirea 
of  plants  hy  crysiallization.  Fixed  salts 
aie  made  bv  ciili-iiiini;  or  reducing  the  mat- 
ter lo  ashes,  iher.  iHiiling  it  in  water, 
straining  <itf  the  il<pior,  and  evaporating 
iill  t.'ie  moisture,  when  the  salt  will  re- 
main in  the  form  of  a  powder.  Volatile 
salts  ate  procured  principally  from  animal 
siili-:tances  or  thb  fermented  parts  uf 
plams. 

S.ALTER  A  ciealer  ia  salt  or  salt  fifh. 
The  company  of  salters  in  Ixmdoii  were 
incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Henry  Vlll. 

SALTrETRE,  or  Nitrb.  A  nitrate  of 
potash. 

S.ALTS,  or  SALTcatLARi.  A  name  for 
the  vessel  that  holds  the  salt  when  It  is 
brought  to  the  table. 

S.\LV.A(;E.  a  recompense  allowed 
to  such  persons  as  have  assisted  in  sa- 
ving merchandises,  ships,  &c.,  from  ship- 
wrecks. 

SALUTE  (In  Military  Etiquette).  A 
discharge  of  artillery, or  preseiiling  of  anna, 
as  a  mark  of  liimoiir  wr  res|>ecl  to  soma 
perxon  of  distinction. 

SALUTE  (in  the  Navy).  The  rtio- 
charge  of  ordnance,  striking  of  colours, 
and  llie  like,  as  testimonies  of  respect  to 
the  ihi|>s  of  an  admiral  or  siijierior. 

S.V.M.MHTANS.  A  sect  aiiiimg  the 
Jews,  who  rejected  all  the  scriptures  ex- 
cept the  live  b<K>ks  of  Moses. 

S.ANCTUAKY  (in  Law).  A  privileged 
place,  whither,  anciently,  offenders  were 
allowed  to  lly,  and  to  remain  for  some 
time  miller  prtUection. 

SA.N'UAL.  A  sort  of  slipper  worn  by 
the  Greek  and  Roman  ladies. 

SA.NDAL  Wool).  The  wood  of  an 
Indian  tree,  remarkable  for  lis  fragnince. 

SANUAR.AC'IL  A  resinous  siilisutnce 
exuding  from  a  tree  that  grows  lu  Uar- 
bary. 

SANOBACS.  Bags  fitted  for  holding 
sand  or  earth,  and  used  in  repairing 
breaches  In  fortifications,  &c. 

SAMilVEK,or(!L»»»G*i.L.  A  salin* 
matter  winch  rises  as  a  scum  in  tlie  cruci- 
bles III  which  glass  IS  made. 

S.-X.N'DI'IHER.     .\  s«.rt  <>(  heath  bird. 

SA.NUSTO.N'E.  A  sort,  rouipouna 
stone,  consKting  of  grain*  of  saud,  &e» 
cem»iited  together      The    principa:  pi»- 


320 


SAT 


SAW 


c*a  are  the  grindstone  and  th6  Mt^rins 
stone. 

SANtJlAO.  The  governor  of  a  Turkish 
proviijce. 

SAMIKDRIM.  T!w  supreme  council 
or  conn  iifjiiilicaiure  aiiioii<:  ilm  Jews. 

SAP.  'I'Ih?  juice  or  tliiid  pari  ol' ii  tree, 
wliich  is  a  niucilaginuiis  liquid,  ot^eiitiiiies 
•tron^ly  sacciwr'ne,  so  as  to  yield  a  larjje 
Quantity  ot'  sugar,  and  also  to  luriiisli  a 
Btroni;  fermented  li(|Utir. 

SAIM'KRS.  Soldiers  attached  to  the  en- 
gineers, and  enipluyed  to  assist  in  ttie  la- 
txiur  uf  sapping. 

SAPPHIRK.  A  hard  and  precious 
atone  of  a  beautiful  azure  or  sky-lilue  col- 
our, nearly  as  transparent  and  glittering 
an  the  diaiiiond 

SAPPINU.  A  working  iindererounrJ 
lo  gain  the  deacent  of  a  ditch,  counter- 
scarp, See. 

SAIICOCOL.  A  gum  resin  hroiight 
from  Persia  and  Arabia  in  sin:ill  grams, 
and  supposed  tn  he  the  prnducl  of  a  tree 
called  by  botanists  tlie  peiuea  sarrocolla. 

SAIIC()PIIA(;US.  A  sort  of  stone 
cortins,  which  consumed  the  bodies  plared 
in  them  in  tlie  spaceof  forty  days.  It  was 
used  by  the  ancients  soiiietiines  instead 
of  burning  the  bodies  hy  lire. 

SAUIX.'.VYX.  A  precious  stone,  con- 
sititing  of  a  mixture  of  chalcedony  and 
cornelian  stone. 

SAR.MKNTOS^  (in  Botany).  One  of 
Linnxiis's  natural  orders,  consisting  of 
plants  which  have  climbing  steins  and 
bninclies,  like  the  vine. 

SAUSAPARIM-A.  The  root  of  the 
rough  smilax,  a  plant  growing  in  Peru. 
It  has  a  bitterish  taste,  and  is  nniclr  used 
in  medicine. 

8 ASH  (among  Carpenters).  A  frame 
of  wood  with  panes  of  glass  for  a  window. 

SASH.  A  girdle  round  the  waist,  which 
tal  the  army  is  worn  by  the  officers. 

SASSAFRAS.  A  yellow,  oiloriferous 
wood  of  an  aromatic  scent,  common  in 
America. 

S.A'I'KF.IJTE.  A  secondary  planet 
moving  round  another,  as  the  moon  does 
riMind  the  earth,  so  called  because  it  at- 
tends the  primary  planet  from  rising  o 
•etting,  after  the  manner  of  the  satellites 
nho  attended  on  the  eastern  princes  as  a 
giinrd.  Jupiter  has  four  siicli  satellites,^ 
Saturn  seven,  and  Merschel  six. 

SATIN.     A  glossy  kind  of  silk  stuff. 

8ATIRR.  A  biting  sort  of  poetry, 
written  to  expose  t/ie  follies  of  men. 

pATI.'RATION  An  impregnation  of 
«  fluid  with  a»  mucli  of  airj'  solid  sut>- 
•tance  as   it  can   dissolve,     'llius   \k:ter 


will  distiiiire  about  one  third  of  its  wetgM 
<d  coiiiiMon  .siili,  and  when  it  holds  (hui 
Miiicli  in  soluiion.  It  IS  said  to  be  saturated 
Willi  It,  b>M:ausc,  II  more  be  added,  it  will 
reiiiuiii  soliil. 

SATURDAY.  Tlie  l.i.st  day  In  the 
week,  so  called  t'roiii  Saturn. 

SATURN  (HI  llrallieii  .Mythology).  A 
son  ('(  Cirrliis  and  'IVrni,  and  llie  god  of 
time,  commonly  represeiiir/.l  with  a  sythe, 
todeiii.le  the  destro>iiig  jHiwer  of  time ; 
soiiielimes  wiili  wings,  lo  denote  the 
swilliiess  of  time,  and  with  shackles,  to 
denote  the  slow  revolution  anil  motion  of 
the  planet  Saiurn. 


SATL'RN.  Oneof  the  primary  planets* 
the  tenth  in  order  of  distance  from  the 
sun,  which  Is  thirty  year*  in  (terforming 
his  sidereal  revolutiim.  lie  is  marked  by 
this  (  haracler  Ij . 

S.\TUR\AI.IA.  A  festival  at  Rome, 
in  commemoration  of  the  golden  age,  or 
the  age  of  Saturn,  when  all  men  enjoyed 
their  liberty,  as  the  poets  tell  us. 

SATURN'S  RING.  A  broad,  opa^c, 
circular  arc,  which  enronipusses  the  plan- 
et like  the  wooden  horizon  of  an  arliticial 
globe. 


SAVOV  A  sort  of  winl<»r  cabhagt 
with  a  crumpled  leaf,  which  is  greatly  im- 
proved in  ttavoiir  by  tieing  exposed  to  frost. 

SAVViMlhl..      A   mill  for  sawing  tree*    . 
into  boanis,  planks,  &c.  ^ 

.SAWYKR.  A  iiiech.-inic  employed  In 
sawing  timber.  There  are  two  sawyers  t« 
one  pie(<e,  one  of  whom  is  In  the  pit,  Ol 
below,  and  the  other  stands!  on  the  timber 


8CA 

SAXIFRAOt  A  creeping  ppff-nnlal, 
■o  culled  because  il  atlecls  ri>cky  or  slimy 
pliieen. 

SAXON  ARCH.  A  Femicircuiar  arch 
which  characierizes  the  SaxuR  style 


sen 


«1 


SAXON  STYLE  A  mode  of  building 
first  used  by  tlie  Saxons  in  (jreat  Britain. 
See  Architecture. 

SCABIOUS.  A  plant  cultivated  in 
gardens,  which  bears  a  handsome  bruwn 
flower 

SCABRID^.  One  of  MnniRus's  nat- 
ural orders,  incbidinp  plants  with  rough 
leaves,  as  liemp,  (ig,  &.c. 

SCAFFO!,!).  A  lenipomry  erection, 
either  fur  workmen  or  for  .spectators. 

SC.Al^E(in  Mathematics).  The  degrees 
of  any  arcli  of  a  circle  or  nf  right  lines 
drawn  or  engraven  on  a  rule 

SCAI.C  (in  Music).  A  series  of 
sounds  rising  or  falling  towards  acuteiiess 
cr  gravity  ;  in  Ctography,  a  scale  of  miles 
on  a  map,  fur  mea:iuring  llie  distances  of 
places  i  in  Arithmetic,  scale  of  notation, 
the  order  of  progression  on  which  any 
system  of  arithmetic  is  founded,  as  iho 
decennary  scale,  whi  :h  tuiiipuies  by 
tens. 

SUBI-APSARIAN.  One  of  those 
moderate  Calvinists  wlio  believe  tli.it 
God  only  ]iermilted  tbe  flr.st  man  to 
fall  into  traiisKvession  without  posi- 
tively predefeiiniiiiiig  lii«  fall — that 
tlie  decree  of  predestination  re<raided 
man  aa  fallen,  tlie  elect-  tlieniselves 
being  in  a  fallen  and  guilty  .slate — au<l 
that  the  election  of  grace  was  only  a 
remedy  for  an  existing  evil. 

StJBMULTIPLE.  A  number  or 
quantity  wliicli  lias  a  geometrical  ratio 
to  another  number  or  quantity,  by  be- 
ing contained  in  it  a  certain  number  of 
times  exactly;  thus  3  is  a  subuiultiple 

Sofai. 

*  SUBNORMAL.  In  geometry,  that 
wjrt  of  the  axis  of  a  curved  line  which 
_,  intercepted  between  the  ordinate 
ami  the-norm;rI. — In  all  curves  it  is  the 
third  proportional  tu  tho  eubtaHgeiit 
aad  the  oi-diuate. 


PCALP.  The  skm  that  covers  tlie  skull 
boNe. 

e>CA.M.MO.NY.  A  conreted,  resinous 
juice,  light  and  I'rialile,  of  a  gniyish  brown 
Colour,  and  disagreeable  siiiell 

SC.A.NNI.Vt;  Measuring  Latin  verses 
by  the  syllables  and  feet 

SCAN'I'LINU.  'I'he  mes  sure,  size,  or 
standard,  by  which  (he  dimeiuiions  of 
any  thing,  particularly  timlier,  la  deter- 
mined. 

SCAI'EMENT  (in  Clock  Work).  The 
manner  of  commiinicatiiig  the  impulse  of 
the  wheels  to  ihe  |ieiidiilum  Common 
scapements  consist  of  the  swing  wheel 
and  p;illets  only 

8CAIMJLA.    The  shoulder-blade 

SCAKF.  A  sort  of  sasli  worn  by  offi- 
cers ill  the  army,  and  als<i  by  divines,  na 
well  as  leinales,  over  the  lell  shoulder  and 
down  the  right  side 

SCARF  SKIN.  The  first  and  outer- 
most of  the  three  lamina  of  which  the 
skin  IS  composed. 

SCARIFICATION.  Incisions  made  m 
the  skin,  as  in  cupping 

SCARP.  The  slope  on  that  side  of  a 
ditch  which  is  next  to  a  fortified  place, 
and  looks  towards  the  field. 

SC.AVKNGKR.  A  person  whose  duty 
it  is  to  see  that  tlie  streets  be  cleansed 
from  filth  and  dirt. 

SCENaJRAPHY.  The  perspectiva 
representation  of  a  liody  on  a  plane. 

SCHEDULE  (in  Law).  A  scroll  of 
paper  or  parchment  appended  to  a  wiir 
or  any  other  deed  ;  also  an  inventory  of 
goods,  Slc. 

SCHIST.  A  name  given  to  differ- 
ent kinds  of  stones  of  a  slaty  lormation, 
but  particularly  those  of  the  argillaceous 
kind 

SCHOLIUM.  A  note  or  annotation  oa 
an  ancient  author 

SCHOOL.  A  place  set  apart  for  the  In- 
stniction  of  youth 

SCHOOL  (in  Philosophy).  A  system 
of  doctrine  as  dellvt-n-il  by  parili-ular 
teachers,  as  the  Platonic  scIhmiI,  the  school 
of  Aristotle,  &c. 

SCHOOL  (in  TheologyV  The  age  of 
the  church  and  the  liirm  of  divinity  that 
succeeded  the  falhers. 

SCHOOL  (amona  Painters).  The  style 
and  manner  of  pnintinc  anmna  tlie  great 
masters  of  the  art  at  any  particular  period, 
as  the  Italian,  Flemish,  Dutch,  Spanbb, 
and  English  schools 

SCHOONER.  A  small,  fastsailingren- 
sel  with  two  masts,  whiuw  main  and  fore- 
sails are  suspended  by  gatfs,  reaching  fr»ni 
I  the  mail  to  the  slerw 


aes 


SCO 


SCHERTF.  A  title  in  the  E.nst 
piveii  to  tlie  (Ic.-cciuiiiiits  of  iloliiini- 
nied  tlii()ii>;li  liis  Koii-iii-lHW  A\\  and 
daiitilittT  Kiitiniii ;  pivt-n  .also  to  tlio 
cliiul's  of  Al'^cca  and  Medina;  an  emir. 

SCIAGRAPHY.  The  arinf  finilin?  out 
the  hour  of  the  day  or  the  ni<:hl  by  the 
■biKlovv  of  the  SUM  or  the  iihhiii. 

SCION.  A  grafl  ur  young  shoot  of  a 
tree. 

HtnOPTtC.  A  sphere  or  elotie  of  wood 
with  a  hole,  in  which  Is  pluced  a  lens,  su 
Cunstructert  that  it  may  he  turned  round 
every  way,  and  used  in  making  experi- 
ments III  a  darkened  ruoiii. 

SCIKE  FACIAS.  A  writ  of  execution 
which  lies  a  year  and  a  day  alter  judg- 
ment civen. 

iflCIRRMUS.  A  hard  tumour  of  some 
gJalid. 

SCITAMINE/R.  One  of  Linn.-Rus's 
natural  orders,  coiiiprehendine  ifinuer,  car- 
dminoiii,  iipices,  and  other  aromatic  plants. 

S(;(>RIN(i  (in  Music),  t'ollectina  and 
arrangiim  the  several  det;iched  parts  of  a 
piece  into  a  certain  order. 

SCORPIO.  One  of  the  twelve  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  marked  thus  lip. 

SCORPION.  An  insect,  having  eight 
legs,  which  reaenihles  the  crah,  hut  much 
smaller.  It  is  armed  with  a  pungent  sting, 
the  puncture  of  which  in  hot  climates  is 
very  dangerous. 

SCRBKN.  An  Implement  In  husbandry 
wliich  consists  of  a  frame  and  wire  work, 
with  which  wheat  is  cleared  of  the  dust 
ftud  the  dross  grain. 


8CU 

distance  before  the  army,  id  order  to  dl» 
cover  the  movements  of  the  enemy. 

SCRI-IW.  One  of  tlie  six  mechanical 
powers,  consisting  of  a  spiral  thread  «*l 
groove  i-ut  round  a  cylinder:  when  the 
thread  is  <ui  the  outside.  It  is  a  male  of 
convex  screw  ;  but  when  it  is  cut  along 
the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder,  it  is  a  fe- 
male screw,  otherwise  called  a  nut. 


SCOUTS      tlorsemen  sent  out   some 


SCRIBE.  A  doctor  in  the  Jewish  law, 
whose  business  it  was  to  write  and  inter- 
pret the  siriiuure. 

SCRIBl.NiJ  (among  Carpenters).  Fit- 
ting the  edge  of  a  hoard  to  the  side  of 
another. 

S!(;RIP  A  bag  fonnerly  carried  by  pil- 
grims. 

SCRIP  (in  Commerce).  That  pan  o{ 
any  loan  wliicb  remains  unpaid  for  by  the 
subscnhers. 

SCRIVKiVER.  One  who  draivs  np 
and  engrosses  writings.  The  comiany  of 
scriveners  m  London  was  incorporated 
in  1616. 

SCROFI'T^A.  A  disease  consisting  of 
hard  swellings  in  the  glandules  of  the 
nerk  and  ears. 

SCRI'PI.K.  A  small  weight  equn!  to 
twenty  grains. 

SCltl'Pl.KS  ECLIPSED.  That  part  of 
the  diameter  of  the  union  which  enters  tlie 
shadow 

SCRI.TI.W  rill  Law).  An  examina- 
tion of  siilTrages  or  voles  at  an  election, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether 
they  are  good  or  not. 

SCUI.PSIT,  or  Scfi.p,  annexed  to  an 
engraver's  nante,  denotes  that  he  eiigratr- 
ed  or  carved  I  he  piece. 

SC U T., PT IJ R K.  An  art  which  compre- 
hends  not  only  carving  in  wood,  stone,  ol 
marble,  but  also  eiichasinc,  engraving  ia 
all  it.s  kinds,  and  casting  in  bronze,  lead, 
wax,  &c. 

SCULL     A  little  oar  fcr  rcwing  a  boat 

Willi. 


SEA 

SCULI.FR.  A  b  «;  rowfil  with  «rnll«. 

ttCt'M.  That  wbi'.'h  nms*  Ui  ttie  lup  uf 
any  liquor. 

SCL'RF.  A  scaly  swelling  raised  in  the 
•Icin  ol'  the  head. 

>*«TI!HVY.  A  diwam,  the  symirtoms  of 
which  nrf  yellow  simiU  on  the  haiidg  and 
reel,  weak'iiexg  in  the  legs,  a  foul  breath. 
Ice.  It  ariiiea  from  eating  tuo  much  sail 
provision:). 

SCUTTl^ES.  Square  holes  cut  in  ttie 
deck  iifa  sliip,  large  enniigli  to  admit  a  man. 

PCYIXA.  A  rock  in  the  sea  between 
Fkily  aai  ItLly,  which  was  very  formida- 
ble to  llie  mariners  ainuni;  the  ancients.  It 
was  opposite  to  the  whirlpool  Charybdis. 

S(;VTIIK.  An  Inrtninient  for  mowing. 
It  ronsists  of  a  thin  Hteel  blade  attached  at 
riglil  angles  to  a  handle  of  six  nr  eijiht  feet 
long.  Porcuttlne  corn  there  is  frequently 
the  addition  wf  what  is  called  a  cradle. 
The  Kiigltsb  scythe  is  represented  below. 


SEC 


E23 


SKA  A  large  tract  of  water  wtiirh 
washes  the  roasi  of  one  or  more  countries, 
■•  the  Irixh  ^en,  the  Mediterranean  Sen, 
the  Red  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Marmora  or  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  Baltic.  A  sea  is  less 
than  an  orean. 

SKA  COW.  See  Mofii:. 

SF.AI.,  orSEA  ('»i.K  (in  Zoology).  A 
hnrinleM!!  and  sairaclnus  animal  inhabiting 
the  nhores  of  maiiv  islandu  and  countries. 
The  l^r  deal,  is  much  hunted  for  its  skin. 


Sr.Alu  A  piece  of  metal  having  coats  of 
aiurs  cr  sonic  other  device  eneniven  upon 
It )  alHii  the  print  in  wax  made  by  the  seal. 

St:Ah  (in  Law).  The  Impression  or  d«- 
rlc«  nriiitedoq  wui  which  is  put  lu  any 


deed  by  waj  of  raliriiHtinn.  In  England, 
the  iireal  ^eal  i»  llie  «eHl  nurd  fur  the  uni- 
ted kiiigdiiiii  of  Kncland  aim  Srotland, 
and  .sonieliiiieM  of  Ireland.  The  privy  seal 
is  that  which  the  king  uses  tu  such  grants, 
&c.  ail  p:iss  the  gre^l  seal. 

SEALEK.  In  Enclaiid,  an  officer  il 
Chancery,  who  seals  the  writs  and  instru- 
ments there  made. 

SKAUNUVVAX.  A  hard  wax  made  of 
gum  lac,  resin,  ^c.  which  m  used  in  ■<eal- 
ing  letters,  Si.i 

SEALSKIN.  The  skin  of  the  seal 

8CAMEN  ,  Men  brought  up  to  the  sea 
life. 

SEAMEW.  A  sea  bird  about  18  inches 
ill  length. 

SEAPORCIJPIXE.  A  fish  found  in 
America,  which  puffs  itself  out  in  the 
shape  of  a  bladder  when  enraued. 

SEARCHERS.  Women  appointed  tc 
examine  all  persons  immediately  aflei 
their  decease. 

SEASONS.  The  four  portions  of  the 
year,  namely.  Spring,  u  hen  the  sun  enters 
Anes;  Summer,  when  he  en*en«  Cancer; 
Autumn,  when  he  enters  Libra  ;  and  Win- 
ter, when  he  enters  Capricorn. 

SEASTAR,  or  Starfish.  An  animal 
inhabiting  the  xea,  which  adheres  to  the 
bottoms  of  shipx,  and  renews  any  wt  its 
parts  which  it  lose*. 


SEA.CROrilN.  Ah  animal  Inhabiting 
the  sea,  which  is  armed  with  five  sharp 
teeth. 

SE.\ WEEDS.  A  sort  of  herbs  found 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  which 
are  botanicslly  cnlled  alea^. 

SEA-WOI.F.  A  voracious  fish  found  In 
the  north  of  Eun^e. 

SEAWORTHY.  An  epithet  for  a  ship 
fit  for  n  voyage. 

SECOXh.  Any  right  anale  that  cuU 
another,  whether  a  ricbi  line  or  a  curve. 

SECOND  (in  (Jeometry  and  Horology). 
The  sixtieth  part  of  a  minute,  marked 
thus  ("). 

SECONDARY  (In  Ijtw).  The  second 
man  i:  anv  place  who  Is  next  to  ar  f  thiol 
officer. 

SECONDARY      CIRCLE8.       Clrd*» 


B24 


SRM 


wrhich  inta-Bfict  the  six  greater  circles  of 
•he  sphere  at  right  aiijiles. 

SBCONDAKY  PLANETS.  Those 
which  revolve  a*  sateliiteg  round  the  pri- 
mary pi  1  nets. 

SECRETARY.  One  who  is  employed 
in  writing  letters,  Sec.  for  a  person. 

SECRETION.  The  separation  of  some 
fluid  from  another  in  an  animal  or  vege- 
table substance  by  means  uf  glunds. 

SECT   .\  relijiioiis  p.itiy. 

SECTION.  Tlie  cutting  of  one  plane  by 
another, 

SECTxiR.  A  mathematical  instru- 
ment used  in  meusuring  proportional  quan 
titles. 

SECTOR  OF  A  CIRCI-E.  That  jmr- 
tion  of  a  circle  comprehended  between 
two  radii  and  an  arch. 

SECUNDUAl  AKTEM.  By  the  rules 
of  art. 

SECULAR  GA.MES.  Games  among 
the  Romans,  so  called  liecaiise  they  were 
celebrated  but  once  in  a  seciiliini  or  age. 

SECULAR  PRIEST.  One  who  has 
not  taken  monastic  vows. 

SEDAN.  A  close  chuir  in  which  per- 
sons are  carried  by  men. 

8ED1  ME.VT.  Whatever  settles  or  sinks 
to  the  bottom  of  a  fluid 

SEED.  The  essence  of  the  fruit  of  every 
vegetable,  containing  the  rudiments  of  the 
new  vegetable. 

SEGMENT.  Any  part  of  a  line  in  a 
viangle  or  other  figure,  cut  off  by  a  per- 
pendicular let  fall  upon  it. 

SEGMENT  OF  A  CIRCLE.  A  part 
cut  off  by  a  chord,  or  that  portion  com- 
prehended between  an  arc  and  a  chord. 

SEiGNIOR,  Grand.  The  sultan  or  em- 
peror of  the  Turks. 

SEIGNORY.  The  JKrisdiction  and 
power  of  a  lord. 

SEIZING.  A  sea  term  for  binding  two 
ro(ieB  together. 

SEIZURE  (in  T<aw).  An  arrest  of  mer- 
chandise, that  is  prohibited  or  otherwise 
forfeited. 

SELENIUM,  or  Sklb.nitb  The  sul- 
phate of  lime. 

SELENOGRAPflY.  A  description  of 
the  fare  of  the  mi  win. 

SELLING  OUT  .imong  Stockbrf'Jcers). 
A  transfer  of  one'sshare  of  stuck  from  one 
person  to  anntht-r,  in  distinction  from  biy- 
ing  in,  which  is  the  purclia:«e  of  the  slock 
held  by  amaher. 

SELLING  OUT  (ainona  Military  Men 
in  England).  I'he  selling  one's  coiiimis 

tlOD 

SEML  A  prefix  lo  many  words,. «ignify- 


SEK 

ing  half,  as  semicircle,  half  a  ciKlc ;  Mmi- 
colon,  half  a  colon,  &.c. 

SEMLME'i'ALS.  Fossil  bodies  not  mal- 
leahle,  yet  in  iMime  measure  to  be  fixed  hf 
(ire. 

SENIORITY.  Priority  of  birth. 

SEMOIUTY  (aimmg  Military  Men>. 
Priurily  in  the  time  since  the  nii.'<ing  of 
any  regiment,  or  an  otiicer's  receiving  hli 
conimissuin,  &.r. 

SENSE.  That  faculty  of  the  soul,wherehy 
it  perceives  external  objects  by  means  ol 
impressions  made  on  particular  parts  of 
the  body,  called  the  organs  of  sense,  and 
then  conveyed  to  the  sensory  ;  the  senses 
are  five,  namely,  seeing,  bearing,  smelling, 
tH.ste,and  feeling. 

SENSIBLE  HORIZON.  See  Horizon. 

SENSITIVE  PLANTS.  Plants  of  the 
mimosa  thibe,  which  have  the  extraordi- 
nary property  of  closing  on  being  touched. 

SE.N'TICOSyE.  One  of  Linnwus's  nam- 
ral  orders  of  plants,  including  the  rode, 
brier,  hawthorn,  &.C. 

SENTL\EL.  A  private  soldier  placed 
to  watch  at  some  post. 

SEPIARI/E.  One  of  Linnieus's  natural 
order  of  plants,  including  such  as  grow 
wild  in  hedges  or  are  used  for  hedges,  as 
the  brier,  privet,  &,c. 

SEPOYS.  Natives  who  serve  in  th« 
army  in  India. 

SEPTEMBER.  The  ninth  month  of  the 
year,so' called  because  it  was  Septimus  .Men- 
sis,  the  seventh  month  of  Romulus'g  year. 

SEPTENNIAL.  Every  seven  years, 
as  septennial  parliaments,  i.  e.  new  par- 
liaments chosen  every  seven  vears,  as  they 
are  at  present  appointed  in  Kiigland. 

SEPTUAGESIMA.  The  first  Sunday 
in  Lent. 

SEPTUAGINT.  The  Greek  translation 
of  the  Bible  from  the  Hebrew  into  the 
Greek  by  seventy-two  Jewi.-<h  interpreters, 
by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadetphns,  king 
of  Ep)"pt. 

SEaUESTRATION  (in  Law).  The 
sepantting  a  thing  in  controversy  from  the 
possession  of  both  parties,  till  the  right  be 
determined  by  course  of  law. 

SEQUESTRATION  (in  the  Civil  Law) 
The  act  of  the  ordinary  disposing  of  iIm 
goods  and  chattels  of  a  person  derensed, 
whose  estate  no  one  will  meddle  with. 

SERAGLIO.  I'he  palace  of  tb«  grand 
seisnior. 

SEIK^E.  A  woollen  stuff  manufactured 
in  a  loom. 

.•^UKiiEANT,  or  Seroeakt  at  Law 
In  England,  the  highest  degree  taken  in 
the  (Tiiiiiiion  law,  answering  to  that  o« 
doctor  in  iht  civil  law 


SET 

P»:RrK.4HT  fin  Militan-  AflaimV  An 
inferiiir  i>lhc:«r  apiiiiiiitt!<  lo  teach  the  miI- 
aler*  their  r^fn  ise 

!<<KKC;KA.\'1*S  at  ARMH.  in  England, 
oflirrr!!  appiiinied  lo  attend  the  king,  arrest 
offi-nilerR.  and  thr  like. 

SKRIATI.M.  8u<.cea«ively,  in  order. 

SKUIES.  A  rank  or  pmsregsinn  of  ijnan- 
litlec  |)ri>c«*rding  hy  some  rule,  «i»  in  arith- 
meticaj  prosretwion  by  addilinn,  I,  3,  5, 
&!'. ;  and  in  geiiiiietrical  prngreaainn  by 
iniilli|)lication,  as  3,  4,  8,  16,  Sec. 

SKRIK8,  Ikfixite.  A  nerlci"  consisting 
of  an  inlitiliK  numlter  of  terms,  to  the  end 
of  which  it  i!i  inipossjlile  to  come. 

SKRPKNTES.  An  order  in  the  Linncan 
system  under  the  rla.is  amphiliia,  inclu- 
din<;  animals  which  have  no  feel,  fias.  nor 
ears,  and  are  cast  u:iki-d  on  the  earth  with- 
out linihs,  but  freqneiiily  armed  with  a 
deadly  poison.  ITiider  this  order  are  tlie 
seven  genera,  namely,  the  Iwia  constnctcir, 
the  nttlesnake,  the  viper,  the  snake,  the 
acrochordiis.  aniphisliieiia,  and  ciiecilia. 

SKRVAL.  i*  beautiful  animal  of  the  cat 
family,  yputled  like  the  panther,  and  about 
tiie  .ilze  uf  tlie  lyiijc  It  is  a  native  of 
India. 

.s|;K  VICE-TREE.  A  tree,  the  fmil  of 
whirl-  <?  h-"i>>y  asiriiiuent ;  it  is  used  in 
niakiiio  hniiidy  and  ciil-r 

SERVITtiK.  A  piM.r  scholar  at  Oxford 
til  Enaland,  answerini!  to  asi/.er  at  Cani- 
hridge,  who  alleiido  iiH  other  students  fur 
III*  malnteiianre. 

s'ERt'M  A  thin  transparent  li<|u<ir 
whirh  forms  a  part  of  the  blood,  and  al:Mi 
of  milk. 

SK^SIO.N.  In  Encland,  a  sittinc  of  jus- 
tices in  court  upon  tlieir  comniissioii,  as 
the  se-sion  of  oyer  and  terminer,  &.C. 

SESSIONS,  or  Ui-ARTER  Se»»ioi«».  In 
Enelaud,  se.nHioiis  held  every  quarter  by 
two  or  more  justices,  whereof  one  is  of  the 
quorum. 

SETTINO.  The  sinking  below  the  hori 
■on,  applied  to  any  star  or  planet. 

SETTINi;  liCIVi,  or  Setter.  A  sport- 
ing dog  who  catclies  fowls. 


SHA 


an^ 


BET  OFF  (in  l*wV  VOien  the  defen 
dam  acknowUdees  the  plaiiititf's  demand. 
kut  aew  up  a  demand  of  Ins  own.  to  set  off 

■si 


or  rounterhalaiice  the  debt  either  wboll; 
or  in  inrt. 

SETO.\.  A  sort  of  issue  in  the  nect> 
formed  by  means  ol  horsrhair  or  fine 
thread  drawn  thruugu  the  skin. 

SETS  (among  Gardeners).  The  yonn^ 
plants  of  w.-iite  thorn  or  other  shrubs, 
which  are  raised  as  (|uick  for  hedges. 

SEWER.  A  passage  or  gutter  made  to 
carry  water  away  into  the  sea. 

SEXAGExNARY  One  who  has  lire* 
sixty  years. 

SEXAGESFMAL  ARITII.METIC.  A 
liiode  of  computing  by  sixtieths,  such  ni 
the  division  of  a  degree  into  sixty  minute», 
a  minute  into  sixty  seconds. 

SEXAGESIMA  SUNDAY.  The  six- 
tieth day  before  Easter. 

SEX'l'A.NT.  1'he  sixth  part  of  a  circle, 
or  an  arc  comprehending  sixty  degrees  , 
also  an  aslronomical  instrumenl  like  a 
(juadrant,  except  tliat  its  limb  only  c<iDi 
prebends  sixty  degrees. 

SEXTON.  An  officer  who  digi  the 
graves,  and  assists  the  uiinister  at  fune 
rals. 

SEXUAL  .SYSTEM  (In  Botony).  Tht 
system  of  classifying  plants,  invented  h\ 
Liniia-us,  and  ftirmed  from  the  parts  i>l 
friirliticalion,  as  t  be  stamens  and  the  pi8til>. 
Kruiii  the  niiuil«er  of  stamens  are  furmeJ 
the  classes  iiionuMdria,  diandria,  triaiidria 
Slc.  for  such  plants  as  have  one,  two 
three,  or  inore  stamens  ;  from  the  numbri 
of  pistils  are  formed  the  several  orders 
under  these  classes,  as  monogynia.digyniu 
Irlgyiiia,  tec.  for  such  plants  under  earh 
class  as  have  one,  two,  three,  or  more 
pistils. 

SHACKLES.  A  sort  of  fetters  for  mal>-- 
fartors ;  which  cnntine  the  legs ;  also  foi 
animals  that  s«  iistray. 

SIIADIIOCK.  A  shnib,  the  fruit  <'l 
'Which  resembles  a  lemon. 

SHADOW  (in  Optics).  A  privation  <r 
diminution  of  liglit,  by  the  interposition  <<f 
an  opaque  body. 

SHADOWING  (in  Painting).  The  an 
of  duly  representing  light  and  shade  in  2 
picture. 

SHAFT.  The  body  ofa  column. 

SHAI'T  (among  Miners).  A  hole  like  a 
well,  which  miiiem  make  lo  free  the  works 
from  the  springs  that  are  in  them. 

SHAGREEN.  A  kind  of  rough  grained 
leather,  prepared  from  the  skin  of  thw 
hound-fish,  and  used  for  watchcases,  tc. 

SHAM.MY,or  Ch*mou.  A  soft  leathB# 
prepared  from  the  skin  of  the  chamofc' 
goal. 

SHAMROCK.  A  name  in  Ireland  lb> 
the  irel'uil. 


826 


SHE 


SHA.VK  Thrft  pan  of  llie  forr  Ice  of 
a  horoe  Uial  is  between  the  kiicf  aiut  tlic 
•ecoiid  joint  next  tlie  fcHil ;  also  tlir  Ion;: 
and  cylindri  il  part  ofditferent  tilings,  as 
the  slinnli  uf  a  candlestick,  6cc. 
•  t'ill  ARE.  '1  he  cutting  part  of  a  ploufch. 

SHARK.  A  voracious  ti«h,  that  inhabiu 
\he  Mta  oaiy,  and  grows  to  an  enonnoua 
I'/e 


SHARP.    A  half  note, 
•levation,  marked  thus 


eignifyiiig   an 


* 


SHEARS  A  to<iI  made  in  tJie  form  of 
■ciiwors,  for  clipping  hedges,  &.c. 

SHEATH.  A  rase  for  a  knile  or  sword. 

SHEATH-niLL.  A  bird  iiiluibiting  the 
South  Sea  islands,  which  has  the  iip|»-r 
mandible  of  us  bill  covered  with  a  shealli. 

SIIEATHI.NG.  The  covering  nailid  on 
a  ship's  bottom,  to  protect  tli*  plaiik:.  fruiii 
worms. 

S^KEP.  A  domestic  animal,  much 
valoAtl  both  for  its  llesli  and  its  wool.  Of 
the  ditferent  breeds  of  lliis  animal,  the 
HiMith  IImwhs,  Leicester,  and  Norfolk  are 
the  most  esteemed  in  England.  It  is  one 
of  the  moat  profitable  |>art  of  the  live  stock 
of  a  farm,  where  the  lands  are  dry.     In 


tb«  Unftrd  StatMythe  merino  breed  brought 
'rom  Spain  i«  preferred  for  the  w(«il. 
SHEEP-SHEARING.  The  spring  sea- 


SHI 

son,  when  the  Recces  of  the  sbeep  ars 
slie.nreil  i-r  cut  ott. 

SHEET.  A  large  linen  cloth  laid  on  a 
bed. 

SHEET.  A  breadth  of  paper,  that  ad- 
mits of  being  folded  into  a  given  form. 

SHEET  (among  .Mariners).  A  rop« 
fastened  to  the  corner  of  a  sail. 

SHEIK.  In  Aiabia,  ihe  diief  or  lord 
of  n  tiil)e  or  clan  ;  aiiioii<i:  ^Mobammc- 
daiis.  a  title  of  per.soiis  of  the  liigUer 
Older  who  preach  in  tlic  iiiosqiies. 

SHEKEL.  Among  tliB  ancient  JeT\-9, 
a  wei_i;lit  of  about  half  an  ounce  avoir- 
dupois; a  coin  of  about  the  value  of 
63  cunts. 

SHELL.  A  crustaceous  covering  of 
fishes  or  fruits. 

SHELLFISH.  Fish  invested  with  a 
hard  covering,  either  testaceous,  as  oysters, 
or  cnislareous,  as  lolixters. 

SHERIFF,  or  Shire-keete.  Iu  Eng- 
land a  reeve  or  otiirer  of  the  shire,  wbe.as 
keejier  of  the  king's  (leace.  Is  liie  first  man 
in  the  county.  He  is  appointed  ny  the 
king  for  every  counly  except  Middlesex, 
where  he  is  elected,  airording  to  ancient 
usage,  by  ibe  livery  of  l.ondon.  In  the 
Lulled  Stales,  Ihe  S.'ierlff  is  an  officer 
who  nllends  upon  court,  has  charge  of 
the  prisoners,  sees  tu  the  execution  of 
writs,  &c. 

SHIELD.  A  wea(K>ti  of  defence,  borne 
on  the  arm.  totiini  offlances  ;  also  another 
iiatiie  for  an  escnicheou,  by  which  it  is 
represented. 

SHI  I*.  A  genenil  name  for  all  large 
vessels  which  navigate  ihe  seas,  particu- 
larly those  er|uip(H'd  Willi  three  masis  and 
a  bowsprit,  Ihe  masts  being  composed  of 
a  lower  mast,  topmast,  and  toigallant 
mast,  each  of  wlinh  is  provided  with 
yarils,  sails,  See 

SHIP  BI'ILDI.VG.  The  pr.ictiral  brancli 
of  naval  archileclnre,  or  the  art  of  lon- 
stnicting  vessels  according  tu  certain 
draughts. 

SHIP-MONEY  An  impiHition  formerly 
charged  iip<m  Ihe  ports,  cities,  towns,  &c. 
of  Englniiil. 

SIHI'PI.VG.  A  general  term  for  what- 
ever relates  to  ships. 

SHIPS  Of  WAR.  commonly  cai:-«4l 
Max  OK  VViB.  Vessels  properly  equipped 
with  artillery,  ammunition,  and  all  lh« 
implements  of  war  necessary  lor  attack 
and  defence.  Ships  of  the  first  rate  or 
class  mount  from  IIKi  to  110  guns  and 
upwards  ;  of  the  stcond  from  90  to  98 
guns;  third  rale  from  fi-l  in  74  guna; 
fourth  rate,  from  60  to  60  guns  ,  fifth  rat«, 
from  32  to  44  gunsj  and  sixth  rate,  from 


SID 

•0  to  28.  Vessels  carrying  fewer  than 
20  full*  are  ileiinininaled  sluops,  cutte:8, 
fiie«hip8,  ami  liomtw. 

SlllH-WiiKM.  A  te!itace«na  arrmal, 
the  lerrdo  of  LiniitTUS,  that  adheres  Ui  the 
boltnm  of  vessels  oniiiiig  from  India,  and 
does  much  datiiuge. 

SllirvVKKiliT.  One  who  follows  the 
art  of  bnildinK  ships  I'he  coni[Kiny  of 
sliipwni^ils  in  l<oiidon,  was  inourpuraled 
in  llir  rrign  of  James  I. 

?!IIRK.    The  Sainn  name  for  a  county. 

."IIO  \L.  A  shallow  piece  of  waier,  or 
«  slinllow  part  of  the  sea  near  the  coaj>l. 

SIIOAKi*.  Props  set  up  obliquely 
■gainst  a  house 

."^Ht»K.  A  coTerlni;  for  the  fool,  made 
of  leather  ;  al-m  the  piece  of  iron  nailed  to 
a  horn's  foot,  or  under  a  sleilge,  &c. 

SHOE  (among  Manners).  A  small 
block  of  wood  iiQ  the  Imcli  of  in  anchor. 

Sill  lit B.     A  tract  of  land  near  the  yea. 

8IIOKL.     A  mineral  of  a  black  coloitr. 

SHORTHAMI,  otherwise  called  Ste- 
noKRArHt.  An  abbreviated  form  of  wri- 
tins. 

SHOT.  A  general  name  for  all  «ort<  oi' 
balls  used  in  firearms. 

SIIRKVV.  An  aniin».l  resembling  the 
mole,  that  lives  on  insects. 

ljllR£VVMOi.E.     A  species  of  mole. 


SIL 


827 


SHRIKE.  A  fierce  kind  of  bird,  th.it 
preys  on  lesser  birds,  and,  tearing  them 
to  pieces,  leaves  them  sticking  on  the 
bedees 

SIIKIMP  A  small  sea-Asli,  resembling 
a  lol»!<ler 

SIIKoUriS.  A  sea  term  for  great  nuies 
that  coiiie  down  both  sides  the  loa.-l''. 

SIIRUVK-TIDE.  The  time  just  before 
L^nt. 

SIIRUR.  A  small  low  tree,  bet  weenit 
biixh  and  a  tree.  It  is  mortly  an  om.v 
meiiUl  ^laiil,  aearing  beautiful  flowers, 
as  the  aracia,  lilac,  Jcc 

PIBYl^.  Prophetesses,  or  such  as  pro- 
lesM!<i  to  be  so,  among  the  Kuniai-.s  and 
Creeks.  'I  lie  Romans  preserved  their 
books  with  great  rare,  and  consulted  them 
only  or  gr»  it  occasions. 

SIDEREAL.  Pertaining  to  any  star  or 
planet,  as  a  sidereiil  day,  the  nine  in 
which  any  star  app<^n>  to  revolve  fruni 
the  meridian  to  tlie  mendi.in  again,  which 


Is  23  hoars  56  minutes  4  seconds  and  6'" 
of  mean  solar  time,  tberr  being  366  side- 
real days  in  a  year,  nr  in  the  time  of  ths 
SG."!  diurnal  revolutions  of  (he  sun. 

SIEGE.  1'be  encainpineol  of  an  armjr 
before  a  fortified  place,  with  a  design  to 
take  it 

SIE.N'ITE.  A  compound  granular  ag- 
gregated rock,  composed  of  felsjiar  and 
hornblende,  with  a  portion  sometimes  ol 
quartz  and  black  mira. 

SIEVE.  An  instrument  for  separalini 
the  fine  from  the  coarser  i>arts  of  powderti 
li(]Uors,  grain,  &c. 

SltJHTS  OF  A  aiAnRA.NT,  4.C. 
1'hin  pieces  of  brass  raised  |>er|>endicular- 
ly  nil  its  side 

SHi.N  (in  .Arithmetic  and  Algebra, 
Any  mark  used  in  operaiiim,  as  -|-  I'ot 
addition.  —  for  sulitrnrtlim,  )»(  for  miilti- 
plic'illim,  -^  for  division,  =  for  e<|ualily, 
81(;N  (in  AstroDomy).  The  twelfth  part 
of  the  zodiac 

Slti.N.AI^  Notice's  given  to  a  distant 
observer,  lor  the  purpose  ol  communicating 
iiiielligence 

SIG.VATl.'RE-  The  signing  any  paper, 
or  putting  any  mark  under  a  ivriting. 

SKJ.V  A Tl  RE  (among  Priiilvrs).  A  let- 
ter of  the  alphiihel,  put  at  llie  bottom  of 
the  page  in  each  sheet. 

SKi.VKT.  A  seal  set  in  a  ring  ;  alsoihe 
king's  seal,  wherewith  bis  private  leller« 
are  siziied. 

0!<;.\-.MA.M'AI,  (in  England).  Hte 
signaiuie  to  any  lull  or  instrument  in  liie 
king's  own  liatul»  ritinj!. 

S.I.ICA.  One  of  the  primitive  e.irtlis, 
which  forms  one  of  the  consiituenl  jBirU 
of  all  stones,  and  is  fouinl  in  greatest 
abundance  in  agates,  ja'iier.  tlinls,ntiart» 
and  rock  crystal.  In  llie  latter,  it  exists 
nearly  in  a  state  of  purity. 
Sll.iaUA.  A  (mhI,  like  that  of  Ilie  |ie« 
SII.IUnOSyE.  One  of  the  l.iiiiueaa 
natural  orders  of  plants,  incliidiMg  thuse 
whnli  have  siliqua;  or  [mkIb  for  their  seed 
vessels,  like  the  |>ea,  bean,  lupin,  jcc 

SII.K.  The  prodiirtiiui  of  ditferent  spe- 
ries  of  the  raliT|illlar,  particularly  the  one 
called  liy  the  generic  name  of  the  buinbyf 
iiiori,  or  silkwiimi  hy  distinction,  which 
IS  C4iniuii>iily  used  in^lumpe.  The  silk  ia 
found  enrliKH-d  in  two  s  nail  twigs,  from 
wiiich  II  IS  ilrawn  in  fine  threads,  to  sen'e 
the  iiiseit  as  a  covering  while  it  lies  in 
the  clirys.-ilis  sUie.  The  balls  of  silk  which 
the  worm  spins  are  cilled  uicuons,  which 
are  sold  to  persims  whose  business  it  is  to 
reel  the  in  olf.  A  single  cociMin  is  never 
reeled  off  separately.  It  being  too  weak 
for  that  pur|Mise  ;  but  in  the  reeliuC>  ^^ 


ns  SIM 

•n43  of  aFTvral  CMOoat  »k>  j«in«4  aM 
m>l«4  lofxUirr  mil  uf  wmnai  wmter,  lato 
waich  tbry  are  put  tor  ibr  purpose  of 
•i<Aniin$  thru  luiural  gum,  and  nakiMg 
tbcm  (tick. 

SILK-THROWER.  «»  8«tB-TMKa«- 
•Tea.  (>ii«  who  throws  i>r  fpinsi  ulk  m> 
as  to  fit  h  for  wravinc.  The  cmnpuiy  of 
sillL-titn>wen  in  UiMidoa,  waa  incitniuraini 
ia  lci£^. 

SILKWORM.  r\f  worm  fnMn  whicli 
Mik  H  Buat  outnmonlf  pmcumL. 

MA  LB. 


SUA'.\N.  renalataif  lo  antods,  aa  tli« 
ailraa  nymptts.  Sec 

SILVKR.  Th«  whitrsl  nTnll  mctaU,  is 
consMenMT  bardrr  than  eiild.  Mil  n<il 
quit«  ait  durtilc  or  mallralilf.  it  lemtM 
befnrp  it  ntriu,  and  m(uire*  a  stnuic  Itrat 
to  tttae  d. 

SILVERING.  Th*  art  tif  mrrrinE  the 
•uri'aces  of  titibstancrsi  with  a  iliiii  acting 
of  silver.  It  *•  «f  jwriirnlar  u:»  (nt  ciili 
nar>-  utrniiils,  as  it  rv^isu  llir  corrodinf 
pnwrr  of  vin«^r,  &c 

SIMILAR  (in  MathrmaticsV  Aa  epi- 
tbel  mnrtly  appli<>d  ti>  fieomi,  ansirs,  itc 
whirji  ti»\e  the  Rtmr  disptcsttHiu  and  coa- 
fbnuation  of  tlie  part^ 

SI.MO.NV  (in  Kneland).  The  rorrupl 
pfesentation  of  any  one  to  an  eccleKtaati- 
cal  benefice,  fur  money,  'ill,  reward,  or 
beneiit. 

SIMTLE  .In  .Medicine).  What  h  nol 
mixed  with  any  oCber  tbing,  aa  oftpoaed 
to  a  compoiind. 

SIMPLE  .in  Phxrmnry).  A  ^neral 
kame  for  all  hertw  which  have  any  parti- 
calar  uiediriiial  virtue. 


5IZ 

SIMPLER.  On*  wIk>  gatben  amplaa 
for  the  drui:sit!>. 

SI  M  t  t.i'A.N  r-OfSLY.  At  one  and  tlM 
MJDe  moment. 

SINEtn  RE.  An  office  in  which  tlitU 
or  no  prmonaJ  ■erfk-r  Is  attached. 

SI.NE  I»IE,  ».  e.  WiTHoiT  Ott.  A 
term  in  law  for  a  defendant  who  is  4ia- 
Bi9s<rd  Court  without  trial. 

SI.NE  uF  A.>  ARi:.  A  rijht  line 
drawn  fVnm  one  end  of  an  arc  prrpe>ndi- 
CBlar  to  the  radia«  drawn  to  the  Wher  end. 

SINK  UCA  NOM.  What  cannot  b« 
dwpemird  with. 

SI.VEW.  The  li'ament  which  joins 
two  bonea. 

SI.NUL'LAR  M'MBER  (in  Gramma^^. 
A  Mtma  which  •lenoie«  a  sinele  thin;. 

SINKING  KlMt.  A  p.>rtion  of  the 
pnblic  revenue  i^et  apart  lo  be  applied  to 
tbe  rrductio  <  ordiminnlion  nf  the  national 
debt.  1''iii>  mrxsure  of  apprvpri.-itin;  a 
part  of  llie  revenue  of  the  country  for  the 
dischar^  of  the  public  debt  was  adopted 
in  Hollaiid  in  1653,  and  in  the  E^c'e^iasti- 
cal  States  in  I6ts5.  Rui  the  particular  fund 
ae  called  in  Eni^land  was  fits!  adopted  by 
Mr.  Pitt. 

SIPHO.N.    SeeSTrHo-*. 

SIR.  A  title  of  address  to  haronelii  and 
kni^l-ts.  c«Hi|>le<l  with  their  Christian 
Mune,  as  Sir  William  or  Sir  John,  &c.  : 
alMi  a  general  complinientary  form  uf  ad- 

SIRIL'S,  the  DoosTAa.  A  very  bri(cht 
star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  tains  .Major 

SIROtVO.  .A  jierHMlical  wmid  in  Italy 
and  Rartiary.  which  prevail*  about  Piaster 

bKEL£'iX».N      Ao  aaRmblage  of  tba 


bonea  rtf  any  animal,  cleaned,  dried,  ami 
pr**eived  in  their  n.iliiral  |i<witi<>n. 
SI7E.     Asunof  glueniat*  iulilHsabreds 


SI.  I 

*nA  parins*  lr:iili*r,  parchmrni,  nr  »•»!- 
Iiiiii.l>riil<-<l  i.  watrr,  anrl  KtruiiieJ.  tl  la 
UkciI  hy  p.-iiiitrra,  prinlen),  JLC. 

t<i/.KR.  A  p<H<r  •ctiular  ai  <;anibri(1|e, 
England. 

SKKIN.  Any  quantity  of  thread  aflrr 
H  It  taken  off  the  r«trl. 

SKK'I't.'H.  Th*!  iMiillne  of  any  objKCt, 
taken  in  pencil  nr  <>ilirrwi«e. 

SKIFF.     A  iiin.-illlisht  bfnl. 

i<KI.\.  One  of  tliv  |iriiir.i|iiil  intfinifiicnu 
of  tile  bcxir,  conKi'tine  uC  ilirM-  laniKiir, 
oaiiiely,  the  ukarf  i>kin  Mrhicli  n  the  <mter- 
miMt.  the  retp  iiinoMiini,  the  neronil)  and 
Ule  ciiti*  vpra,  i>r  real  «kia,  the  thinl. 

HKIiNNRR.  One  who  dealu  in  hidea  or 
akinn  'I'lic  company  of  akinners  in  Loo- 
don,  w.-i*  inr<ir|inraie)l  in  KIQrj. 

SKIR.MI.«il.  A  liM>:<e  rtewilliiry  enimeit- 
meiil  IM-Iwpen  Kinail  imrtiea  tleUvltt-il  tr.'.ti 
tlM*  armies. 

8Ki;i.l^  Tlie  bony  pan  of  the  heaJ, 
fiuililoiirit  in  the  fiiriii  ••f  a  elolie,  ami  r^ui- 
aiming  olihrt-r  'liviiiioii..,  riai:i»^.}  .  ll;«-  .«ii 
etpiit,  or  fore  [wirt;  ih»-  iirr,|iiii,  or  bind 
part;  anil  llie  vertex,  or  rri.wn. 

8KI'XK.  An  aiiiiPiil..ftlie  wea.««l  kind, 
pernliar  lo  Norili  Aioerira.  mimrkalile  folr 
eioillini;  a  fHid  ■inell  in  nelf  defence. 

i»KV.  'I'lie  hlne  exp;ini«e  of  the  hfavena, 
or  Ihe  rezion  m  Iii'-Ii  ;tiirroiind»  the  earth 
beyond  ihealnuxpliere.  i*u  luaar  .Newlon 
altriliiileK  (he  a/.nre  eolonr  of  the  «ky  lo 
vapour*  hesiniiiiif  lo  roiiden»e  there,  ami 
arqiiinne  a  iniriinrnl  roni'islence  torrllei't 
the  iniMl  reflex ihle  ray* 

!$t.AK  tamoiii!  tarpeiiterv)  An  oiitKlde 
plank  cut  from  a  iree.  ubirh  i*  senerally 
rinisli  and  niieveii;  alrui  a  table  of  marble 
for  lirartliK,  &.c. 

Si.A'I'K.  A  hliii«h  fi««il  utone,  whirh  i« 
Ki  Hod  that  it  Kitn  he  nit  into  v\nnrtf,  ami 
nwd  eitlier  lor  llir  noifs  of  Ikmucii  or  other 
piir|.f»ea. 

SI,F,fM;K.  A  carriage  without  whefN, 
u^eil  for  tanyiiis  pl^^nsh*  or  other  imple- 
nient><  from  place  to  place;  also  a  carnage 
in  Rii*KUV  titled  for  gwng  along  the  «nnw. 
In  |j\f*iand  the  aledgea  are  drawn  by 
reinorer. 

SI.EKPERS.  Tiniheni  lying  next  to 
the  ground,  or  under  the  tHOiding  of  tlie 
floor. 

SI.Eir.HT  OF  MAVn,  TT  Slic.ht  of 
n4X^.  The  trick.*  of  jugglers  perfi-rmed 
with  mich  dexterity  aa  to  deceive  the 
^uicke-t  eye 

SMIM.V;  Rt'l.E.  A  mathetnafiral  in- 
fltmment,  to  b«  ii»ed  wIUhmii  eouipoaii  m 
gniielnf. 

8I.INO.    A  leathern  antp.  o'      bleb  a 
•oMier'a  miukel  is  <lung. 
V 


H  y\  F.  sap 

Pl.l.Vf:   rin  fiireny)-    A  baodige  for 

lUppoltlUg  a  wollliilril  llMlh. 

Hl.iiOP.  A  amall  vetMel  withnneaUML 
In  Ihe  navy,  iilon|«  are  tender*  carrying 
ten  itr  tuelve  (uim  and  attout  Ibiny  ■•>. 


8I.OTH.  An  anhnal  Mimvltabte  far  1H 
■low  motion  in  walkinf.  It  climb*  quicker 
ttian  I*  walks. 


SLCG.  A  varifty  of  the  »nail  tribe,  that 
baa  no  »hell.  it  ia  very  deatnictire  la 
Sardena. 

^M'G.  A  cylindrical  nr  cubical  piec* 
of  metal  nhol  from  a  giin. 

IfLVtt'E.  A  frame  of  wood  aet  In  s 
river,  tc.  to  rafc<r  Ihe  water  or  lo  let  It 
paya  olf.  a«  orraKUtn  may  reipiire. 

:i)l.\('K.  A  ainall  veaaei  naed  in  Um 
fl<hing  imde. 

S.MAI.I.  AR.MS.  A  general  name  for 
muKkeia.  f<i*il«,  carabine*,  tte. 

S.MAI. l.rRAFT.  All  manner  of  fmall 
aea  v»>««el»,  «:•  catchea,  h<'V»,  Ice. 

S.M.M.I«-P'>.\.  A  cnianeoiia  diaorder, 
to  which  perwins  are  ni<*itly  »iiHj»-rt  onco 
in  their  live*.  If  taken  by  infection,  it  i» 
often  daiigeroti*,  hut  iT  tak^n  by  iiiocula- 
lion,  it  mostly  pa-wea  off  *ithoMl  any  ill 
eon*e«]nence.  Vaccination  nr  inoculation 
with  the  cow  pot,  i«  milder,  Imt  not  lO 
certain  a  remedy  aeain«t  fnlure  mferiioa. 

iiM.ALT.  A  «irt  of  blue  colour  used  bl 
painting. 

8MEM..,  or  K.MF.I.I-I.VO.  One  of  th« 
five  "en^ea,  performed  by  a  vawiilar  porout 
membrane  which  line*  the  internal  cavity 
o*  rhe  nortrila.  Thia  la  effected  by  tho 
odoroa*  particle*  which  proceed  ttMa  ex 
temni  «oti<<tances. 

SMELl'       A  Ash  of  the  aolmoa  tr»». 


sao 


soc 


which  asceiida  rivers  la  vast  shoals  in  the 
•|utwniii!!  H«-a-<(in. 

SMKI.TIM;  (in  Metallurgy).  The  fti- 
■tiin  or  ineltiiigof  (ires,  in  order  to  sei>arale 
Uie  iiielallic  Iroiii  tlie  eartliy  or  stony  |iarts. 
The  art.iif  fiisiiiB  ores  al\er  waslnnf;  is  one 
ol  the  nii«t  ini|>ortanl  uiieratioiis  in  iiieuil- 
urgy. 

S.MITIl.  One  who  workx  in  iron.  The 
«.oni|iany  of  blacksmiths  in  lytxnlon,  was 
ficor|Miral(l  in  the  sixteenth  century 

SMl'J'IIKKY.  The  art  of  working  iron 
iilo  parlinilar  sha|>es  jis  occasi<in  reiinires. 

S.MiiKK.  A  liiiniiil  mailer,  e.xhaleil  in 
.lie  t'oriii  of  a  va|Hiiir,  wlii':h  ascemlti  frmii 
llie  fire. 

!>.MOKF,-.IArK.     See  Jack. 

SMl'r,(;l,K|{.S  (In  Utw).  Thoxe  who 
pet  proliiliitetl  sixiils,  clanitestinely  and 
fratidiilr-iitiy  Imported. 

S.MtiT.  A  disease  in  wheat,  which 
consumes  the  germ  and  substance  of  the 
grain.     It  is  a  sort  of  fungus. 

S.\' Al  1..  A  son  of  testaceous  animal,  of 
which  there  are  numerous  sjiecies,  tliat 
vary  mostly  in  regard  to  tlieir  shells. 
Snails  without  shells  are  called  slugs. 

S.N.AKB.  An  amphibious  animal,  which 
resembles  an  eel  in  its  cylindrical  body. 

S.N'EBZING.  A  convulsive  coniraction 
of  l3)e  cheat. 

SNIPE.  A  heath  bird,  nearly  allied  to 
the  woodcock. 


S.V'iW.  A  well  Known  meteor,  formed 
by  the  rr«e/.in!*  of  tlie  vapour  in  the  at- 
mosphere. 

S.VI'FF  A  narcotic  powder  pre|nre<i 
from  llif  lea\e>"  o(  ihe  iMbaci-o  plant. 

WiAP.  A  coiii[tositioii  o(  (III  or  fat,  and 
potaKlies,  or  any  other  alkali.  1'lie  sol) 
soap  is  made  of  potash,  and  oil  or  tallow; 
the  SiMiniMh  or  O.istile  sonp,  of  oil  of 
olives,  and  soda  or  barilla:  black  saip  is 
a  composition  of  train  oil  and  an  alkali. 

!=(  tfl  r.TY.  A  name  given  to  any  asso- 
eiatiiin  of  persons  uniting  together,  and  co- 
0|ieralin|!  to  effect  some  particular  object, 
Ks  tlie  .societies  or  academies  for  promoltng 
the  cause  of  literature;  charitable  societies, 
for  pur|ioses  of  pii  ilic  charilyj  mission.iry 
•ocieties,  for  sending  nii^siunaries  abroad; 
Uid  the  like 


SOL 

POOA.  A  mineral  alkaV  sometiniefl 
found  in  a  nativf  si:ite  as  in  the  lakes  in 
Kgypt,  which,  being  dried  by  the  l-.eat  ot 
Ihe  sun,  leave  beds  of  soda,  or  natron,  as 
It  IS  there  called,  •'^oda  is,  however,  for 
tlie  most  part,  procured  from  a  pl;iDt, 
biilanically  called  the  sal.sola  soda,  whlcb 
grows  amiiiig  the  rlitis  on  the  coa.st,  and 
also  from  other  plants  on  the  Beaahore; 
but.  In  thi.s  ca.se,  it  is  more  or  less  pure, 
accoiding  to  the  nature  of  the  plant  from 
i  which  it  is  pmcured.  Soda  re.sembles  p<H- 
I  asli  veiy  much,  but  it  is  rather  more  fiisi.^ 
ble,  and  when  it  comes  into  tlie  air,  it 
criiml.les  into  |iowder  instead  of  lujuefy- 
ing,  as  (Hiiash  does. 

SOKA  \VAII;K.  Water  impregnated 
with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

i^OI  DISAXT.     .-Jelf-styled 

soil.!.  'I'he  ground  in  a  sl.iite  for  culti- 
vation, or  for  the  growth  of  plants. 

S!<)I,AR  f"V.'»Ti:M.  That  system  of  as- 
tronomy, which  is  foiiiided  on  the  liypo- 
lliesis  that  the  sun  is  the  immoveable 
centre  of  the  universe,  riuind  w  huh  all 
the  other  planets  revolvv  at  ilitTereiit  dis- 
tances, and  ill  ilitTerent  spaces  ot  time. 

:>()LI)KIl.  A  metallic  ci>iii|MH>ition  used 
by  pluniliers  amJ  oilier  artihcers.  for  Ihe 
piiriMwe  of  U'i;iiiit  iiirlallic  bodies  more 
liriiily  logeilier.  Inui  is  generally  stddered 
with  copper;  copjier  and  brass,  with  tin. 

SoLK.  All  irluropeaii  tish  much  valued 
for  the  table. 

SOl.KtJISM,  An  impropriety  of  speecll 
contrary  to  the  rules  of  gnimmar. 

Stil.K'ITOK.  A  iierson  who  !s employ- 
ed ill  coiiiliictiiig  suits  ill  courts  of  eipiity 

S?<)l.ll)  (in  Ceonietry).  A  magnitude 
which  has  length,  breadth,  and  tliirkiirss. 

SOLID  (in  I'hysics).  A  body  whose 
minute  parts  are  so  connected  together  ,-li 
not  to  yield  readily  to  llie  impression  of 
external  '•irce,  in  distinctiiui  from  a  lliiid. 

SOMDITY.  That  projmrty  of  matter 
by  which  it  e.xtliides  ever>'  other  biwly 
from  the  pl.ice  which  it  occupies. 

SO  LIT  Ally  CONFh\E.MIi.\T.  The 
coiilinemeiit  of  prisoners  by  theinselvrs  lu 
cells. 

S()I,0  (in  Music  Bonks).  A  n.ime  for 
any  part  that  is  performed  by  one  single 
[lerson. 

SOI^TFCE.  The  time  when  the  sun  is 
at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  eipiator, 
namely,  23"  28';  which  hapjiens  about  the 
91»t  of  June,  when  he  enters  the  tr<.;iic  of 
('ancer,  or  the  summer  solstice;  and  about 
the  21st  of  December,  when  he  enters  Ihe 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  which  is  tlie  wintei 
■ulstire 

Sf     ~riTIAL    POINTS       The     twe 


SPA 

points  in  ih**  rlijitic,  nainttly,  llie  finrt  of 
C«iic<T.  ami  till-  first  of  Capric<irn,  wlien 
Uie  8i><iiti<-«i'  li.-i|i(N-n. 

Sni.VKNT.  Any  menftniiim  or  eorro- 
■ive  liqiinr  which  will  ilissiolve  b<Hli«8. 

SOIXTION".  The  iNiimate  iiiixlnre  or 
perfWi  union  of  oolid  bodies  with  fluids, 
•««  as  seemingiy  to  form  one  homogeneous 
ti(iMor. 

SU.MNAMBUUSM.  Wtdking  (none'* 
sleep. 

SOOT.  A  volatile  matter  arising  from 
the  smoke  .if  wood  or  other  fuel  ;  or  more 
properly,  the  smoke  itself  dried  and  coii- 
ilensed  on  the  sides  of  the  chimney. 

SOPIIIS.M.  A  specious  but  fals«  argu- 
ment, that  serves  to  mislead. 

SOUND.  Th.at  etfecl  or  impression  on 
tfae  ear,  supiiosed  to  be  occasioned  by  tlie 
tremnlons  motion  of  the  air  aclin;;  on  lliat 
organ,  (f  this  motion  Ite  uniform,  then  il 
produces  a  musical  note  or  sound. 

SOi;.\D  (in  Ceogr^phy).  Any  great  in- 
let of  the  sea  between  two  cajies  or  head- 
lands, where  there  is  no  passa^  through, 
as  Plymouth  Sound,  or  that  part  of  tlie 
Baltic  called  by  distinction  tlie  ^uind. 

SOU.VUBtJARD  (ill  an  Orsaii).  A  re- 
servoir into  which  the  wiud  is  conducted, 
and  iheuce  distributed  to  the  piiies. 

SOl'NDI.N't;  (in  Navigation).  Tr>ing 
the  depth  of  tlie  water,  and  the  quality  of 
tlie  bottom,  by  a  line  with  a  ptuiuinel  at 
the  end. 

SOUP.  A  strong  decoction  of  flesh  or 
other  sulistances. 

SOW  (in  the  Iron  Works).  A  block  or 
lump  of  ineUil  worked  at  once  in  the  fur- 
nace. 

SP.K.  A  mineral  spring. 

SPACE  Ju  (;eomttry).  The  area  fif 
any  figure. 

SPACE  (among  Printers).  A  slip  of 
wood  or  metal  for  mukiiig  a  space  between 
words  or  lines. 

SP.V.MEL.  A  sort  of  dog,  with  a  long 
■liaggy  coat  and  penduloua  ear^    There 


SPE 


SSI 


FP.\.\  An  English  ineo-siire  of  uina 
inches. 

^PAN'IStl  Ft.Y.  An  Insect  which  i< 
iiseil  in  raising  blisters. 

Sr.AR.  Any  sort  of  earth  which  hreaka 
ea-'ily  into  cubical  or  lamiiialeu  fragineiita 
with  polished  rurfaces. 

SPARKOW.  A  bird  so  nearly  allied  to 
the  fiiirli,  that  lliey  are  clas.<>ed  by  I,innxus 
under  the  generic  name  of  frliigill-'L  Kul 
the  sparrow  differs  in  its  t-abils  essealiatly 
from  tlie  (inch.  It  is  a  mischievous,  cun- 
ning, spiielul  bird,  that  is  very  destructive 
in  corn-fields,  anil  in  the  roofs  of  houses 
where  it  builds.  We  here  8|ieuk  of  the 
Eiiro|iean  s|ieciea.  In  America,  there  are 
several  varieties,  r>f  which  tlie  chipping  bird 
is  the  most  common. 

SPAKROW-HAWK.  A  kind  of  short- 
winged  hawk. 

SPA.^^.M.  An  involuntary  contraction  of 
tlie  musculnc  fibres. 

SPATHACE.«.  One  of  the  Mnnji-.in 
nnliiral  orders,  comprehending  plants  very 
similar  to  the  liliaceous  plants,  as  the  nar- 
cissus, &c. 

SI'ATL'L.A.  An  instrument  for  spread- 
ing sal\es  or  plasters, 

SP.AVIN.  A  disea<=e  in  the  feet  o( 
hordes,  which  causes  them  to  swell. 

SPKAKKK  <IF  TilP,  HOUSE  OP 
CO.M.Mlt.VS.  In  England,  a  member  cho- 
sen by  tlie  house,  and  approved  by  lli(> 
king,  who  regulates  all  their  proceedings, 
and  sjH-aks  in  the  name  of  the  whole  on  all 
piililic  occasions.  The  s|K-aker  of  legisla- 
tive bodies  ill  Kie  United  States  has  similar 
duties. 

riPEAKl.\0-TRU.MPET.  A  anrt  of 
lriiin|>el  used  at  sea,  >iy  the  help  of  whicll 
persons  may  liear  at  a  great  duiauca. 


m  beside  this,  a  variety  of  otber  dogs  of 
tl.e  apaninl  kind. 


SPF.AR.  A  sort  of  lance  with  a  sharj 
point. 

PPECIAI.  JURY  itn  Iviw).  A  Jtiry  of 
a  hic-'ier  order  of  jiersons,  sworn  to  try  a 
liartii'iilar  cause. 

SPEi'lAl.TY  fin  Law).  A  bond,  bill, 
or  similar  Instnrment. 

PPP.tME.  tlold  or  coin.  In  disiimno* 
from  paper  money. 

SPECIES.  Any  particular  plant,  arfl- 
mal,  or  mineral,  contained  under  a  genus. 

SPEOIKIt;.  A  nieilicino  having  a  |*r- 
ticul.ir  etTiracv. 

SPKv;lf'IC    GRAVITY.    The  r«Uulv« 


332 


SPI 


C>mpi>rtion  of  the  wcigl.J  of  hcxliea  of  fhr 
mme  bulk,  which  is  ilpieniiiiied  by  iin 
mcnin":  tln-m  in  any  fliuj. 

SPECTRl'M.  A  liiiiiinmis  «pol  fnrmrrt 
by  ■  rnjr  of  lislit  mi  a  uhitr  siirlacc,  u Itru 
admlttpd  thniush  a  !>mall  liiite. 

SPECUI.l.'M.  Any  p..lUliri»  body  im- 
pervious to  the  riyii  of  li(ht,  siirh  hi' 
polished  meuUs,  looking-^lus>«*,  «i.c. 

SHER.MACETI.  An  oilv  ...iLsImiic^ 
fhiinil  in  the  hrad  of  tlir  pnytvier  uiiicni- 
ee|>halii3,  a  aperies  of  wliale 

SPHERE  (in  Gi^inetr)  ).  A  »o)id  con 
tained  under  one  iiiufcirni  ri>uiid  snrt^ue. 
oucii  a-o  wiMild  be  fiirined  l>y  the  revoliitiun 
of  a  circle  about  a  diameter  lliereuf,  as  .-in 
a:(is. 

SPFIERE  (}n  Astronomy).  The  concave 
orb  or  expanse  whirli  invesiH  iwir  |!l<ibe, 
.inrt  in  which  the  heavenly  b<idie.-i  apjiear 
to  be  fixed,  at  au  equal  dist;iiicr  Irom  Die 
e>'e. 

SPHERICS.  The  d<«trine  of  the  sphere, 
parlirularly  of  the  several  cirrlea  ile^-crilied 
on  its  surface,  with  the  nietlHKl  uf  pMjecl- 
liis  the  s:iiiie  on  a  |i|:ine. 

SI'IIKRoil).  A  solid  U.d>- aptirtoching 
to  the  risnre  of  a  sphere. 

SPIIIN.X.  A  f;«l.iili.iismon«er«rniehes, 
did  t.>  Iwve  pill  fiirth  nddleii,  and  ti.  h.ive 
Kllleil  Iliiise  wh.i  Could  nol  exiMuinil  ilieiii ; 
also  an  E^vpiiaii  st:itiie,  iviih  lUe  iu-ad  of 
a  u'lMiiaii  .'lud  lite  h<«ly  of  a  lion. 

SI'lliEK.  An  iiiM-ct  whicli  is  remark- 
able fur  Its  iii<:eiMiily  in  roriiUn;  \l>  web, 
which  it  elfert^  by  means  of  |iapillc  or 
leais  .It  thr  bottom  of  its  Itelly.  It  uses  its 
Web  as  a  snare  for  Hies  and  oilier  iii-'ecls, 
wtMdu  it  seizes  and  kilU  witli  great  fe- 
rocity. 


PPrnER  WORT.  A  perenr.*:il  and  a 
douerins  plant,  cultivated  in  gardens. 

SPINAWE.    A  p<it-herb. 

Sri.V  E  (in  Anatomy).  The  bony  column, 
which  consists  f>f  the  twenty-four  verteJine 
I f the  hark. 

SPI.N'ET  A  musical  in«iniinent  some- 
Ihine  similar  to  a  harpsichord. 

JPISSISG  The  act  of  dmwine  silk, 
)!ax,  or  wool.  Into  threads,  which  is  per- 
•'"Tined  either  by  means  of  a  wlie<-l,  or  bv 
Machines  particularly  constructed  fur  the 
]ur|iow. 

i^f-LVSTER  (in  Law),   In  Cnglann,  an 


SPO 

addition  umially  given  lo  nnmarried  w» 
men,  from  a  visriniut's  dimshtrr  dcwa 
wards.  The  term  is  also  usetl  in  Iht 
I 'idled  Stales,  in  applic;itH>n  lu  any  uo- 
■iiHrned  woman. 

.<I'IRA(M;L.%.  HKlfi  or  |iii,-M  in  th» 
alMloineii  of  iiim-cu.  thruug]i  wiiiell  they 
breallie. 

.*i|'IR.Al^  A  curve  line,  which  in  iu 
pH'Sress  ahva\'i>  recedes  more  and  lutira 
from  IIS  centre. 

s^t'lRE.  A  steeple  that  rlsaa  tapering 
by  degrees,  und  ends  in  a  poiut. 

.~!1*1UITS.  A  ceiieral  name  for  all  TO 
lalile  substaiicee  collrcu-tl  by  disliIlatiuD. 
iiiiw  coiitiiied  by  chymisUi  ton!coh<>l. 

e^PI.EE.N  (in  Aiiaumiy).  A  s(itingy  vis 
ciis,  of  a  livid  coliHir,  lyiug  un  the  left 
side  of  ilie  tMxly. 

^rLICt.NG.  Joining  mie  rope  to  ano- 
ther. 

SI'IJ.VTER.  A  small  shiver  of  wood  or 
bonr  siidileiily  and  violeniK  bn>ken  otT. 

SI'oKES.  Tile  iKim  tu  Uie  wlieeluf  a 
carriage. 

SrONPEE.  A  fool  of  two  syllables. 

SPU.VCE.  A  subsuiiice  which,  at  one 
lime,  was  supposed  to  be  a  sea  moss  fniw  - 
iiig  on  rocks,  but  now  discovered  to  lie  a 
sort  of  Kiaiplixle,  thai  is  torpid,  and  cintheti 
with  a  selalinoiis  [Hinnis  Hesh.  by  which  it 
alisorbs  or  rt-jecl«  water  at  pleasitire. 

SI'OO.MULl^.  A  bird  !«o  called  froa 
its  flat  orbicular  beak,  which  is  in  it  • 
sha(>e  of  a  spoon. 


SPf).VTA\EOrS.  An  epithet  forthlngi 
thai  act  €if  tlit-nis--Ufs,  wiilioui  any  B|>)i*- 
renl  external  ai:fiii  y.  as  the  sponlaneoiM 
romhustioii  of  Vf  selable  substances,  whicIl 
when  highly  drit-d,  and  clost-ly  heaped, 
willbiirsi  inioa  Hame  ;  so  the  S(M<nlaiieoui 
generaiion  of  ihe  limbs  or  parts  ufanitnals 
which  have  l»-rii  dil  otf  or  ilfstroyed. 

SP«iT.<  OX  THE  SIX,  Sec.  Dark 
places   observed   on    ttie  sun.  moon,  am4 


8QU 

^«iinet«.  nf  the  nature  •*♦  jrhkh,  little  ii 
known  at  present. 

SPRAT.  A  fish  very  similar  to  a  herring, 
but  (mailer.  It  is  a  tipecies  of  the  same 
genua,  under  the  generic  name  of  clii|iea 

SPRAY.  The  sprinkling  uf  the  wra 
driven  from  the  top  uf  a  wave  in  stormy 
weatlMir. 

SKRI.NG  (in  Astronomy).  One  of  the 
seasons,  commencing  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere when  the  sun  enters  Aries,  aboct 
llie-2l8t  of  .%larcb. 

fjPKINtJ.  A  fountain  or  source  of  water 
nvini!  out  of  the  gniimd. 

SPRING  (among  Mechanics).  A  piece 
of  tempered  :<teel,  fitted  to  eive  an  el:istlC 
(MiwrT  to  any  macliine,  as  the  spring  uf  a 
watch,  represealed  underneath 


ST  A 


3« 


SPRING  COB.  A  species  uf  African 
Antelope. 

SPRINGER  A  lively  anil  plea-or.t 
apecies  of  diig,  very  ex^ieit  tn  raising 
woodcocKs  and  snipes. 

SPRI.NU-TinKS.  Tides  at  new  and 
JUII  moon. 

SPRIT.  A  small  bonin  ur  pole  crss-'ing 
the  sail  of  a  bnat  dncon.-illy 

SPRUCE.  A  fiuid  exlraaed  by  decoc- 
tion from  the  spruce  fir. 

SPRUCE-BEKR.  A  cheap  and  whole- 
•ome  liquor,  made  of  treiicle  or  molaioeH, 
and  the  eiwence  uf  Kprure,  well  luuled  in 
water,  t«  which  yeast  i.i  aderwardu  added 
to  a.«*>isl'lhe  ferment.il ion. 

SPRI'CE-FIR.  A  kind  of  Sc4itcb  or 
Norway  fir,  common  in  .\merira. 

SPU.NOE.     See  )»ri>>n£ 

SPU.Vr.lNr.-HolJSE  Mil  EiiKland).  A 
victualling  hoii.ae,  or  plare  uf  lemiHirary 
eonfineiiient,  fur  p»^xi>n.«  arretted  fur  debt. 

SPUNK.  A  <ut«laiire  cruwine  on  tt9 
side?  of  trees,  which  serves  as  linder. 

SPU.N  YAR.N.  The  yarn  of  Hntwisted 
ropes,  the  ends  of  winch  ate  scraped  and 
beaten  ihin,  to  be  let  int<i  tlie  ends  of 
other  ropes. 

SPUR.  A  piece  of  metal  made  to  fit 
the  heel  of  the  honwman,  and  armed  with 
arowel, which  is  used  for  ureir.g.i  horse  on. 

SPY.  A  person  hired  to  walrh  tlie  mo- 
tions of  another,  particularly  what  passes 
in  an  enemy's  camp. 

SQUADRON  {in  the  Nary).  A  detarh- 
iment  of  ?liips  employed  in  any  eipeditiun. 

SQUADRON  Mn  the  Armyl.  A  body 
of  h  ime,  .>om  me  to  two  hundred. 

8UUARE  (in  Geometfy).    A  quadrila- 


teral flfiire,  whose  angles  are  iiihi  angles, 
•ind  sides  equal. 

SQI'ARE  iin  Arithmetic).  The  prmluet 
of  any  number  niiilti|ilied  by  ilm^lf;  also 
the  squares  of  lineal  measures,  as  a  s<pi:ir« 
foot,  a  square  yard. 

SQUARE  (among  Carpenters).  An  in- 
strument for  squaring  tlieir  work  or  redu- 
cing it  to  a  square. 

SQUARE  (in  .Miliury  Affairs.)  A  body 
of  soldiers  formed  into  a  square. 

SQUARE-ROOT.  A  number  which, 
multiplied  in  it-self,  produces  the  square 
numlier.  thus,  2  is  the  sqii.-ire  root  of  4. 

SQUIRREL.  An  agile  animal,  that 
climbs  dexterously,  and  leaps  nimbly  from 
free  to  tree.  It  lives  niiatly  on  seeds  and 
fruit.  The  most  common  varieties  ig 
North  America  are  the  gray,  red,  and  str^ 
ped. 


STACK,  or  Rir«.  A  slnirliire  of  hay 
or  corn,  so  formed  llial  it  may  be  tliaiclied 
by  way  of  defence  from  the  wet.  The 
stem  or  body  uf  the  stack  •lioiild  be  about 
two-thirds,  and  the  roof  one-lJiird,  of  the 
whole  stack.  A  fiiuiiel  or  chimney,  called 
the  well,  is  freqiiently  left  in  circular 
stacks,  to  prevent  tlieirhentingtoo  strongly. 
.Asa  preiiervaiive  against  the  wet.  while 
the  hay  or  r^irn  is  stacking,  hck-cloitu 
are  fixed  up. 

STADn'.M.  A  Greek  long  mea.«nre, 
equal  to  our  furlongs  also  the  race-co'iise 
among  the  tJreeks. 

STAFF.     Au  ensign  of  office. 

STAFF  (ill  the  Army).  A  speciAed 
number  of  officers  acting  together 

STAFF  (among  Manneis).  A  light  prM 
erected  in  a  ship,  on  which  the  colour* 
are  hoisted. 

.tJTAFF-OFFICERS.  Those  officer* 
who  coiistituis  the  siafT. 

ST.ACE.  Tbe  elevated  place  in  tbeara« 
of  a  theatre,  where  the  actors  (lerforin 
their  parts;  also  any  elevated  place  for 
the  piirpoxe  of  eihlhiling  any  thing,  or  of 
carrying  on  an>'>voTk  In  building 


KU 


ST  A 


PTAGE-COACH.  A  public  vehicle,  so 
called  tiHcause  the  hnrses  go  only  a  certain 
distance  at  a  time,  wliicli  is  called  a  stage. 

STAG-BEETLE.  An  insect  which  lives 
n  the  decayed  trunks  of  trees. 

S'J' AU.  An  elegant  animal,  the  male  of 
whicli  has  brandling  and  recurvate  horns. 
The  branches  of  a  well  grown  stag  are  at 
least  six  or  seven.  This  animal  is  not 
found  in  America. 


STALACTITES.  A  sort  of  calcareous 
earths,  consisting  of  carbonaie  of  lime, 
cariionic  arid,  and  waie..  I«.  is  found 
suspended  from  vault:;  cr  the  roofs  of 
caverns  in  calcareous  mountains. 

STALK,  Caulis  (in  Botany).  That 
part  of  a  plant  which  receives  the  nourish- 
ment from  the  root,  and  distributes  it  to 
the  other  parts. 

STALL.  A  particular  seat  in  a  cathe- 
dral; also  a  partition  in  a  stable;  and  an 
open  shop  in  a  market  or  fair. 

STAMEN  (in  Botany).  One  of  the 
principal  parts  of  fructification  in  plants,  on 
which  LinniBus's  sexual  sy.steiii  is  founded. 

STAMINA.  The  simple  original  parts 
of  an  animal  body,  which  existed  in  the 
embryo. 

STAMP.  Any  instrument  with  which 
an  impression  is  made;  also  in  England, 
paper  bearing  a  particular  mark  or  imprcs- 
iiion,  which  is  used  for  receipts,  deeds,  and 
other  instruments,  and  for  which  a  tax  is 
paid. 

STANDARD.  An  original  weight  or 
measure  by  which  other  measures  are  reg- 
ulated. These  measures  are  committed 
in  Engl.ind,  to  the  keeping  of  a  magistrate, 
or  deposited  in  some  public  place,  as  the 
Exchequer. 

STANDARD  (in  Military  Affairs).  A 
flag  or  banner,  borne  as  a  s'gnal  for  the 
forming  of  troo|)8  into  a  tiody     The  royal 


STA 

standard  of  England  is  a  flag  in  \\  liirh  th« 
imperial  arms  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland  are  quartered,  with  those  «f  Ilan 
over. 

STANNERIES.  Tin  mines  or  works. 

STAPLE  (in  England).  A  town  wbert 
there  were  public  storehouses  for  merchan- 
dises. 

STAPLE  COMMODITIES.  Articles 
such  as  wool,  cloth,  lead,  &c.  which  might 
be  laid  up  in  the  staples  or  storehoiH>ei 
without  damage. 

STAR.  A  general  name  fof  the  heaven  'y 
bodies,  but  more  particularly  for  what  are 
otherwise  denominated  fixed  stars,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  planets,  comets,  satellites, 
Sec.  The  stars  were  distinguished  hy  the 
ancients  into  different  collectiruis,  included 
within  imaginary  figures  called  constella- 
tions. The  particular  stars  in  each  con- 
stellation have  been  moreover  distinguish- 
ed, by  the  moderns,  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek,  and  also  according  to  their  magni- 
tude, from  the  first  or  largest  to  the  sixlii 
or  the  smallest  that  are  visible  to  the  naked 
eye. 

STARBOARD.  The  right  hand  of  a 
ship,  when  looking  towardsVlie  head  or 
fore  part. 

STARCH.  A  powder  drawn  from  wheat 
flour,  and  used  in  stiflening  linen. 

STARCHAMBER  (in  England).  A 
court  where  anciently  the  Lord  Chancel- 
lor, assisted  by  others,  used  to  sit  to  punish 
riots,  forgeries,  and  other  great  ofl'ences. 

STARFISH.     See  Sea-star. 

STARLING.  An  European  bird  abo'it 
nine  inches  long,  that  is  very  docile,  and 
may  be  easily  taught  to  speak. 

STATICS.  That  branch  of  the  science 
of  mechanics  which  teaches  the  properties 
of  bodies  in  respect  to  their  weight,  equi- 
librium, &.C.  when  in  a  state  of  rest.  See 
Mechanics. 

STATIONER.  A  dealer  in  paper,  pens, 
and  all  writing  utensils,  &c.  The  station- 
ers in  I<ond(ui,  form  one  of  the  city  com- 
panies. 

STATUARY.  A  branch  of  sculpture 
employed  in  the  making  of  statues. 

STATUES.  Figures  of  men  or  other 
objects  formed,  with  the  chisel,  of  marble 
or  stone,  &.C.,  or  carved  in  wood,  and  cait 
in  plaster  of  Paris,  or  in  diflerent  kinds  of 
metals. 

STATUTES  (in  England).  Acts  of  par- 
liament made  by  the  three  estates  of  tta< 
realm,  which  are  either  public  or  private. 
The-courts  of  Westminster  must  take  cog- 
ni/.aiice  of  the  public  statutes  without  theii 
being  pperiully  pleaded,  but  not  so  of  pri- 
vate statutes.  In   the  United   States  tiif 


s  r  K 

itmttitcs  are  the  laws,  enacted  by  congress 
•r  any  state  leiiixlatiire.  ■ 

STAVE  (in  Music).  The  five  horizontal 
•nd  parallel  lines  on  and  between  which 
the  iiuleK  are  piuced. 


STO 


335 


STEAMNG  (in  Law).  The  fraudulent 
taking  away  of  another  man's  goods  with 
an  intent  (osteal  them,  aminst  or  without 
the  will  oriiim,  to  whom  they  belong. 

STKAM.  'I'lie  va|>o!ir  which  arises  f.om 
the  application  of  heat  to  water  or  any 
other  fluid. 

STEAM-ENGI.N'E.  An  engine  first  con- 
structed by  Mr.  James  Watt,  a  native  of 
Greenock,  for  raisin;;  •.••ater  by  means  of 
the  expansive  force  of  steam.  It  has  sine* 
undergone  many  improvements,  and  li<«n 
made  applicable  to  every  son  of  work 
which  rei|uires  an  extraordinary  moving 
power.  The  steam  engine  was  first  suc- 
cessfully applied  to  navigation  by  Robert 
Fultun  of  the  United  States. 


STEEL,  fron  refined  and  pnrified  by 
Ere.  It  is  chemically  uescrilied  as  a  car- 
buret nf  iron,  or  inm  combined  with  a 
small  portion  of  carbon. 

8TEEUYARUS  A  balance  for  weigh- 
ing thines. 


1 


STEGANOGRAPHT.  The  art  of 
■writing  in  secret  characters  or  ci)ilier.>4. 

STEIXERITE.  In  mineriilogy,  a 
variety  of  iolit<»,  of  a  blue  color. 

STEIKM.ANNITE.  A  ininernl  ■with 
afino  >;i"H"'l'H'Coini>o.-titionaud  luetullio 
lustre :  sp.  jrr.  6ri3 ;  H  =  2  5. 

S'i'ELLAT.a;.    One  of  the  Linnajau 


mtu'al  orders  of  plants,  comprehending 
those  which  have  their  leaves  disposed 
round  the  stem  in  the  form  of  a  star 

STE.VI  (in  Botany).  That  part  of  a 
(..ant  which  sustains  the  root,  leaves,  and 
(lower. 

STEM  (In  Shipbuilding).  The  circulai 
piece  of  timber  into  which  the  two  sides 
of  the  ship  are  united  at  the  fore  end  ;  tht> 
fore  (virt  of  the  ship,  aa  opposed  t'j  (he 
stern. 

STENOGRAPHV,  or  8HORT-n»i.o. 
The  art  of  writing  in  short  characters 
instead  of  wonls. 

STKPPES.  Barren  tracts  of  elevated 
land  in  Russia,  and  the  northern  lutrt  of 
Asia. 

STEREOGRAPHY  The  art  of  repre- 
senting solids  on  a  plane. 

STEREOMETRY.  The  scJenre  which 
teaches  the  meas'uring  of  solids. 

STEREOTYPE.  One  entire  solid  piece 
of  type  cast  from  an  impression  in  cytwuin, 
of  a  page  composed  with  moveable  l>  pes. 

STERI.I.\(;  MO.NEY.  The  lawful 
money  of  Great  Britain. 

STERN.  The  hiiulermnst  part  of  a  ship. 

STEWARD  (in  Law).  A  term  applied 
in  England,  to  several  olficers  nf  distinct  ion, 
particularly  ilie  l.«r>l  High  Steward,  who 
presides  at  the  trial  of  a  pe<tror  the  corona- 
tion of  the  king,  &c. 

STEWAKI)  (in  Con  merce).  One  who 
manages  (he  affairs  of  another,  particularly 
in  the  niaiiagemeiii  of  estates. 

STIGMA  (ill  Botany).  The  lop  of  th« 
pistil. 

STILL.  The  app.iratu8  used  In  the  di« 
till:ition  of  ardent  spirits.     See  Diitilla 

TIO.'«. 

STILTS.  A  set  of  piles  driven  into  the 
ground  plot,  for  the  intended  pier  of  a 
bridge. 

STI.MILANTS.  .Medicines  which  tend 
to  e.xcite  the  animal  energy. 

STI.NG.  A  weapim  in  the  form  of  a 
barbed  spear,  with  which  some  insects  are 
armed. 

STIRRtTP.  The  step  of  a  saddle. 

STIRRI'P  (in  Shipbuilding).  A  piece 
of  timber  put  under  the  keel  when  soir»e 
part  of  it  is  lost ;  also  the  name  of  some 
short  ropes. 

STI VER.  A  Dutch  coin,  equal  to  about 
a  penny. 

STOAT.  PeeEsMiMB 

STOCK.  The  wmnlen  part  of  many  in- 
struments, as  the  stock  of  an  anchor,  the 
stock  of  a  gun,  &c. 

STOCK  (In  the  Army).  Part  of  a  sol- 
dier's dress  worn  round  the  neck  Instead 
of  a  neckcloth. 


S36 


STO 


STU 


S'loCK  (in  Cnmnipree;.  Any  fund  ron- 
tistin;;  of  money  or  e<m>iI«  cniployed  by  a 
;>eriH)n  in  trade,  parliciilarly  the  snin  of 
money  raised  by  a  company  for  carrjing 
on  any  tradme  concern. 

STOCK-BROKER.  One  who  deals  in 
the  public  funds  for  other.-*. 

STOCK-DOVE.  An  European  bird, 
supposed  to  be  the  ori|inai  stock  of  the 
various  kinds  of  pigeon.s. 

STOCK-EXCIiANGE.  The  place  where 
stock  is  bought  and  sold. 

STOCK-JOBBER.  A  sperrilator  or 
dealer  in  the  public  stocks  or  funds. 

STOCKING.  A  covering  for  the  legs, 
I'lade  either  of  silk,  wool,  cotion,  or 
(bread,  &c.  knit  with  tlie  hands  or  wove 
in  a  frame. 

STOCKS  (In  Domestic  Policy).  The 
imblic  funds  or  government  securities, 
<.vhich  bear  an  interest,  and  are  regularly 
lM)ught  and  sold. 

STOCKS  (in  Law).  A  mode  of  con- 
fining the  legs  of  disorderly  iiersons  by 
way  of  punishment,  which  was  ordained 
!.y  statuse. 

STOCKS  (In  Shipbuilding).  A  frame 
of  timber  for  building  pinn!ic«s,  ketches, 
.'ind  other  small  craft ;  also  sometimes 
small  frigates. 

STOICS.  A  sect  of  philosophers  among 
the  ancients,  who  inaiiitained  that  |ia)n 
was  no  evil,  and  many  other  paradoxes 
of  a  similar  nature. 

STOLE,  Groom  op  thb.  In  England, 
the  head  officer  in  the  bedchamber  of  a 
king  or  prince. 

STOMACH.  The  membranous,  olilong 
receptacle  in  the  lower  region,  destined  lo 
receive  the  food  and  convert  it  into  chyle. 

STONE.  A  hard  mineral,  that  may  be 
used  in  various  ways  in  building.  The 
I  rincipal  component  parts  of  stonefl  are 
^ilica,  alumina,  zircona,  giucina,  lime,  and 
magnesia:  sometimes  the  oxides  of  iron, 
manganese,  nickel,  chronium,  and  cupper 
are  also  found  t«  enter  into  their  euni|Hisi- 
tiOn. 

STONE-FRUIT.  Fruit  having  Us  seed 
enclosed  in  a  stony  substance. 

STONEHENC.E.  A  pile  of  huge  stones 
(•n  Salisbury  Plain,  in  Eusland,  six  miles 
ilistant  from  that  city,  which  is  generally 
N.imitted  by  antiquaries  to  have  been  a 
i'.ritish  temple.  It  consists  of  the  remains 
ut"  four  ranks  of  rough  stones  ranged  one 
u  ithin  another,  and  sustaining  others  that 
ire  laid  scross  and  fastened  by  mortices. 

STONF^VVARE.  A  general  name  for 
•  very  thing  which  is  nianufartiired  of 
e.irth  or  clay,  particularly  the  coarser 
*">rts  of  earthen- ware. 


STfiP  (In  Miisici.  The  pi^ssure  o/  tlM 
strings  by  |H-rroritien<  on  the  violin  and 
violonreilii,  by  which  they  are  brougtit 
into  ciiiiliict  with  the  nnget  oourd. 

STtiP  OF  AN  ORGAN.  A  collection 
of  pipe.«  similar  In  tone  and  quality  ,  wliiih 
run  through  the  whole  or  a  great  part  of 
the  cnuipass  of  nn  instrument. 

STOKAX.  The  gum  tieiizoin. 

STORES,  or  Savm.  Stores.  The  ma 
ferials  laid  up  in  store  for  the  use  of  the 
navy,  such  as  ordnance,  amiuuuitioo, 
masts,  sails,  cordage,  &.C. 

STORK.  A  bird  nearly  allied  to  Ike 
heron  and  the  crane,  with  which  it  is 
clas.sed  by  Linnu'iis  under  the  geii»-ric 
name  of  ardeu.  It  is  a  white  bird,  having 
the  orbits  of  the  eye  naked.  This  bird  is 
a  native  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and 
feeds  upon  ampliibions  animals.  In  Hot 
land  and  Germany  the  storks  are  iiiiirh 
favoured,  and  are  to  be  seen  on  thrinpoJuf 
the  houses,  ajid  even  in  the  public  streets 


STORMY  PETREL.   S««  Petscl 

S'l'RAIT,  or  STRAITS.  A  narrow  arr 
of  the  sea  shut  in  by  land  <m  both  sides 
as  the  Straits  ••(  Gibraltar,  4.c. 

STRATUM.  A  bed  or  layer,  and  Stkat., 
the  beds  or  layers,  of  ditTereiit  earth!!  nr 
mineral  substances  of  which  the  whola 
earth  is  comp<M:ed. 

STREAMER.  A  flag  or  pendant  In  « 
ship. 

STREPDITEROS.  A  specie*  of  G<at, 
with  tall  spiral  horns,  found  in  tne  islauil 
of  Crete. 

STRIKE.  A  measure  of  capacity,  con- 
taining four  bushels. 

STRONTIA.  A  sort  of  ponderous  ea-ths 

STROtrnS.  The  several  twists  at  ib« 
end  of  a  cable. 

STRUMA.  A  scrofulous  swelling. 

STUCCO.  A  C'>ni()o«iti.;n  of-vhile  mar- 
ble pulverized  mid  mixed  with  plaster  of 
lime.  It  IS  used  nn  walls,  or  Ih  niakliif 
ornamenlMl  iigure.s. 


^;  r  n 

PTl'l>.  A  mivrk  othrpc'.lnig  marCB.  [>ar 
tl?iil:irlv  tliour  of  I  lie  finer  "I'rt. 

STIMiMIN*;  SAILS.  i,i.jht  sails  ex- 
tended beyond  the  skirU  of  Uie  |iriiiripal 
tails. 

PTI'DKNT.  One  studying  for  hid  de- 
grees at  the  iiniv«ri«ity;  alsi)  i\|ie  whi>  is 
preparine  hiiiiiwlt' for  the  bar. 

STIFF.  Aiiysirt  of  lliin  cloth  made 
of  wiHil  or  other  mailer. 

STL'.M.  Wine  revived  by  a  new  fer- 
ftirntntion. 

STIKcr.n.V.  A  laree  kind  of  fi.-<h, 
whirh  iiiliiliii!"  th«»  t«ea,  but  ruicends  the 
river*  aiinMally  The  tlesh  of  all  Ihespe- 
Cies  If  vcMul. 

PTVI.K.  A  sort  of  boil  kin  with  which 
the  nncients  wrote  on  wax  or  on  lead, 
now  used  for  writing  on  ivory,  leaves,  and 
paiwr  particularly  prejiared  fur  the  pur- 
pose. 

STVl.E  (in  niallinel.  The  pin  which, 
by  its  shadow,  (Hiints  out  the  hour. 

S'l'YLE  (in  lloiany).  The  columnar 
portion  of  the  pistil. 

STYLK.  A  name  which,  in  several  sci- 
ences, denotes  a  [kirtirular  riileor  nielhiMl, 
as  in  rhetoric  and  grammar,  the  iiianner 
of  expressing  one's  senlimenti^. 

STYLE  (in  Chronology).  The  manner 
of  computing  time,  which  is  either  old 
•tyle  or  new  style.  By  the  old  style  the 
year  consisted  of  '.ido  d:iyR  and  6  hours; 
out  the  new  or  Crecorian  style  wa.s  made 
to  cop-esjiond  more  luMr'y  with  the  period 
of  the  sun's  revolution,  reckoiiin*:  the  year 
to  be  .■}!>.'>  days  S  hours  4!t  minutes  00  se- 
conds, by  relreiK-hiis  II  days  from  the 
old  style.  The  new  style  was  inlri>duced 
Into  (lermany  in  ITlMi,  and  in  IT.vJ  into 
England  by  act  of  itarliament,  whereby 
the  Qd  of  PeptemlMT  in  that  year  was 
rockoned  the  Hth. 

STYLE  (in  Arcbttertnre;.  A  particular 
miMle  of  erertiiiL'  biiililinipi,  a.s  the  tiuthic 
stvle,  Saton  style,  ttr. 

STYPTICS.  Siibstanres  which  liave  a 
binding  quality,  mnd  are  used  to  stop 
bleedinu,  &.C. 

SIMt.  A  prefix  which  rlennles  inferiority 
of  rank  or  defect  of  quality,  as  siiluiltern, 
siihordinaie. 

SLBALTERX.  An  inferior  officer,  art- 
Inc  under  the  immediate  directiim  of 
another,  as  r<iriiels,  ensiuns.  &.c. 

SL'liniVISIO.N.  A  division  or  part 
nndei  another  or  ereaier  division. 

SI'BJI'N<;TI  VR  M<n>n.  a  mood  of 
verbs  which  imply  a  condition  annexed 
to  an  arirination. 

si'HI.IMATE.  .Any  substance  procured 
ky  the  uroress  oi  sublimaTion,  particularly 


.SJI'C 


Xil 


the  Kiihlimate  of  merniry,  »n  extremely 
airid  and  vinleiilly  poMonoiis  pre|>nrsilinn 

SI'KI.IM  \T10N.  A  pr.«-pso  by  which 
volatile  siihsiaiices  are  raised  by  heal,  and 
again  cotnleiised  in  the  solid  fonii. 

SUKMARINE.  An  epithei  for  what  is 
or  hapiiens  under  the  sea  or  water,  as  a 
siiliiiiarine  explosion  or  siiliui:irine  naviga- 
tion. Ate. 

Sin.MI'LTII'LR.  A  number  or  qiino 
tity  r^mlained  in  another  niiml<er  or  ipian- 
tity  a  certain  niimlier  ol  limes  exactly,  aa 
4,  which  is  the  ■iihniiil:!;ile  of  34. 

SIJB<)R.\ATH).\.  A  hiriiis  «r  pelting 
persons  to  swear  falsj-ly. 

SI'HItK.V.V  (in  Law).  A  writ  for  siim- 
monlns  witnesses. 

SlIB.scRlPTIiiN.  The  siirniiiir  or  set- 
ting luie's  hand  to  a  iKi|>er  ;  also  the  giving 
a  Slim  of  money,  or  eiijiaamtf  to  give  it, 
for  the  fiirlheniiire  of  some  roinnion  ol>- 
jpct  in  Willi  h  sevenil  are  iiilereMeil.  as 
siibsrri|ilioiis  in  >.iip|Mirt  of  chanluble  in- 
stiiiiiions,  and  the  like. 

.SCAGLIOLA.  Ill  arcliitectnre.  a 
kiiiii  of  oniaiiiental  phLster.  or  ni  litirial 
stone,  prepared  from  cvjisiini  ami 
>'Liiiiler.'4  ;:liie,  anil  luaile  tu  imitate 
the  coloiM  of  iiiarlile. 

SCALENE.  In  {leonietry,  a  triaiiiile 
liavin;;  the  three  siiles  iiiioqiial. — A 
scileiie  cone  or  cylinder  i.s  one  of  which 
tlie  axis  is  inclined  to  the  liase. 

SCALESIASIS.  Ill  )ihysiolopy,  a 
di.sease  peculiar  to  hwiiie,  which  is 
jiurely  jiariisitic,  mid  depends  for  its 
ori;;iii  on  the  introdiictioii  into  the 
system  of  the  uiatiiie  ami  feciindiited 
ova  of  Taenia  Holiiiin.  It  is  .sonii-tiines 
'known  ni»  the  iiieasle.s;  mid  the  iiialiidy 
is  most  prevalent  in  those  counties  iu 
Ireland  where  pig-s  are  reared. 

SI'BST.V.NTI  V  R.  Another  name  for  a 
noun. 

Slll.sriTI'TK(in  I -iw).  One  delegated 
to  nrl  for  jinolher. 

SlltSITITTE  (in  the  Militia).  One 
eneaseil  to  serve  in  Ihe  riH<iii  of  another. 

SL'KSTR  ATI'.M    A  straiiim underneath. 

SIKIENSK  OF  .\.\  .\Rt:.  A  right  line 
opposite  loan  ancle,  supposed  to  be  drawn 
belMeeii  Ihe  two  exireiiiilies  of  the  arc. 

SI'in  KKRANRA.N.  Inderuround.  or 
within  the  bowels  of  ihe  cMrth.  as  siibier- 
niiiean  raveriis  or  siiliierranean  (Srea. 

SIBTR.XCTIo.V.  The  taking  n<  on* 
niimiier  or  ipiaiiiily  from  anoiher,  ex- 
pressed by  this  rlianii-ter  —  ;  a"  V- 3=»i^. 

SI;BTRAIIE.\I».  The  quantit)  li>  b* 
■nhtracted. 

SUCCEUANEUM.  a  medicine  tubatl 
tilted  for  another. 

srcCI.NIC  ACID.  An  acM  draws 
from  nmtier 


x» 


su 


srriOTRINB  ALOES.  A  aort  of 
»Uir^  litta^iied  from  a  species  of  liir  al<«, 
■amrty,  the  aioe  perfoliate  nf  l.innatM. 

SI  •« -Ci: LE.VT.«.  One  <jf  the  Uniuean 
mMmnt  orden  it(  pianu,  iBcludiof  the 
jrvry  ercTgrceiu,  M  U«  metymtbrKUOitB- 

:>IX'KKK  The  ftrntm  of  m  pamp;  alao 
»  pteee  ■/  ie^her  toirf  wet  Mpoa  a  atone, 
wbick  owinx  lu  tli*  ptfie  of  the  atMo- 
•i<lwfp,  arftKic*  very  cbMrijr,  and  ■  not  to 
fee  p«lM«CwiUiuut  sre-at  force. 

SUCKER  (ta  B<it;ut>  ).  A  yoaiic  twig 
■fcwtiag  fmm  the  MueJt. 

SUCKEE  (m  lekUnxtm^).  A  tort  of 
Arik,  ikai  adbeics  so  Ararfy  ttat  it  caannt 
ke  reaMTetS  witlKail  greax  drtHcaUj. 

SVVKISG-FISH.  A  fi»b  having  a  fat 
■akol  !»nd  aa4  •  make*  half,  which  ad- 
heres very  fifsty  lo  the  hall—  an4  sides 
•f  vessels.  It  wai>  called  hj  the  aacieats 
■CMsn,  aad  im  the  IJaas^a  sjrttcai  echs- 


BUFKKX  AJSCE.  A  terw  ia  law,  ap- 
plied to  leaaats.  A  teaaat  at  saflrrance, 
ii  «mm  th«  entiaain  aAer  his  estate  is 
nadrd,  aad  wnmffailj  hetdcth    agihwi 

evrrKAGAS.  a  VkOmp  that  ■  svh 
svdiaate  to  aa  arehMAspu 

SCFTKAee.  A  n«e  at  n  eicction  ia 
CtToar  of  a  peiana. 

iM;<SAR.  A  swrct  wilfiaw  pcacated 
froM  ■nay  pl^at*  ec  ports  «f  ptnala,  as 
ftav  the  Heaa  of  the  anple,  Mreh,  lu.., 
the  fast  af  the  carrm.  heel,  kx-f  fhr  leaf 
af  the  ash,  cfee  lema  «f  wheat,  lt€^  hM 
prtniesAwty  fraan  the  Mwar  caae  hf  bnaliag 
the  espvcsncd  jaicr  with  irrirk  tiiae  or 
vr^eCaftMralfcalt.  Pagar  i»  ande,  priaeipai- 
Ir  ia  the  West  ladies  aad  la  theJSuMhera 
I'aiifd  9i3ica. 

SUCAK  BAKISC.  The  praeesi  af  n- 
faiaf  the  raw  (agar  aAcr  it  caaMB  froaa  the 


iweaty  feet,  hat  seeds  af  a  a 
tkM  an 
Ttnm  itna.  wicar  aad 

gl-'GARoPLEAD. 

Pt:\   UCilEKia.    Of  Ks 
Kiad. 

Pf ^rr.    An  aettoa  at  ^J^\ 

MXtrNATEd 


BWHi   pM1R0V    bJ^    Cm^ 


•m  aa  of  ralp^a^ic  acid  with  differeal 
bases,  as  Ihr  (ulpltair  of  «ida,calfed  Giaa- 
ber'naaltK;  siie  nilf>tial>-  nf  magoesta.  called 
I'^psun  saltx;  mi  ibeaulphateof  copvtr  tha 
salphate  iif  zinc 

S^;l.PHIT^S.  Pairs  formed  by  the 
nnioa  of  auJplnirnasattd  with  ibe  different 
bases. 

^ULrHf'R.  A  simp'e  cnoibnstiMe  sc^ 
ttstnte,  vulcarly  catWd  bnnwtuoc,  -vbich  ia 
fiMuA  pure  in  great  abuiidaitce.  In  cum- 
binati»ii  wati  tUKtaU  it  furuis  the  'ires 
called  pyniea.  It  is  a  noncoodnclur  nf 
electricity,  and  b(«oa>e*  electric  negati-.  ety 
by  frictum.  !u  »pecific  gravity  is  I.SiX).  iie 

:>(;i>Fili;R,  FLowcti  or.  A  powdet 
prrrared  fri>ui  »iilpbiir  when  it  is  healed 
tu  ibe  piiiui  of  ITU  degrees. 

Si:i,Plli;RK'r:<.  Ompoundvorsalphor 
witb  different  alkaline  earths  and  inetallie 
bases,  as  the  sulphuret  uf  lime,  of  potasb, 
Jtc. 

SLKPHCRIC  .AC(D.  An  acid  etiaiain- 
iag  SBlplior  (its  basis},  aad  ox ^ gen.  t 'oa- 
eeatrated  salpiMinc  acid  m  ca:ied  oil  ot 
ritrioi. 

Si;i.PHL'R<rt;g  ACin.  An  acid  fftm. 
ed  by  the  eombiaatioa  <<  valpl.nr  witb  a 
less  d^ree  a  oiyeea  tban  is  rrtjuifite  tc 
IbrBi  iHt'.  fill  uric  arid. 

fcL'l.TAN.  Tlie  title  of  the  en>peroro( 
the  Turii'.  He  rr«ides  at  t'oastanlitiople. 
Many  mtehur  Arabic  priaees  are  styled 
saluns. 

i<i.'MAc(I.  A  »hrnii  arhicb  grows  nata- 
ra'ly  ia  Syria,  ?a>stiae,  Spain,  and  Vnr- 
tacal.  Fn>m  its  rroits,  Hhea  dried  and 
ST'iand  at  the  aii'A,  m  prKared  a  pi>wdei 
a^ied  IN  taMDtiig  and  dyeing. 

MJMM  KR.  tjne  uf  liie  ft/ar  seaMins  of 
the  yea/,  begiaaing,  in  the  nortttrrn  Itrut- 
iiphtw,  wfaea  ttie  mm  enters  Cancer, 
aboMt  the  31st  of  Jaae. 

ftUMMF.R  (in  Arebii««tnre).  A  mala 
piece  of  timber  tint  sappurts  a  bnilding. 

mJMJUJSa  (in   l^w).     A  caatMA  by  • 
rtrtoe  of  wbicb  any  laaa  is  called  lo  ap- 
pear brfrin>  a  magistraie  or  jadee. 

fiCMi^VAKY  LAM'S.  I.aws  rega- 
latiiiC  dress  ;ind  dofneatic  diet. 

SU.V.  The  ;rest  Ininittary,  sappnsrd, 
aecurdiag  to  the  Coprrnican  ayateiu,  to  be 
the  iaMMt/reaMe  centre  of  the  iuii*er«e, 
harlag  aH  the  p^aaeis  rrroHriag  anmnd 
Wai  *i  diAerral  dMaaces,  aad  ia  diffpreal 
puiwds  «f  tiaM.     lis  M  aawllod  tbas,  0 

l9i;.\l>AV.  The  sabtmlb  .«  lord's  flay 

SVS-rU}WZK..  A  plani.  tlir  y«ik>w 
4"Wer  of  which  espaads  like  the  rays  of 
ihesaa 

SL'rES.     A  prHlf  sifaifylaff  escesf ,  m 
•n  pnaMT  Mated.  fc« 


SIR 

BUFERAXXrATCU.     Past  Oe  ftse« 

•r  Mlled  lime.  Soldiers  ^jvsupefaaawut^ 
wh«  mre  too  oM  for  active  «crcMe :  kojr* 
»i«  saperaooamtr^  whe*  they  are  too  oM 
to  ke  adiuued  iota  any  iattitatinB. 

SIPERCAKUO.  OBewbotele«clttii^ 
•fa  carfo  or  tadiaf. 

SL  PCU'lClt^S.  A  aasniliide  bou4e4 
Sy  lines. 

SLPERLATIVB.  Th*  histtrst  4e{rer 
of  companson  cip.'cssrd  by  aiijeitiTcs. 

SIPEKA' ATIR  Vl_  Beyoud  or  twl  of 
Ike  cotitve  of  naiure. 

Sl'PERNL'MEilARY.  .\b.'>re  the  6xe4 
or  staird  nuinbi*r,  as  $t>idieis  atUjcbed  to  a 
ref  ■menl  which  has  already  iu  coatpiate 

:?l  PEKSCRIPTIO.N.  .\  writiaf  oa 
the  aatsMk  of  a  paprr  or  aay  other  object. 

Sl'PERSEDI.N'G  (in  Law}.  In  En^ 
laaJ.  settiuf  asulc  a  bankruptcy. 

SlPEK<EDiXG  (ia  the  Army  and 
Navy).  Ttking  the  place  of  another  by 
speciaJ  appoiutMeat 

SI  PPL.IES  In  Eii«ian4,  extnof^ina- 
ry  granu  to  fOTerauieot  by  partiaatent. 

SIPPORTKRS  (la  Heraldry}.  t>taa- 
Ments  nr  ithout  the  escutchcua,  which,  as 
ia  lite  aaaese4  a{«re,  aeeaa  tu  bear  it  ap 
ar— yyoit  it 


Sl'PPORTERss  (In  Am-hitectarel. 
(niae^  which  serve  t.>  b««r  «p  any  ptrt 
•fa  htiilJmt  in  the  pl^cr  itfa  txJnmn. 

SVPPRESSIO.N".  The  stinsws*  »»f  »">• 
laid. 

Sl'PPI'RATION.  Theeaiherinjofpos 
or  m«ter  in  a  bi^il  or  wimi-iH. 

SIPREMACY  in  En«^^lld^.  TTte  *»- 
preme  an.i  undivulei  authority  of  the  kiaj 
o»-er  all  persons  anJ  thinsr<  in  hi*  realm, 
witether  spiritual  or  lem{w»ral.  w^ich  » 
denied  to  him  by  the  owmbers  of  the  Riv 
«<sh  chuNh  acciwdinf  to  the  tenets  af  their 
tvlitioa. 

srRr»AR«K,  Any  extra eb*n»ia»*a 
by  assessor*,  upon  such  a»  neglect  to  make 
I'le  returns  of  the  laies  to  which  they  aia 
IwWe. 

SI  RCINCr.E,  The  prd>«  with  which 
tieriymen'  mdlhelrcasaoci*  jalaoaiitth 
tt  k.<raea. 


S  W  A  SS 

StTKD.  A  namber  m  vnality  dm  ia 
tacMBBeBMrable  lo  aaky,  ai  iha  naati 
root  af  9  or  the  cabe  root  af  Ml 

SURETY.  One  that  pvaa  aatwity  at 
aaother. 

i^URF.  Ttw  swell  atf^  the  «•  brrakiac 
apon  the  shore. 

SL'RGC  A  lai(p  <*ave  risirg  akava 
the  waters  of  the  sea. 

SIR.;E0.N.  (.mewKacatesbyHaaaa 
opentina  or  exteraal  appiicalia«k 

SL'KtiEKY.  Tin  ait  «f  c»ni«  ar  alto- 
Ttatiac  diseases  by  •ucal  *mi  cMMaal  a^ 
piicatioas,  or  aperaiiaaa  hy  «oaaa  af  tha 
haa«l  or  nf  iastnuaeaM 

SUUtRNDES.  A  4ea4  ar  liitw  il 
teMifyiac  that  the  leaaat  yicMa  ay  ite  a» 
laie  tu  hiai  that  hath  tlM>  iaiairiiati  oMaia 
in  reaMiader  or  reversioa 

SURR&.M>EB  OF  A  B.V.\KRUPT 
The  wiiiiafciiaf  or  pvwc  ap  alt  hi*  pro- 
perty iaia  Ike  haa^  nf  Ma  na^iiuw  or 
their  aasifaees. 

SIRVEYLVG.  The  wt  af  MeaMriag 
the  aiea  or  saperflrtal  •■■iiaM  «f  laaAa, 
groands,  fields,  4lc.  by  Ike  kely  of  prsfit 
iastruoients. 

SL'RVEYOK.  OaewhafeUowatktaC 
or  basiaoM  of  sanrejriag. 

Sl'SVEYMt  (ia  Law).  Oaa  wka  sat 
veys  or  sapapataaJs  aay  baiinim.  as  tha 
Mnreyor  of  the  haphways,  a  parochiaX 
oAcer  who  sees  that  they  ars  kept  la  re- 
pair. &c. 

SI  RVIYOK  (ia  Law).  Tka Is afer liver 
of  two  teaants. 

SI^SPEXSIOX,  or  Poijm  or  Srirait- 
sios.  Thcwe  points  in  the  axis  or  beaa 
of  a  balmacs,  wfaenrin  ihe  wetjhts  are 
applied,  «r  tnm  which  they  arr  swspead- 

SITLGR.  A  TictaaUer  Ikat  Mlaws  a 
caiup. 

srTIRK.  Theaatoaofhsaeshyeana 
of  de<«tif.>na  aMW(iask 

SWALLOW      A  kiri  that  >afl<i  Hi 


Mst  in  the  ceraen  of  bams.    Tto  •«•* 
low  M  the  haiMaCw  af  ^ttec 


S40 


SVC 


SWAN.  A  noble  bird,  nearly  nllled  to 
the  goose,  with  which  it  is  clasiwd  by  I,in- 
nxus  under  the  generic  name  of  the  anus. 
A  specteH  entirely  blarit  h:is  been  recently 
discovered  in  New-Hc'land. 


SWARD.  The  coal  of  grass  on  a  mea- 
dow. 

SWARTH.  Tlie  row  of  grass  as  it  Tails 
from  the  scythe  of  the  ni<iwer. 

SWEEPS.  Large  oars  used  on  board 
ships  of  war. 

SWEEPSTAKES.  The  difierent  stakes 
laid  down  by  several  persons,  which  ali 
gu  by  a  sweep  to  one. 

SWEET  PEA.  An  annual  which  bears 
a  beautiful  sweet-smelling  flower. 

SWIFT.  A  sort  of  lizard  which  moves 
very  swiftly  ;  also  a  sort  of  bird. 

SWIMMING.  Theactofstistainiiigthe 
body  in  water,  and  moving  in  it  as  lishes 
and  other  animals  do  iiatiimlly,  and  as 
Dian  also,  by  an  acquired  art,  may  do. 

SWhVE-STOXE.  A  sort  of  calcareous 
tartli. 

SWIVEL.  A  small  piece  of  airillery, 
that  may  be  turned  on  a  pivot  in  any  di 
rection 

SWORD.  A  weapon  of  ofleiire,  worn 
by  a  soldier's  side 

SWORD-BEAKER  (in  England).  An 
officer  who  carries  tlie  sword  of  state  before 
a  magistrate. 

SVVORD-CUTLER.  One  who  prepares 
■words  for  use. 

SWORD-FISH.  A  fish  funisi.ed  with 
a  swurdlike  snout  with  which  it  attacks 
oihe;  fish,  p  'rticularly  the  whale. 


PVCAMORE.  A  laige  tree  like  a  fig 
ree,  that  grows  very  faiit,  and  is  used  in 
plantations  and  pleasure-grounds,  it  is 
vulgarly  called  Button  ball. 

iSYCOPHANT        An    infrrmer   anion" 


SYIV 

the  Athenians,  who  gave  information  oi 
lliose  that  exported  tigs  contrary  lo  law 
now  taken  for  a  cringing,  sneaking  flat 
terer 

SYLLABLE.  An  articulate  sound  form 
ed  by  a  vowel  alone,  or  a  vnwel  and  C4in 
sonant. 

SYLLABUS.  A  list  of  the  chief  beadi 
of  a  book. 

SYLLOGIS.M.  A  1;  gical  argument  con- 
■istinc  of  three  propositions,  called  th# 
major  and  iiiinfir,  which  are  the  premises; 
and  the  ((uestion  whicli,  after  it  is  drawn 
from  the  other  two,  is  called  the  conse- 
quence or  conclusion,  thus,  '  every  animal 
has  life;  man  has  life;  therefcre  man  is 
an  animal.' 

SYMBOL.    The  emblem  or  representa- 
ti(m  of  some  moral  quality  by  si me  ani- 
mal or  thing  supposed  In  possess  the  same 
I  quality:  as,  a  lum  is  (he  syinb.l  of  courage; 
!  two  hands  joined  togeher,  a  synjbcl  of 
I  union.     These  symbols  were  much  used 
;  by  the  ancients  in  representing  their  dei- 
I  ties,  as  the  eagle,  attributed  to  Jupiter  ia 
the  syinbiil  of  h.s  power. 

SYA'.METKY.  A  due  proportion  of  al. 
the  paits  to  one  another  and  to  the  whole 

SYMPATHETIC  LNK.  A  kind  of  ink 
which,  when  written  with,  is  invisilile 
until  it  is  held  to  the  tire.  It  is  mad« 
from  the  solution  of  lead,  bismuth,  g(<!d, 
and  green  vitriol. 

SYAiPATHETIC  POWDER.  A  pow- 
der prepared  from  green  or  blue  vitriol. 

SY.MPHoNY.  A  consonanre  or  concert 
of  several  sounds  agreeable  to  the  ear, 
whether  vocal  or  inslruiiieiital. 

SVMP'I'OM.  A  sign  or  mark  by  which 
the  iia'ure  of  the  disorder  is  discovered. 

SYNALOLPH.A.  A  contraction  of  twc 
vowels  into  one. 

SY.NCIIROAOL'S.  Happening  at  the 
same  lime. 

SY.NcoPE  (in  Medicine).  A  fainting 
or  swoon  iig. 

SY.VCOI'i;  ;in  Grammar)'.  Taking  a 
letfr  out  of  a  wurd. 

SYacoPE  (in  Rhetoric).  A  concisa 
form  uf  speech. 

SV.NCOPE  (in  .Music).  The  division  of 
a  note. 

SY.N'DIC.    A  magistrate  In  Germany. 

SYNOD.     An  assembly  of  Ihe  clergy. 

SYNOD  (in  Asironr.iny).  A  conjunction 
of  heavenly  bodies,  or  concourse  of  two 
p'aneis  in  the  same  optical  place  of  the 
heavens. 

SYNODICAL  MONTH.  The  perio< 
wherein  the  moon  departin,;  from  the  sun 
returns  to  a  ninjiinctioii  with  him  aguin 
this  IS  twenty  nine  da)s,  twelve   huuM 


TAC 

•jfly-*"!!:!!!  minutPK.  Iwentv-eleht  <>pe«nils. 
SY.NOE.NESIA   (in    Itotaiiv).     Oik*   of 
the  IJnTisan  cla^iscA,  c(iiii:iiniiii!|ilaiit.'<liie 
Ramin:i  of  wliicli  form  a  cylinder. 


TAL 


S41 


PYNONYMES.  Words  of  th^  snme  or 
■miliar  Hignification,  vvhiih  nerve  to  iiin- 
plify  a  siihjeci. 

SVNursiS.  A  general  view  of  a  sub- 
ject. 

SYNOVIA.  An  iinrtuoiis  fluid  serreled 
within  the  cr\psular  lij^amentsnf  the  Joints, 
whicb  serves  to  lubricate  tlieni  and  facili- 
tate tlieir  motion. 

SYNTA.V.  Thai  part  of  crainmar  whicb 
tieats  of  concord  and  "overnnient. 

8VNTIIKSIS  (in  Matliemaiics).  A  meth- 
od of  composition,  us  op|)o«ed  to  analyua. 


PVPIIOV.  or  SIl'IION.  A  h»nl  tuM 
lined  ill  dmwiiie  off  wine,  liqiioii,  acd 
otiier  fliiiils  out  of  a  vexHel. 

SYRI.MiA.  A  nowerin;  •hnib  p>aBta4 
in  (rardens. 

SYRI.NCK.  An  insinimenl  that  admit* 
of  any  tluld,  and  expelii  it  again  at  pie*. 
mire. 

SVRIJP.  A  thick  conipi..«llion,  formed 
from  the  Juices  of  heriM  and  fruits  boi:eJ 
with  sugar. 

SYSTE.M.  An  astieinblaee  or  chain  <.f 
principles,  the  severil  p;irt.i  of  which  de 
pend  upon  or  are  c«>niierted  with  e;uh 
other.  Systems  viiry  in  ditierenl  sriencet 
according  to  the  hypothesis  on  uhirh  lliey 
are  founded,  as  in  asiroiiomy,  the  <'o|ier- 
iiican  or  Ptolemaic  system  ;  in  Ixitaiiy,  lh« 
syHteiii  of  Touriiefiirl,  Ray,  iJiiiiiMis,  &c 

SYSTEM  (in  Music).  An  iiiierv:il  com- 
pounded or  siippotied  to  be  coiii|M»iiided  nf 
several  lesser  iiitervaU. 

SVZHJY  (ill  AmronoiMjr).  The  con- 
Junction  or  opiHi^ition  uf  any  planet  in 
re:;ard  U>  the  «ua. 


T. 


T,  the  twentieth  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
•lands  as  an  abbreviation  ainoii^pit  the 
Roman  writers  for  Titus,  Tiberius,  4lc. 

TABBY.  A  rich  itind  of  silk  that  has 
undergone  the  process  of  being  tabbied. 

TABBYI.V;J.  Tlie  passinii  any  silk  or 
•tuffthroueh  a  calender,  the  ndlers  of  winch 
are  variously  enuraven,  .«<>  as  to  give  the 
■■irface  a  wavy  appearance. 

TABl^E.  A  level  surface  raised  above 
the  ground,  of  various  forms,  and  used  for 
meals  anu  various  other  purposes. 

TABLE  (III  Perspeilive).  The  transpa- 
rent or  perspective  plane. 

T.MlI.Eiin  .Ariihinetic).  Anyseriesof 
numbers  formed  so  as  to  e.xiiedite  calcu- 
lations, as  '.he  tables  of  weights  and  mea- 
lures. 

TABI-E(ln  Astronomy).  Computations 
Of  the  motions  and  other  phtenuiiiena  of 
the  heavenly  bodies. 

T  A  BRET.  A  small  drum. 

T.AC  IT.  Not  expressed,  as  a  tacit  con- 
Ibssion,  one  that  may  be  inferred  some- 
times from  a  pemon's  silence. 

TACICLVR.  Cliansine  the  course. 

TACKI.K,  or  T*cKi.t^o.  The  seneral 
(VirnitU'C  of  a  ship,  |iariiriilarly  the  ropes 
and  thk  asscnihla!:e  of  blocks  by  which 
hea\y  « 'die*  are  moved. 

'l'>  TIC  The  science  of  disposing 
cltt.ti    aa  M'uiy  or  a  dee;  uf  ships,  and 


resulatinp  their  mo\rmeTit8  Toi  the  more 
elfectiir.l  aitainment  of  the  ends  pro|Mi«eil. 

TAUPULE.  A  frog  in  iu  unloruied 
stale. 

TAFFKTY.  A  fine  sort  of  silk  leinark 
iihly  glossy. 

T.M.C.  .\  sort  kind  of  earth,  «onpy  to 
the  touch,  and  comixised  uf  niazrcsia, 
aliimine,  and  silica. 

T.M,ENT.  A  money  of  accoi.n.  among 
the  Jews  and  Greeks.  The  Jev.'.jl!  talent 
of  .silver  was  equal  to  $1710.00.  iinil  that 
of  the,  GteekH  to  «i<»70.00.  The  .Iewi>h 
talent  of  golil  wa.s  equal  to  t■>>•J.^'(Ml.O<l. 

T.\I,E.\T.  A  weight  anion-.'  ihe  Jews, 
containing  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine 
pounds  eight  ounces  fifteen  peniiyweijhti 
and  seventeen  craini"  The  t.aleiit  ainonif 
the  Egyptians  ann  iJreeks  did  not  welgn 
•o  much. 

TAI.KS(in  Ijiw)  Jurors  added  to  make 
up  the  number  wanted. 

TALLOVVCHANDI.ER.  A  maker  an<i 
vender  of  tallow  candles,  as  distinsuished 
from  a  waxchnudler.  The  company  of 
tallowchaiidlers  in  I..ondon,  was  inr^trpo- 
rated  in  I  Hi  I. 

TAM.nVV  TREE.  A  tree  In  Cnln* 
which  (ipxliire*  an  unctuous  juice,  M 
which  candles  are  made. 

TALLY.  Aden  pieceof  wood  on  whfea 
an  account  is  scored 


MS 


TAR 


TALMUD.  Tlj«  book  ortb«>  m  tl  law  or 
die  Jew*,  CAnUlning  their  laws,  cuAiHtiii. 
•od  traditiona. 

TAMARIND.  The  fhlit  of  an  Indmn 
tree,  mhich  ha*  an  a^recablr  acidity  rnm- 
Diiied  with  fwrrlness.  It  ia  used  very 
niirh  in  inedintie. 

TAMBOCR  (in  Fortification).  A  kind 
of  w  I  irk  frrtned  of  (loliKidea. 

TA.\.  Thf  hark  of  the  oak  or  oflier  trre 
emuiid  or  cbopfied,  and  used  in  tanning 
iealhrr. 

T  \.\GE\T.  A  line  tnarhing  a  circle  or 
otlic-r  curve  without  cutting  il. 


TA  VNfN.  The  substance  prornred  from 
tan,  bj  niarerafing  it  in  cold  water ;  tliis 
bait  the  property  of  f<>riiiin<:  with  animal 
^laline  a  toii::h  in^^iliihle  iiiatlt-r,  and  i9 
IhervfoTP  used  in  couvtrtine  skins  into 
teather  liy  the  pnirea*  of  tannins. 

TA.\\I.\(J.  The  prixess  u(  preparing 
leather  from  the  fkins  of  nnimals,  which, 
after  being  cleared  of  the  hair,  wool,  and 
fle»hy  parts  ay  the  iirip  of  lime,  sctaping, 
and  other  means,  are  macerated  in  an 
aslrinseiit  li<iiior  form<  d  /rom  llic  hark  of 
the  tek  tree.  Thw  is  usually  done  by 
putting  into  the  tan  pit,  la>er»of  ground 
uak-bark  and  ckiiis  alternately,  with  the 
addition  of  a  small  qiiaiilily  of  water. 

T,\.\'REE.  A  small  annual  covered  with 
frickles  mixed  witli  hair,  fimiid  in  some 
parts  of  Asia. 

TANTALUS.  A  «oit  of  birds. 

TAPB.-JTRY.  Chdb  woven  in  figure*. 

TAPIiVVOR.M.  A  kind  of  womiit  re- 
aeintiliiii:  a  ta|ie  in  it«  form,  v«  bleb  infestii 
the  intestines  of  the  huiuan  body,  and 
cause*  many  disorders. 

TAPIOCA.  The  starch  of  the  cassava 
n»ot. 

TAPIR.  A  genus  of  animals  of  the  clr«a 
■lainiitalia,  order  belluinc,  that  inhabits 
doMth  America. 

TAR.  A  thick,  black,  nnrtaous  sub- 
•tance,  obtained  fromold  pines  and  firtrees. 

TARANTULA.  The  largest  of  all  Eu- 
roiiean  spiders,  the  bite  of  ivhich  was 
'orinrrly  supposed  to  be  venomous. 

T.ARE.  An  allowance  to  the  buyer  forthe 
«utside  pacKage  In  the  weiiihing  of  goods. 

TARE:^.  A  son  of  vetches  much  ased 
W  spring  fodder  for  cattle 


TEA 

TAR  HET.  A  kind  of  shield  ancientiy 
used  by  the  Scotch  ;  a  mark  set  up  to  bs 
fired  at. 

TARGI'M.  TheChaldee  paraphrase  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

TARIFF.  A  table  nfllie  rates  or  dbties 
acreed  upon  between  two  s'ates  to  be 
paid  upon  the  goud^  of  their  respective 
countries. 

TARPAULIN.  A  canvass  cloth  to  keep 
off  the  rain. 

T.AETA.V.  A  small  coasting  vessel  in 
tlie  l.^vant,  having  one  mast  and  a  Uiw- 
sjirii. 

TARTAR.  The  concreted  substance 
fonned  on  the  sides  of  wine  casks. 

T.ART.AR,  r«EAi«  or.  A  (mwder  rora- 
pouiided  of  tartaric  arid  and  {toiash. 

TARTARIC  ACID.  An  .acid  pn«iired 
by  the  solution,  filtration,  and  crystalliza- 
ti(m  of  the  tartar. 

TARTRATES.  Salts  formed  by  the 
combination  of  tartaric  acid  with  ditfereiit 
bases. 

TATTOf)I.\C.  Puncturinsfhe  skin  and 
rubbing  in  a  dye,  which  is  practi.sed  aniuag 
the  natives  of  the  f^outli  S»ea  Islands. 

TASTK.  <Jne  oft  he  five  senses,  by  which 
tlie  savour  or  relish  of  any  thing  is  per- 
ceived. This  resides  principally  in  the 
[lapillz  of  the  tongue  and  palate. 

T  A  C  R  rs».  The  second  sign  of  the  zodiac, 
marked  thus  ^  ;  it  contains  among  other 
stars  the  two  clusters  called  the  Pleiades 
and  Hyade.s. 

TAITOMMIV.  Usele-ss  repetition. 

T.A.XES.  Impositions  '.aid  upon  tlie  sub- 
ject by  act  of  goveriiraenl. 

TEA.  The  leaf  of  a  Chinese  tree,  froa 
which  a  useful  beverage  of  the  saiue  naiBS 


has  been  nrade  eTcr  since  its  first  Intro 
duction  into  Eurt»pe  in  the  Kevenleeiiti 
centuiv     The  tea  plant  ia  a  native  ol 


TEL 

fcnina,  Jajmn,  and  Tonqiiin,  and  ba«  not 
been  found  growini;  ((lonianeoii-dy  in  any 
other  part  of  itip  world.  It  alTecU  valleyi, 
the  sl(>i<in(  lidea  of  mouniajns,  and  the 
banks  of  nvers  eipn»ed  to  the  southern 
rays  uf  the  sun.  I'hcrr  are  two  prtocipal 
sorts  of  tea,  namely,  the  Grera  ami  ttie 
Boilca.  or  black  ;  lbt»e  are  du(ini:uished 
tnio  difTercnt  species,  accuriling  to  ttie 
oature  of  the  leaf,  as  of  the  Grreu^,  the 
ImptTial,  HytoD,  and  Singlo ;  of  the  Bo- 
iieaa,  the  Souchong,  Cambo,  Congo,  Fekoe, 
and  Common  Bohea. 

TEAK  TKKE.  The  Indian  oak.  not 
equal  in  liurability  to  the  Britu^b  nnk. 

TKAL.  The  smallest  of  the  dtick  kind. 

TKAKS  (in  An.itoiny).  The  limpid  tluid 
'•rrpleU  by  the  lachrymal  glalllt^i. 

Tt:.\RS  (in  Chenii.-itry).  Any  fluid  fall- 
ing III  drops,  as  gums  or  resin:^  exuding 
ill  the  form  of  tears. 

TECHMC.\L.  Pertaining  to  arts  and 
■cieiicen,  as  technical  lernis,  terms  of  art. 

TKETH.  The  hardest  and  smoothest 
bones  of  the  body,  fixed  in  the  alvmli  or 
■oi-ket:i  of  the  two  jaws,  whii  ii  b<rgin  to 
appear  about  the  seventh  or  eighth  month 
after  the  birth,  first  the  dentea  inrisun  or 
Inrwores,  the  four  front  teeth  of  the  upper 
and  lower  jaw  ;  then  the  caniiii,  or  eye 
teeth,  one  on  each  side  the  iticlsores  in 
each  jaw  ;  and  then  the  molares,  or  grind- 
ers, mostly  ten  in  each  jaw,  making  alto- 
gether thirty-two,  alihough  the  number 
varies  inditferentsubjects.  In  the  seventh 
year  new  teeth  are  formed,  and  in  the 
twenty-first  the  two  la-st  of  the  molares 
mivlly  spring  up,  called  tbe  deiites  sapien- 
tia. 

TEGL'ME.XTS  (in  Anatomy).  Corer- 
Ings  of  the  body,  as  tbt  eiilirle,  rete  mu- 
coetiin,  skin,  and  adipose  inemliraiie 

TEI.VT.  An  artificial  colnur. 

TEAK.  Atreeof  t lie  East  Indies,  sf- 
foriiiiig  iliirulile  timU-r  for  sliipiinildiiig. 

TELKGKAPH.  An  instrument  by 
■which  iiitelli;;eiice  can  lie  conimaiii- 
catc<l  rapidly  to  a  cou.'>iiii-rable  dis-j 
tance. — EUctro-maffnetie  UUffraph.  an 
iiistmiiient  or  appamtiis  for  coiuniiini-l 
eating  words  or  laiij:u:i;:e  to  a  distance. 
by  means  of  electricity.  There  are  also; 
the  indicator  telegraph,  which  conreys' 
it.*  signals  by  llie  niovenieiii.'*  of  point- 
ers; the  typo-printing  telegrajih:  the 
syniljol-printing  telegraph ;  and  the 
cheniical-priiitini  telegraph. 

TELEGRAPHY.  The  art  or  prac- 
tice of  communicating  intelligence  by 
a  tele'.:raph. 

TELEXGISCOPE.  In  optics,  an  in- 
stmnieiit  wiiicli  combines  the  power  of 
the  telescope  auU  ibe  microscope. 


TEr, 


343 


TELEPIIOTyE.  An  inatrnment  for 
conveying  iiiloniiatioii  by  mmiimI.  'I'lm 
Telephone  was  tir»t  prenented  to  the 
worM  at  the  Centennial  ExWibilioii  in 
1876  ;  Imt  its  introdntlioii  as  a  jiractir.-il 
telegraphic  app  irattiK  rt:ite«  from  ilay 
•I,  l-:77.  when  I'lof  Graham  Bell  ex- 
hibited it  in  the  Mii.'sic  Hail,  Boston. 

TKI,K.''COPE.  An  optical  inotrament 
compooed  of  len«es.  sn  siioaled  ai>  to  bring 
reimice  objerin  near  m  the  view.  Tw  wbtxa 
we  are  iiidebled  fi>r  ibe  discovery  u(  tb« 
|Miw>TS  of  tins  in.-<Ininirnl  t»  not  prerisciV 
known.  W»lhus  infers  Irom  a  paM>>ae>'  •e- 
the  '  Masia  Natnnilis'  of  J<'hn  BuiK.mj 
Porta,  that  he  wa.*  die  firsi  who  imde  4 
telescope,  and  tlii«  iiifereiire  M  the  niofC 
priibnble  tu  Bapli^ta  Pi-rla  nad  particu- 
larly directed  bi:«  attention  to  optical  iiv- 
striiment^  :  b<il  no  certain  mention  if  niwt* 
of  any  te.e«cope  before  \Ht\.  thirty  years 
afterwards,  when  a  telescope  sixtrenincitea 
long  was  made  and  prei^rnied  to  Pniice 
Maurice  of  .\a.'*.-<an,  by  a  sfieclacle  laaker 
of  Middlelitirg,  Hli«!«e  name  is  not  ex.nctly 
known, bein;: called  Lii;ipersheiin,  Jausen 
aiida:.'<o  Han:«en.  N<iaivanrj-^  wrre, how- 
ever, made  in  the  rcmstnietkm  of  tele- 
gropes  bef-ire  the  time  of  (::ilileo,  who 
while  at  Venire  acrnlentally  lieard  that  a 
sort  of  optir  «ia->s  wa.-«  nride  in  Holland, 
which  broiitfhl  ilistaiil  objeru  nearer,  and 
roiiifiderintt  how  this  thing  miahl  l)e,  he 
■set  to  work  and  ground  two  pieres  of  glaaa 
into  a  form,  a.-  wt-ll  a<  he  eisild.and  fitted 
them  to  the  two  eiiii«  of  an  orsan  pipe, 
with  which  he  prrotured  an  etferi  lh.it 
fleligliied  and  astonl-ihed  all  belioldera. 
.After  exhibiting  the  wonders  of  this  inven- 
tion to  the  Venetians  on  the  top  of  tb« 
tower  of  Pt.  Mark,  he  devoted  himself 
wholly  'o  the  improvinB  and  |>erfer.ii!#g 
the  telescope,  in  which  he  was  so  «iicc«ss 
fill  that  it  h-as  been  ii«tial  to  give  him  the 
hononrof  being  tl»e  in  veiilor.  -An  anecdote 
mentioned  by  F.  .Mabillon  in  his  Travels, 
of  ha i-ina  met.  In  a  monanery  of  his  owa 
■>rd««r.  with  a  inann«cri|>t  copy  of  the 
>vnii(S  ol  Cominestor,  written  by  one  Cor>- 
radus  in  the  thirteenth  ccntory,  and  con- 
Liinine  a  portrait  of  Pli>lemy  looking 
ihmiieh  a  tube  at  the  stars,  would  seem  to 
jHstif/thesiippositiofi  tha  ihisrontrivanre 
of  fatilitaring  the  v>««  of  distant  objects 
was  of  earlier  dale  ihnii  is  generally  con- 
sidered ;  but  we  are  not  inftirmed  wlielber 
the  tube  was  furnished  witn  glasses,  and 
very  probably  tubes  were  then  ii«d  to 
defend  and  direct  the  stghl,  and  render  the 
object  more  distinct  by  singling  it  from  ail 
oiher  objects  in  the  vicinity.  It  must  net, 
however,  be  denied  that  tbe  sptical  pn« 


U4 


TEM 


eiples  «pon  wlilcli  the  elPect  of  lelesco|ies 
!•  fotiiiiteil  are  :tg  uld  aa  Eiicliii  .11  Ikhsi, 
knil  wauled  nothing  hul  accidfiu  or  re- 
lection  tu  lead  to  this  mode  ot'  applying 
Uieiii. 

Telescopes  are  either  refractin;;  or  rellecl- 
Im  ;  the  farmer  coiiiiist  of  ditfereiil  It-nnes 
lliroiigh  whicli  the  objects  are  seen  by  rays 
refracted  hy  them  totlie  eye, and  the  latter 
consist  of  8|>ecula  from  which  the  niys  are 
retiected  and  passed  to  the  eye.  The  lens 
or  glass  turned  to  the  objei;t  is  called  the 
ohject  glass,  and  that  next  to  the  eye  the 
eye  glass,  and  when  the  telescope  consists 
of  more  than  two  lenses  .ill  bnt  that  iniine- 
diately  next  the  object  are  called  eye 
glus.^es,  Great  Iniprovenients  have  been 
mide  In  the  construction  of  telescopes, 
both  rellecting  and  refracting.  'J'liat  cun- 
•triicted  under  Dr.  Hersrhel's  direction  is 
the  largest  Instrument  of  the  AJnd,  and  pos- 
sesses the  highest  iiiagnif\  lug  power  ol  any 
that  was  ever  made.  'I'he  lube  of  this 
telescope  is  thirty-nine  feet  four  inches,  it 
measures  four  feet  ten  inches,  and  every 
part  of  it  is  of  iron  that  is  rolled,  ur  sheet 
inm,  joined  together  by  a  kind  of  seaming, 
like  the  iron  funnel  of  a  stove.  In  order 
to  command  every  altitude,  the  point  of 
(iipiKirt  is  moveable,  and  its  mi  lion  is 
f  ffected  by  tlie  lielp  of  pulleys,  so  that  it 
nay  be  moved  backward  or  forward  and 
jet  to  any  altitude  up  to  the  very  iienilh. 
The  lube  is  also  made  to  rest  with  the 
point  of  support  In  a  pivot  which  permits 
it  to  be  turned  aidewise 


TELLER.  One  in  a  baiili,  who  receives, 
and  pays  out  money. 

TELJ.ERS  Those  who  reckon  the  votes 
in  any  legislature. 

TELLERS.  In  England,  officers  of  the 
exchequer,  wlio  i^ceive  all  moneys  due  lo 
the  crown. 

TELLURIUM.  A  kind  of  metal  of  a 
blue  white  colour,  soft,  brittle,  and  easily 
reducible  to  powder.  It  melts  in  a  heat 
romething  above  the  fusing  point  of  lead. 

TELLi;S  (in  Heathen  Mythology).  The 
goddess  cf  the  earth  ;  the  earth  itself. 

TEMPERAME.NT  (in  Music).  The 
acci~mmod.-ition  or  adjustment  of  imper- 
fect sounds. 

TEMPERATURE.  The  constitution  of 
ilie  air  according  to  the  diversity  of  the 
■ea -tons,  or  the  different  siluatlons  of  climate 
Uld  other  circumstances 


TEN 

TE.MPERINGdn  Iron  Words)  .Maliin| 
iron  and  steel  of  a  ouilalile  degree  of  liard* 
ness  or  softness. 

TKMPERINtJ  (among  Brickmakers) 
The  duly  iniAing  the  materials  of  which 
bricks  are  made,  that  they  may  be  mure 
easily  cut  and  reduced  lo  the  proper  shape. 

TEMPLAltS,  or  KM.»Hf.  iKsifLAiii. 
An  ai-cie.iit  order  of  kinslithiMid,  wliicit 
was  ab. dished  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fotirteeiiih  century. 

TE.MPLE.  A  place  appropnaied  for  the 
{terformance  of  public  worship. 

TE.MPLE  (III  Anatomy).  Tni-  upper  part 
(m  eacli  side  ol  the  head,  where  the  pulse 
is  felt. 

TE.MrORAL.  Not  spiritual;  as  the 
temporal  revenues  of  the  chiirrh  in  Eng- 
land, called  the  teiii|Hirals,  or  tem|M>ralities. 

TEMPORAL  (in  Anatomy).  Pertaining 
to  the  temples,  as  the  temporal  arteriei, 

&.C. 

TENACITY.  The  degree  ot  force  with 
which  the  (tarticles  of  bodies  cohere  or  are 
held  tojiether;  a  term  applied  particularly 
to  metals  which  may  be  drawn  into  wire, 
as  gold  and  silver. 

TENAII.I.E.   An  outwork  of  a  fortress. 

TENANT  (in  I«iw).  One  who  hold* 
Iniiils  by  any  right,  p;irticiilarly  one  who 
occupies  lands  or  tenements  at  a  yearly 
rent,  for  life,  years,  or  will. 

TENCH.  A  hsh  with  a  golden  body 
and  trinsparent  tins,  thai  inhabits  rivers 
and  p(inds. 

TENDER  (in  the  Navy).  A  small  ship 
that  attends  a  larger. 

TENDER  (in  l-tw).  The  offering  of 
money  in  payment  ot  a  debt. 

TENDO.N  ACHILLES.  That  which 
connects  the  calf  of  Ihe  leg  with  the  heel. 

I'E.N'DO.N'S.  The  ezlrennties  of  the 
mu.scles. 

TENDRIL.  The  curling  part  of  pl.intii, 
as  in  the  vine,  with  which  they  lay  hold 
of  any  thiii!:  for  sup|Hirt. 

TENE.Mi;NT  (in  Liw).  Any  thinf 
which  may  be  hidden,  particularly  htmiie* 
or  any  other  buildinss. 

I'E.VNIS.  A  game  with  a  ball,  driven 
by  a  racket. 

TENNlS-Cf)URT.  The  place  wheretha 
game  of  tennis  is  played. 

TENON.  The  square  end  of  a  piece  of 
timber. 

TENOR  (in  .Music).  The  middle  part 
betwi^en 

TENSE.  That  p.art  o(  a  verw  which  de 
notes  tune,  as  the  present  fuse,  aenoling 
the  timr  ihnt  now  is;  tne  fiei.er;t  ot  3i*t 
the  tune  tiial  was,  iii.d  me  fu>.ire  ine  tiilM 
that  will  lie     Some  tenses  ilAew  se  denot* 


TER 

h^  i««tp  of  ihp  actiuii.  rw  tn  iu  completi- 
•fKs  or  (illierwise,  in  n  cprtaiii  degree  or 
•'me,  HHllie  iiii|>f  rt'fil  ikiifk,  wliich  denotes 
All  iinrinislied  actlmi  nl  <-i  certain  time;  the 
pfrlVct,  a  fini!<hed  uctinii  al  any  tiine;and 
the  [iliiperrect,  a  finiflbed  action  before  a 
certain  lime. 

TE.NSKjN.  The  act  of  stretching  or  be- 
ing iitretched,  as  the  tension  of  the  inusclea 
whe'i  the  body  is  in  motion. 

TENTER  (in  the  Cloth  Maniifaclure). 
A  railing co-str-ucted  tostrelch  clotlmupon. 

TENTEKIIOOK.  A  particular  hm.k 
on  which  ih.ngs  are  hung  that  are  to  be 
■Iretched. 

TE.\l!RE(in  r.aw).  The  conditions  on 
which  lands  and  lenements  are  hi'Id. 

TERCE.  A  wine  vessel  containing  for- 
ty-two gallims. 

TERM  (in  Geometry).  The  extremity 
or  boiNid  of  a  magnitiidft. 

TERiM  (in  Law).  A  fixed  and  limited 
time  within  which  courts  o(  judicature  are 
open. 

TERM  (in  the  t'lrveriJiiicsi.  The  fixed 
periods  within  which  studeniK  aii- obliged 
to  res'de  for  the  prosecution  of  their 
Btmlii's. 

TERMES.  The  while  ant,  a  genus  of 
insects,  inhabitants  of  the  Eaj<i  Indies, 
.\frica,  and  South  America,  whl.;li  are 
Baid  to.  exceed  the  common  ant,  the  bee, 
iind  Ihit  beaver  in  theii  -ikill,  inisenuity, 
and  good  government.  They  build  pyra- 
midal simctitres  ten  «r  twelve  feet  high, 
that  resemble  villaaits  in  exieni,  and  divide 
!!;3ni  off  into  several  apart  inenis,  as  maga- 
zines, cliamliers,  iiallcrii^s,  &«:.  Tliey  are 
no  less  de^'teroll^  and  remarkable  in  their 
mannerof  provuling  themselver^  with  f.iod, 
for  they  dentroy  food,  furniture,  b<ioks,and 
timber  with  suih  rapidity,  thai  abeam  will 
be  eaten  by  tlieiii  to  a  mere  shell  in  a  few 
hours. 


TESs 


84S 


rERMI.'  ..  :  _--:  !:  iiy  the  Romans 
'or  the  support  of  entablatures,  in  the  place 
of  cuUiiitiis  ;  the  upper  part  coiisiau-il  of  the 
head  md  breast  of  a  human  Ixidy,  and  the 
lower  of  the  inverted  frustum  of  a  cone. 
They  were  so  called  becjiuse  they  were 
prinrinatly  used  sm  boundary  marks,  and 
represented  their  god  Terminus. 

TERMS  OF  AN  ElinAMON.  The 
members  of  which  it  is  coinp<i-<'d. 

TERN    A  bird  of  which  ih-re  are  seve- 


ral varieties,  as  the  great,  Ittser,  black 
and  striated.  They  live  on  Il«h,  and  are 
sometimes  called  aca-swallows. 

TERRACE.  A  platform  or  bank  of  earth 
raised  and  breasted,  particularly  in  fortifi- 
cations, also  a  rai!<ed  walk. 

TERRA  KIRMA.  Main  land;  the  name 
pirticularly  given  to  a  cnuntiy  of  South 
America,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  Ucean  to  the  extent  of  l:)UI 
miles. 

TERRA  JAPONICA.  Japan  earth,  th« 
inspissated  juice  of  a  species  of  acacia. 

'I'EUKAR,  or  'I'EKniEH.  A  land  roll, 
containing  the  (piantity  of  acres,  tenants' 
names,  and  the  like. 

TERRESTRIAL  GLOBE.  An  artificial 
representation  of  the  earth's  surfar*-,  by 
the  help  of  which  many  problems  in  as- 
tronomy and  geography  are  worked. 

TERRIER  A  kind  of  dog  that  hiinU 
underground. 


TEST  (in  England).  An  oath  prescribed 
by  act  of  parliament  for  renouncing  tli« 
pope 's  supremacy,  &.C.-,  also  I  he  Sacramen- 
tal Test,  which  w.is  formerly  reipiired  as 
the  qualification  of  taking  an  office,  but  is 
now  abolished 

TKST  (ill  Cbomistry).  A  term  applieu 
to  any  substance  which  serves  to  detect 
the  presence  of  a  poisonous  ingredient  in 
a  comiHuiition-,  also  a  cupel  or  pot,  for 
sepanling  base  metals  from  gold  im- silver. 

TE.-'TACEA.  Testace'jiis  animals,  or 
shpll  fishj  the  third  order  of  animals  under 
the  clasj  vermes,  in  the  Liiwiiean  system. 

TES'"  ACT  (in  England).  An  act  of 
parliament  which  required  all  penums  to 
take  the  sacrament  acrordine  to  the  riteji 
of  the  church  of  England,  on  their  accep- 
tance of  a  public  oflice.  This  act  is  so  far 
repealed  as  relates  to  the  s.acramental  test, 
for  which  a  derlarntion  is  substituted,  sig- 
nifying that  the  party  will  do  nothing  to 
t^ie  injury  of  the  established  religion  of 
England. 

TESTA M  E.\T  (in  Law).  The  solemn 
art  whereby  a  man  declares  his  last  will 
as  lo  the  disposal  of  his  estate  after  bit 
death. 


U6 


THA 


TESTAMENT  (id  Tb.-olofT).  Each  of 
(br  roiuHMW  of  Lie  llol)  Scriptures,  Ifaat 
i*  lb«  Otd  and  the  New  Texlaairal. 

Ti::n'ATU£.     A  man  wlio  make*  his 

TESTATRIX  A  female  who  makes 
krr  will. 

TEsnX'DO.  A  machine  wnone  the  a«- 
cirnts,  wbich  served  lo  «crt-cn  tht-  !<<>ldirr8 
wht-n  ihey  approached  ihe  walls  to  mine. 

TESTUDO  (in  Zooliify).  A  c«nas  of 
animate,  inclading  the  uarioc  laille,  the 
river  turtle,  and  the  land  lonoiae. 

TETAMS.     A  IcKkrd  jaw. 

TETRADYNAMIA.  One  of  the  Lm- 
mran  cla-we*  of  plants,  includinf  lh<Me 
lilaiits  Ihe  flowers  of  which  hare  six  sta 
mens,  four  of  ifaem  longer  than  the  other 
two,  aa  caadirUiA,  waJIdewer,  cabbage. 


TETBAGTXIA.  Aa  order  of  plams 
uiiier  several  classes,  tn  the  I^niia-aii 
STst'^u,  the  floweiB  of  wbich  have  fuur 
ptstiUu 

TETRANDRIA.  One  of  the  Linnenn 
classes,  comprehending  plants  the  flmvers 
of  which  have  four  stamens,  as  the  scahi- 
«U8,  holly,  plantain,  &.c 


« 


TETRARCH.  Anciently  the  governor 
of  the  fnarl'i  part  c:'  a  prcvii.ce. 

TEXT.  Throricinal  part  of  an  author's 
work,  aa  disunguiiihej  from  any  note  or 
commentary 

TEXT.  A  paiwage  of  scripture  chosen 
as  the  subject  of  a  sermon. 

TEXT  (in  Printing  or  Wriune).  A  par- 
ticular kind  of  handwriting  or  form  of 
letters,  used  by  lawyers  and  others. 

THAXE.      *  baron  among  the  Saxons. 

THAU.M.\Tl  RGLS.  A  worker,  f mira- 
cles^ a  title  eivei  by  the  Eoniaa  Catholics 
to  some  of  their  saints 


THE 

THEATRE.  A  building  constnictdti  loi 
draouitic  cxbihitinns,  with  a  stacr  f>>r  tht 
prrfnrinrrs,  and  pit,  boxes,  and  pLileriet 
for  ll>e  audience. 

THKtH'KAt^'Y.  .\  covemroent  whereof 
God  himself  is  the  kine,  as  thai  of  the 
Jews  before  they  were  governed  by  kin| 
Saul. 

THEOIKiLITE.  An  in.<trsm«ol  ttAiA 
in  surreying,  for  taking  angles,  kc  This 
instrunient  n  sopported  on  three  stHtrs, 
screwed  into  bell  met»l  joints  th:u  are 
moveable,  having  a  limb,  or  a  strung 
bell  mccai  nng,  apon  wliirh  are  ilir>« 
moveable  indexes,  a  bell  met»l  dtmltle 
sextant,  within  which  is  a  spiral  level,  and 
■ver  h  a  telescope^  all  suilalily  adjusted 
with  screws. 

THEOLCXJY.  The  study  of  religion,  or 
the  science  wbich  instructs  in  Uie  kuoir- 
ledge  of  God  and  divine  thincs. 

THEOREM.  A  posiuon  laid  d(«rn  as 
tnith. 

THEORT.  A  dortrine  which  Cfinfines 
itself  to  the  speciilauve  parts  «if  a  su'-jert, 
without  resarJ  In  its  practical  applicatioo 
or  Ulustraiion. 

TH  KRATELTICS.    The  healing  art. 

THER.M.£.     Hot  baths. 

THER.MO.METER.  An  instroinent  for 
measuring  the  tem^ieraiure  of  Uie  sir,  as 
respects  heal  and  cj>ld,  founded  on  the 
principle  tlial  the  expansimis  of  matter 
are  proportional  to  the  augmentations  of 
the  lenijieraliire.  The  invention  of  tlie 
tliermmneler  has  been  ascribed  to  different 
authors,  iv  Cornelius  Drebbel  of  -Alcmaar 
by  his  coniilryineR  Roerbaave  and  Mus- 
chinbroeck;  to  Faiiier  Paul,  by  his  bio- 
grapher Fiili!enzi«-,t(iGalile«i  by  Vincenzio 
Viviani;  Inn  Sanctorino  assume*  the  inven- 
tion to  himself,  and  bis  claim  L<  fully 
admllled  by  Malplghi  and  Borelli.  1'he 
first  form  of  this  invention  was  tlie  ail 
tbemioweie-,  consisting  of  a  glass  tube 
connec  *c  a'  ^n;  end  with  a  large  class 
hall,  an>  it  ih.-  otoer  end  immersed  in  an 
open  vessel  or  terminating  in  a  Imll  witji  a 
narrow  bottom.  The  vessel  was  filled  with 
a  coloured  liquor  that  would  not  easily 
freeze,  as  aquafortis  tinged  with  a  solution 
of  vitriol  or  copperas.  The  ball  at  the 
lop  being  then  moderately  warmed,  tiic 
air  contained  in  it  was  in  part  expelled, 
and  then  the  liquor  pressed  by  the  external 
air  entered  at  the  !(iwei  ball  and  rose  Ui  a 
certain  height  in  the  tube,  nccdrding  to 
the  tein|ieratnre.  The  air  being  found  not 
•o  fit  for  measuring  with  accuracy  th» 
variations  of  liea:  and  cold  according 
this  form  of  the  tliermimieler.  «hitb  txaa 
fiist  adr|ted.  alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine. 


THR 

WM  aaed  by  the  Florpntine  aexdrmy.  rn- 

diioeil  III  a  very  Hne  eyitndncal  eliuuliibe, 
bav\ni  a.  hollnw  luill  at  nnr  end,  and  her- 
metically sealed  at  the  other.  To  the  luhe 
b  appiieil  a  «cal<t,  divided  from  the  middle 
Intoone  hundred  parts,  upwards  and  down- 
warta.  A*  apirit  of  wmr  m  capable  nf  a 
Tery  fon«iderable  decree  of  nirRl'actinn 
and  condensation  by  heal  and  cold,  when 
the  he»t  of  ttie  atmosphere  Increaiiea  the 
siiiril  dil.itea,  and  consequently  n.tt^a  in  the 
tube;  and  when  the  heat  decreases  <he 
•pirit  descends.  As  inconveniences  were 
found  In  attend  each  of  these  thermome- 
ters, as  also  that  of  M.  Reaumur,  which 
was  constructed  in  a  similar  manner,  Mr. 
fahrenheil  rtrsl  employed  mercury  for  this 
parpoMc,  which  has  since  been  oniversatly 
adopted.  The  method  of  constnictin;  his 
thermometer,  of  whicli  a  repreiu-iiuttion  is 
here  given,  is  as  follows,  a  small  ball  is 
blown  at  the  end  of  a  class  tube,  of  an 
■nit'orm  width  tbrraiehoiit.  The  hall  and 
pain  of  the  tube  are  then  to  he  filled  with 
iiuicksilver  whicli  has  been  previously 
bolted  to  expel  the  air,  the  open  end  of 
tile  tube  then  bein;;  hermetically  :>ealed,  a 
scale  IS  con-<tructed  liy  takins  the ,  wo  fi.Ted 
ptunts.  namely,  Xf  for  the  freezint  point 
and  ■2\i'  lor  the  boiline  pivint,  and  divid- 
tnt(  tlta  intermediate  space  intu  equal  paru, 
Of  W0-. 


TIO 


•47 


THTSTLB.  A  prickly  weed  that  infests 
com  Helds. 

THiiRACIC.  An  order  of  fishes  in  the 
l.tnncan  !<ystem,  which  have  the  veatial 
9n:<  plitreii  directly  under  tlie  thorax. 

UnR.AX.  TIiecln-:<t,  siiuaied  belweea 
the  neck  and  llie  abdomen. 

TIIORorr.H  BA:?S  (in  .Music).  That 
which  includes  the  fundamental  rules  in 
eompiwitioa. 

THRAVE,  or  THREAVE  OP  COBW. 
Twenty  foarsbeaves,  or  four  shucks  of  six 
■heaves. 

TIIRCAD.  A  small  line  made  of  a  few 
(ibres  of  si.k,  eotU)n,  or  hemp,  frv<m  which 
it  derived  it.-)  nnines  of  nlk,  cuUon,  or  thread 
y.ccerly  so  called. 


THRRf^HINO.  The  betaing  lh«>  grate 
out  of  the  eant  of  wheat  u'iili  a  SaiI. 

THKK-^HI.M;  .M.\)'III.>K  Aina:hio« 
for  tbreshinK  wheat,  instead  of  th«  old  j  lac- 
ticeot'lhrPHhinc  with  a  Hail. 

TilRCSH  (in  llmltholoiiy).  A  cennsof 
birds,  the  tnrdusof  LInncus,  of  which  lite 
principal  »peeies  areihe  missel  thrush,  the 
throstle  or  song  thrush,  in  Enrland,  Ihe 
fieldfare,  and  the  black  bird.  Tht-  thrush 
or  throstle,  properly  mi  cjl|p<l,  is  one  of 
the  finest  singing  bird.'<  in  (his  cimntry.  its 
sung,  which  is  rich  and  varied,  commences 
early  in  the  season,  and  continue*  for  nine 
nionilis. 

THRUSH  (in  Medicine).  A  distemper 
in  tlie  luoaths  of  children. 

TIII/NDRR.  The  noiM  nceaaioned  by 
the  explosioa  of  electrical  clouds. 

THU.M<r\.  A  kind  of  mackerel. 

THURSDAY.  The  fifth  day  of  th< 
week,  so  called  from  Thor,  the  god  of  th« 
Saxons  and  otiier  northern  ihbiat. 

THYME.  A  fragrant  herb. 

TIARA,  or  P»i'»l  C«ow!».  An  yna 
nienLal  cap  formerly  worn  by  the  Persians, 
and  since  adofited  by  the  Pope,  i-'ee 
V\r\L  r«i)w:<. 

TIBIA.  The  larte^t  hone  of  the  leg. 

TIC  DOLOUREUX.  A  painful  aflectinn 
of  file  nenes. 

TICK.  A  little  insect,  one  species  of 
which,  called  the  dog -tick,  infests  dogs. 

TIDE.  The  regular  periodical  current  of 
water,  which  when  it  rises  's  called  the 
fiiix,  and  when  it  goes  back  istheenbor 
reflu.T.  Tliis  is  ascribed  by  Newton  to 
the  attmriinn  of  the  *»n  and  miMtn,  b.it 
particutarly  to  ihe  latter,  owing  to  its 
pnt.iiiiiity  lo  the  earth. 

TIDE  WAITER.  A  customhouse  officei 
\vtu>  sees  to  the  gtsads  landed  on  the  ipiay. 

TIER.  A  range  of  cannon  mounted  on 
one  side  of  a  deck. 

TIERC'E.  A  mensiire  of  liquids  conRun- 
ing  forty  two  gallons. 

I'IGER.   A  large  (enicioua  beast,  of  the 


cat  tribe,  etaaed  by  Linns>iis  ntth  tlM 
cat,  Ui  ^er  the  generic  name  fell*.  It  is  • 
native  of  the  hot  climates  of  .Asia,  v  oera 


848 


TIT 


it  it  omiideied  u  a  scourge.  It  is  of  «o 
i«rc«  and  sanguinary  a  nature  tbut  it  is 
not  to  be  tamed. 
^"-^^IliE.  A  thin  piece  of  clay  in  a  flat 
form,  dried  and  baked  so  as  to  fit  it  for 
covprring  the  roofs  of  houses. 

TfLLAGE    The  art  and  practice  of  cul-  , 
tivating  the  ground,  by  ploughing,  harrow- 
ing, rolling,  and  other  works  of  liusliandry. 

TILLER  OF  A  SHIP.  A  piece  of  wood 
fastened  in  the  head  of  the  rudder,  by 
which  it  is  moved.  In  small  ships  and 
boats  it  is  called  tlie  helm. 

TIMBER.  The  wood  of  trees  felled  and 
•cvoned  for  the  use  of  the  carpenter,  as 
the  wood  of  the  oak,  fir,  elm,  ash,  beech, 
chestnut,  walnut,  lime,  sycamore,  and 
birch  ;  of  these,  however,  tlie  oak,  ash, 
and  elm  are  properly  denominated  timber 
trees. 

TIME.  A  certain  measure  or  portion  of 
eternity  distinguished  by  the  mnticm  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

TfME  (in  Music).  The  measure  of  sounds 
in  regard  to  their  continuance  or  diiratiim. 

TIMEKEHTER,  An  instrument  for 
measuring  time. 

TIN.  A  metal  which  if  very  rarely 
found  native.  It  is  one  of  the  lightest 
metals,  its  specific  gravity  when  hammered 
being  no  more  than  7-299,  but  it  is  so  fusible 
as  to  melt  .'l  about  442"  of  Fahrenheit. 

TINCTURE.  .\  solution  of  any  sub- 
stance in  spirit  of  wine. 

TIN.MAN.  A  nianutaclurer  of  tin. 

TINNING.  The  art  of  covering  iron  or 
copper  with  a  coat  of  tin,  by  immersing 
the  plates  into  melted  tin.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  useful  purposes  for  which  tin  is 
employed,  as  it  renders  iron  fit  for  various 
uses  which,  on  account  of  its  tendency  to 
rust,  would  otherwise  be  unavailable. 

TIN  PLATE,  otherwise  called  White 
iROjt.    Iron  covered  with  tin. 

TIPSTAFFS  (in  Ena.iSin.l).  Officers  that 
attend  upon  the  judges  of  the  King's 
Bench,  and  also  take  iiersons  into  cus- 
tody. 

TIRE.  The  Iron  brace  that  goes  round 
K  wheel. 

TISSUE.  Stuff  made  of  silk  and  silver. 

TITANIUM.  A  newly  discovered  metal 
of  an  orange  red  colour.  It  is  very  brittle, 
but  sc  refractory  that  it  ran  scaicely  be 
reduced. 

TITHE  In  England).  The  tenth  imrt  of 
ail  fruits,  which  i*  due  to  the  parser  i  of  the 
parish.  The  great  tithes  are  chiefly  corn, 
hay,  and  wo<id  :  other  thinirs  of  less  value 
lire  comprehended  under  lite  name  of  small 
tithes. 


roM 

TITIIINO.  A  comniiinlly  of  ten  IMS 
into  which  all  England  was  divided  la 
the  time  of  the  Saxons. 

TITLE  (in  Law).  Any  right  which  ■ 
person  lias  to  the  |K>ssession,  or  an  authenlta 
iiistntment  whereby  he  can  prove  his 
right. 

TITMOl'SE.  A  small  Eiimpfan  bird 
whicn  feeds  on  the  brains  of  othei  birds 
which  it  attacks  with  great  ferocity. 


TOAD.  A  reptile  of  unsightly  appeat- 
anre,  which  was  formerly  accounted  ven- 
omous, but  now  considered  aa  harmlCM 


It  is  nearly  allied  to  the  frog,  with  which 
it  Is  classed  by  Linniuus  under  the  ginerit 
name  rana. 

TOBACCO.   An   herbaceous  plant,  re- 
markable for  its  narcotic  proper! 'es,  which 


is  used  either  in  the  leaf,  when  It  Is  die* 
cd,orcut.\viien  ills  smoked      It  origicaI.«, 


I'OR 

eame  ft-oin  the  island  of  Tobago,  and  wan 
Introduced  into  Kiiglaiid  by  8ir  Winter 
Raleigh. 

I'UDUY.  A  compound  i<|>irilu»as  lii)uor. 

TOGA.  The  mantle  worn  by  Kuman 
citizens. 

TOLERATION  ACT.  An  act  passed  in 
the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  in  favour 
of  Dissenters 

TOLL.  A  payment  in  towns,  markets, 
and  fairs  (or  goods  ami  cattle  bought  and 
■oldj  also  on  passing  through  a  turnpike 
gute. 

TOLUFRRA.  A  balsam  of  the  iclu 
tree,  less  healing  and  stimulating  than  the 
balm  of  Gilead. 

TO.M  BAG.  A  metal  composed  of  copper 
and  arsenic. 

'J'ON.     Twenty  hundred  weight. 

TOXE.  The  degree  of  elevation  which 
any  sound  has,  so  us  tu  deleriiiiue  its 
acuteiiess  or  gravity. 

TO.NGUE.  A  siifl  fleshy  viscii*,  which 
Is  tile  organ  of  taste  and  sfwecli  in  man. 

TONIC  A  medicine  wnich  braces  the 
nerves. 

TONNAGE.  A  duty  paid  at  a  certain 
rate  for  every  ton  of  giM.ds  exported  or 
im|K>rted. 

'I'O.NSU  RE.  'i'he  act  of  cutting  oti  the 
hair. 

TONTINE.  A  sort  of  increasing  annu- 
ity, ur  a  loan  given  by  a  number  of  [lersons 
with  the  benefit  of  survivorship. 

TOPAZ.  A  precious  stone  of  the  colour 
of  gold. 

TOPICS.  Common  places,  or  the  heads 
of  a  discourse. 

TOPtJGRAPIIY.  A  description  or 
draught  of  s<ime  particular  place  or  tract 
of  land,  as  tif  any  particular  county,  city, 
town,  castle,  &.C. 

•J'ORPEIK).  A  fish  which  is  endowed 
witlt  a  strong  electric  power. 


TOU 


34t 


TOr.PE'DO.  A  macliine  invented  for 
ilcsiroyiiiir  ships  liv  ex])lasiou. 

TOItKELITJi.  A  niineial  composed 
of  iiiroxide  of  ccriimi,  silica,  protoxide 
of  iron,  ahiniitia,  lime,  aud  water. 

TORNADO.  A  sudden  and  vehement 
gust  of  t/ind  from  all  parts  ol  the  com- 
pass, frequent  on  the  cua.-!t  of  (SiiitiPa.  It 
commences  very  suddenly,  several  clouds 


being  previously  drawn  together,  when  • 
gust  of  wind  rusliiiig  from  them  strikes 
the  ground  in  a  round  .>pot  of  a  lew  perches 
diameter,  and  thus  proceeds  for  the  dis- 
tance of  a  mile  oi  more,  not  iu  a  straight 
line,  but  in  all  directions,  leaiing  up  all 
before  it. 

TORRID  ZONE.  That  region  at  ine 
distance  of  twenty-three  and  ahalfdegices 
from  the  equator,  where  the  beat  of  the 
sun  is  most  violent. 

TORTOISE.  An  amphib.oiis  animal 
that  is  covered  with  a  hard  shell;  there 
are  tortoises  both  on  the  land  and  in  the 
water. 


TORTOtSESHELL.  The  shell  whicn 
covers  the  tortoise  is  used  in  inlaying,  ana 
for  various  ornamental  purposes. 

TORY.  A  name  given  to  those  who 
hold  high  principles  of  government. 

'i'OUCAN.  A  bird  of  South  America 
that  has  a  very  large  bill. 


TOUCH,  or  Febli  wo.  One  of  the  fiv» 
senses,  which  is  formed  by  the  nervous 
papillie  of  the  skin.  The  sensations  ac- 
quired by  the  sense  of  feeling  are  those  of 
heat,  hardness,  solidity,  roughne.ss,  dry- 
ness, motion,  distance,  figures,  &.c. 

TOUCH  (in  Coining).  A  trial  of  gold 
and  silver  in  the  .Mint. 

TOUCH  HOLE.  The  vent  through  whicB 
the  fire  is  c<mveyed  to  the  powder  in  • 
gun. 

TOUCH-NEEDLE  (among  As»ayer« 
and  Refiners).  Little  bars  of  gold,  siUer 
and  ropper  combined  together  in  all  tba 
dilTerenl  proportions  and  degrees  of"  mix- 
ture. These  are  n.-ied  in  the  trial  called 
the  touch,  to  discover  the  purity  of  acy 
piece  of  gold  ur  silver  by  comparing  "hs 


860 


TRA 


mark   it  leaves  on  the    touchstone    with 
tbuce  of  tlie  bars. 

'I'OL'LHS'IONE.  A  siliceous  sort  of 
■tone  usfd  in  trying  metals. 

TOL'CHVVOOD.  A  sort  of  agaric  that 
is  used  as  tinder. 

TOtRNA.\li:.\rS.  Military  sports, 
where  knights  used  to  display  their  gal- 
lantry by  encountering  eacli  other  on 
horseback  with  spears  or  lancos. 

TOURNIQUET.  An  instrument  for 
■topping  the  How  of  blood  after  an  am- 
putation. 

TOWER.  A  fortress  or  citadel,  as  the 
Tower  of  London 

TOXICOLOGY.  The  doctrine  of  poi- 
sons. 

TRACHEA.  The  windpipe,  a  cartilagi- 
nous and  membranous  canal,  through 
which  the  air  passes  into  the  lungs. 

TRADE  VVLNUH.    'J  he  monsoons. 

TRAGACANTH.  A  gum  which  exudes 
from  a  prickly  bush,  the  astragalus  traga- 
cantha  of  LiunKiis,  which  grows  wild  in 
warm  climates.  The  tragacaiilh  is  most- 
ly brought  from  Turkey  in  lumps. 

TRAGEDY'.  A  drama  representing  some 
grand  and  serious  action,  and  mostly  ter- 
minating in  some  fatal  event. 

TltAJECrORY.  The  path  described 
by  any  moving  body,  as  u  comet  describ- 
iog  a  curve. 

TRAIN.  A  line  of  gunpowder,  forming 
a  communication  with  any  body  that  is  to 
be  set  on  lire. 

TRAMMEL.  A  Arsit  net,  or  large  fish- 
ing net;  also  a  long  iiei  (or  catching  birds. 

TRA.M.MKI.S.  An  instrument  for  draw- 
ing ovals  on  a  hnard;  also  a  kind  of 
•hackles  for  a  horse. 

TRANSsCRm'.  The  copy  of  any  orig- 
inal wrirliig. 

TRANSFER.  The  making  over  stock, 
k.c,  fnmi  the  seller  to  the  buyer. 

TRANSFER  DAYS.  Particular  days 
appointed  for  the  transfer  of  particular 
stocks. 

TRANSFORMATION.  The  change  out 
of  one  form  into  another,  as  applied  to 
insects. 

TRANSIT  The  passage  of  any  planet 
just  by  or  over  a  fixed  star  or  the  sun's 
disk,  particularly  the  transit  of  Mercury 
fc.nd  Venus,  which  are  interesting  phe- 
nomena. 

TRA.NSITIVE  VERB.  A  verb  which 
tn  Its  meaning  passes  over  to  an  object,  as 
to  love  or  hate. 

TRANSMIGRATION.  The  passing  ot 
the  hiiinan  soul  out  of  one  body  into  ano- 
ther, a  doctrine  which  is  ascribed  to  Py- 
thagoras. 


TRE 

TRANSMUTATION.  A  supj.o»ed  pow 
er  of  changing  the  base  metals  mm  goU 
which  alchymi»ts  pretended  lo  possess. 

TRANS.\IUTATION  (in  Chymisiry) 
Any  operation  by  which  the  properties  o/ 
UMxed  bodies  are  changed. 

TRANSPARENCY.  The  property  of 
some  bodies  of  giving  passage  to  the  rayt 
of  light,  as  distinguished  from  opacity. 

TRA.XSPARENCY  (among  Painters) 
Any  painting  illuminated  behind,  so  as  to 
render  it  perfectly  visible  at  night. 

TRANSPORT.  A  vessel  in  which  sol 
diers  are  conveyed  by  sea. 

TRANSPORTATION  (in  England) 
Sending  away  criminals  into  a  dis'.ant 
country,  either  for  a  term  of  years  or  <bi 
life. 

TRANSPORTATION  (in  Commerce) 
The  carrying  of  goods  by  land  to  a  dis 
tance. 

TRANSPOSITION  (in  Music).  Ttic 
change  made  in  a  composition  by  which 
the  whole  is  removed  into  a  higher  oi 
lower  key. 

TRANSPOSITION  (in  Algebra).  The 
bringing  any  term  of  an  equation  over  b 
the  other  side. 

TRANSIRSTANTIATION.  The  con 
version  of  the  bread  and  wine  according 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  church  into 
the  actual  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  miraculously  wrought 
by  the  consecration  of  the  priest. 

TRA.N'SVRRSE.  A  cross,  as  a  trans- 
verse axis  in  conic  sections. 

TRAP.  A  sort  of  mountain  rock,  com- 
posen  of  horizontal  strata. 

TRAPEZIL'M.  An  irregular  quadrilate- 
ral figure. 

TRAVERSE  (in  Law).  That  which  the 
defendant  pleads  in  bar  to  avoid  the  plain- 
tiff's bill 

TRAVCP.SF.{in  Fortif.cation).  A  trench 
made  quite  across  the  nic:c  of  a  place. 

TRAVERSE  (in  Navigation).  The  v» 
riation  or  alte.ation  of  a  ship's  course. 

TRAVESTIE.  Theburlesque  imitatiOB 
of  an  author's  style  and  composition. 

TREACLE     The  scum  of  sugar. 

TREASON  in  England  is  divided  into 
High  Treason  and  Petty  Treason,  liigh 
Treason  is  an  offence  against  the  king  or 
his  government,  whether  it  be  by  imagina- 
tion, word,  or  deed.  Petty  Treason  ii 
the  crime  of  a  wife  killing  her  husbani', 
or  a  servant  hi*  master.  Treason  in  the 
United  States,  consists  in  overt  acts,  man 
ifestins  a  design   against  the  government. 

TREASURER.  An  olfirerio  whose  care 
the  treasure'  rif  the  country  or  of  any  com- 
pany is  committed      T''e  Ixjrd  H  di  Trea- 


TRI 

•amr  nf  Rnelanit  ha*  tlie  charge  of  all 
IJie  Kill!!  s  iiKiMfy,  &.C.  in  ihf  Kxc)ie«iiier. 
'I'KBAD.MILL.  A  iiiill  fitr  grinding  corn, 
wbicn  18  moved  by  pt^isona  stationed  on 
the  mam  wiieel.  Ii  hits  lieen  introduced 
iato  pr>8oiii  ta  aacrt  of  puniabnieiiL, 


TRI 


351 


TREASURE-TROVE  (In  Law).  Mo- 
«ey  or  any  otiier  treasure  found  hidden 
under  the  earth,  which  belonii!!  to  the  king 
or  some  other  wlio  claims  by  tlie  king's 
grant  or  by  prescriptiun. 

TREASURY.  The  place  where  the 
public  money  is  defKwited. 

TKEBLt:  (in  Music).  Tli«  acmes!  or 
higliest  note  adapted  to  tli«  voice  uf  fe- 
males or  lioys. 

TKKBLE  XOTE.  The  note  in  the 
treble  liiave,  placed  on  Ibe  line  with  the 
elilf. 


TREF.  A  plant  with  a  woody  trunk. 

TKEFOII..  Three  leaved  grass. 

TKEMOLITB.  A  sort  of  calcareous 
earth. 

TRENCHES.    Ditches  in  fortifications. 

TREPAN.  A  siirgiral  liistriiairnl,  like 
a  aaw,  for  reiii<>\  ii:g  a  broken  bone  from 
the  skull. 

TRESP.V<S  (in  t.aw).  Any  wrong 
done  hy  one  private  man  to  another,  eith- 
er to  his  person  or  liis  property 

TRKT.  .\ii  allowance  for  waste,  or 
for  tbe  dirt  that  may  be  mixed  with  any 
commodity 

TRIAD  (in  Music).  The  common  chord, 
consisting  of  the  third,  Mh,  and  eighth. 

TRIAL.  The  exaniinaiion  of  causes 
before  a  proper  judge,  whi<'h,  as  regards 
matters  cf  fart,  are  to  lie  tried  by  a  jury, 
as  regird  matters  of  law  by  the  judge, 
and  as  reg:irds  records  by  the  record  Jt.self. 

TRIA.M)RI-\.  One  ot  the  Linnzan 
Uavaes.  comprehendmg  plants  the  flowers 


of  which  linve  three  slaiiiei\s,  as  the  aro- 
ciis,  gIndrJe,  valcr  an,  ic. 

TRIANCJLE.  A  figure  hounded  by  three 
sides. 

TRIBUNE.  An  officer  among  tbe  Ro 
mans,  chosen  from  aiiiung  the  people  to 
defend  their  rights. 

TRICOCCit;.  One  of  Liunrus's  natii 
ral  orders  of  plants,  comprehending  such 
as  have  a  three  armed  capsule,  as  tbe  eu- 
phorbia, &.C. 

TRIDENT.    A  three  forked  instrument 

TRIENNIAL.  Every  three  years,  as 
triennial  parliaments. 

TRIGGER.  The  catch  of  a  gun  lock, 
which  when  pulled  disengages  the  cock 
and  causes  it  to  strike  (ire. 

TRIGLYPII.  A  member  of  the  Doric 
frier.e. 

TRIGONOMETRY  The  art  of  mea 
suring  the  sides  and  angles  of  iriangli'S. 
The  business  of  this  science  is  to  find  the 
angles  where  the  sides  are  given  ;  unil  the 
sides  of  their  respective  ratios  when  the 
ancles  are  given. 

TRILLION  (in  Arithmetic).  A  billion 
of  billions. 

TRIM  OF  A  SHIP.  Her  best  posture, 
proportion  of  liallasi,  and  hanging  uf  her 
ma.st8,  &.C.  for  sailing. 

TRINITARlAiVsi.  Those  who  believe 
In  the  Trinity. 

TRINITY.  Thedoctrine  of  three  oer 
sons  ill  the  (iodhead,  namely,  the  Father 
the  Hon.  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 

TRIO  (in  Music).  A  piece  for  three 
voices. 

TRIU.MPHAL    CROWN.     A     crown 


among  the  Romans  glfen  to  a  Tictonoii. 
general  ;  It  was  made  at  first  of  wreatlii 
of  laurel,  and  atterwardsof  gold. 

TRIlMVnt  AlE.  A  form  of  govern 
meiit  in  which  three  pers<ins  bear  rule,  as 
the  Roman  triiiiiivirr.teor  l'oiii|iey.  C'esai, 
and  Oassus,  and  aflerwanls  that  of  .\u 
gnstiis.  Marc  Antony,  and  l/cpidiis. 

TRIPLE  CRU\V^.  The  tiara,  or  p» 
pal  crown. 


wa 


TRU 


TRIPLE  TIME  (in  Music).  A  time 
consisting  oi  (liree  measures  in  a  bar. 

TRIPOD.  Tlie  Bucred  seal,  supported 
by  three  feet,  on  which  Itie  priestesses 
among  the  ancients  used  to  deliver  the 
oracles. 

TRIPOLI.  A  mineral  of  an  earthy 
texture,  but  for  tlie  most  part  found  coii- 
■idemlily  indurated. 

TRlSfiCTlOiN.  The  dividing  a  thing 
into  three  parts. 

TRISYLLABLE.  A  word  co.  sisting 
of  three  nyllablea. 

TRITO.\.    AseawMl. 

TROCAR.  An  instrument  us«d  in  tap- 
ping for  the  dropsy. 

TROOP.  A  certain  number  of  horse 
soldiers. 

TROOPER.    A  horse  soldier. 

TROP4CS  (in  Astn.iioMiy).  Circles 
Irawn  at  the  distance  of  twenty-thii;'' and 
a  half  degrees  on  eacli  side  tne  4Wlior, 
that  on  the  north  side  called  tiie  Trupic  of 
Cancer,  that  on  the  south  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn. 

TROPICS  (in  Geography).  The  rejions 
on  the  earth  which  lie  within  the  trupical 
circles. 

TROUBADOURS.  Ancient  bards  of 
Provence  and  Noruiaiidy, 

TROVER.  An  action  which  a  man  has 
against  any  one  who,  having  found  his 
!;0'>ds,  or  haviiij  thfin  unjustly  In  his  pos- 
liesgion,  refuses  to  deliver  tli<-m  up. 

TROUGH.  A  hollow  piece  of  wood, 
which  serves  to  hold  water  or  any  other 
fluid. 

TROI  'T.    A  fish  of  the  salmon  tribe. 

TROWEL.  A  bricklayer's  tool  for 
spreading  mortar. 

TROY  WEIGHT.  A  weigh!  of  twelve 
ounces  to  the  pound,  twenty  penny- 
weights to  the  ounce,  and  twenty-four 
grains  to  the  pennyweight,  used  for  weigh- 
ing gold  and  silver.  It  is  so  called  from 
Troyea,  a  town  in  France. 

TRUCE.    A  suspension  of  hostilities. 

TRUFFLES.    A  sort  of  mushrmims. 

TRU.MPET.  The  loudest  of  all  wind 
instruments,  consisting  of  a  folded  tube, 
generally  of  brass 


TRUMPETER.  The  soldier  who  sounds 
•be  tnirniiet. 

TRU.MI'ETER-BIRD.  A  bird  of  South 
America,  so  called  from  its  hamh  cry,  like 
t  child's  triimpft. 

TRUSS  (in  Surgery).    An  elastic  lian- 


TUR 

dare  worn  in  ci^es  of  hernia  or  rupture* 

'J'RUSS  (anumj:  .Mariners).  A  machine 
for  pulling  a  yard  hiune  to  tlie  mast. 

TRUSS  (in  Coiiinierce).  A  bundle  of 
hay  or  straw,  containing  fifty-six  pounds 
of  ll.^y  and  thirty-six  pounds  of  straw. 

TR('ST(in  Law).  A  right  to  receive 
the  profits  of  land  ;  and  in  equity  to  dis- 
pase  of  the  land. 

TRU!<TEE  (in  Liw).  One  who  has  as 
estate  or  liioney  put  into  his  hands  for  the 
use  of  am  ther. 

TUBE.  Any  pipe  or  canal  which  serves 
as  a  pa.>isag«  for  air  or  any  other  fluid. 

TUFAS.    Beds  of  lime. 

TULIP.  A  kind  of  plants  which,  for 
the  diversity  and  beautiful  arrangement  o( 
their  colours  have  fetched  extraordinarily 
high  prices. 

TUMBRIL.    A  dung  cart. 

TUMOUR.  A  preternatural  or  hard 
swelling. 

TUN,  or  TON.  A  vessel  for  wine  and 
other  liquors  ;  also  a  ceruiin  measure  oj 
capacity,  containing  242  gallons  ;  also  a 
weight  equal  to  2240  pounds,  whereby  the 
burden  of  ships  is  estimated. 

TU.MC.  An  under  garment  In  use 
among  the  Romans. 

TUNING  (in  Music).  Rectifying  the 
false  sounds  of  musical  instruments. 

TUNISTEN.  An  opaque  mineral  of  a 
white  colour  and  great  weight,  composed 
of  lime  and  other  earthy  substances. 

TUN.NRL.  A  subterraneous  pjissage 
cut  through  hills,  mountains,  and  even  in 
some  rases  nnder  water. 

TURBOT.  A  sort  of  fish  inhabiiinsthe 
European  seas,  which  grows  sometimes 
to  thirty  pounds  weight. 

TURKEY.  A  larae  domestic  bird,  the 
young  iif  which  are  exeeedinsly  tender. 
The  cock  is  very  proud  and  irascible, 
and  struts  about  with  bis  tail  expanded, 
when  moved  either    by  pride  or  anger 


This  bird  is  fnnnd  In  a  wUd  state,  ID  tht 
western  country.  The  domestic  turkey 
is  llir  wild  turkey  tamed. 


ui/r 

njMERIC.  A  drug  proriirpd  from  an 
llldlao  tree,  the  ciirciiina  uf  Liiiiia:u8, 
Which  in  used  in  dyeing. 

TUSCAN  ORIIER.  An  order  of  ar- 
ChiCecturR  hrst  used  in  Tiiitcaiiy  in  Italy, 
wtilch  has  but  (ew  ornauienia  or  mould- 
ing. 


I'  M  R 


8&3 


Tl'SKS.  The  ^reat  Wetli  that  Mand 
out  in  a  hoar'8  mimth. 

TL'RNKR.  One  who  follows  the  art  of 
larnins.  The  coin|>:iny  of  turners  tn  lx>n- 
don,  was  incorporated  in  1603. 

Tt.'RNlNO.  The  art  of  forming  wood. 
Ivory,  and  other  hard  suhstanre!>  Into  a 
round  or  oval  shupe,  by  mean«  of  a  ma- 
ckine  called  a  lathe,  and  several  iii«tru- 


ments,  as  coiinrs,  cliiyete.  drills,  formen 
and  screw  t:iltr>,  Willi  wliitli  the  lurne: 
\v<irki<  llie  ihiiiii  into  llie  desired  foim,  an 
the  hitlie  i«  liirning. 

TURNPIKE.  A  gate  set  across  a  mtd. 
through  which  all  travellers  pasflngeithei 
on  horseback  or  in  a  conveyance,  must 
pay  loll;  also  Che  ruad  which  has  such  a 
gate. 

TURNSPIT.  A  sort  of  dog  that  used  t 
be  taught  to  turn  a  spit  before  the  intrt 
duction  of  smoke  jacks. 
:— TURPENTINE.  A  resinous  substance 
procured  from  different  H|iecies  of  ihe  piiu 
and  fir.  The  best  sort  grows  In  North 
America.  The  method  of  obtaining  it  i< 
by  making  a  series  uf  incisions  in  the  bnrk 
of  the  tree,  from  whicli  the  turpentine 
exudes,  and  falls  down  into  holes  orulhrr 
receptacles  prepared  to  catch  it. 

TURTLE.  A  species  of  the  tortoise  that 
mostly  inhabits  the  sea.  lu  fleiiU  is  held 
to  be  a  (rrat  delicacy. 

TURTLE  nuVE.    See  Don. 

TUTTY.     A  gray  oxide  ufziHC. 

TWELFTH  DAY,  or  ErirHAnt  The 
twelfth  day  after  Chrictmas. 

TWILIGHT.  That  (rt!ri<>d  of  light  fce 
Cween  dnrkness  and  the  rising  or  setting 
of  the  sun. 

TYMPAN.  A  frame  belonging  to  • 
printing  preiw. 

TY.MPAMUM.  The  drum  or  barrel  of 
the  ear,  in  which  are  lodged  the  bunca  uf 
I  be  ear. 

TYPES.  Pieces  of  metal  eol  or  cnsl, 
which  are  employed  in  printing. 

TYPHI'S.  A  violently coiitagiousfever, 
accompanied  with  a  tendency  in  all  the 
fluids  to  putrefaction. 

TYPOGRAPHY.  A  description  of  all 
that  relates  to  the  use  of  types  In  tfie 
formation  of  booksi  a  history  of  the  art 
f>f  printing. 


U,  the  Iwenty-flrst  letter  of  the  alphabet. 

lllltiUITV.  The  properly  of  l>eing 
•very   where;  the  attribute  of  G-.d. 

UDDER.  The  milk  bag  of  a  cow  or 
Other  four  footed  beast. 

U1X;ER.  a  purulent  wound  or  running 
•ore. 

ULLAGE.  A  want  of  measure  in  a  cask. 

ULTI.MATI'.M.  The  final  conditions 
en  which  any  party  consenis  to  treat  f«ir 
^•ce. 

l.rt.TRA.MARINE.    The  finest  sort  of 
Mue  paint,  prepared  from  laois  lazuli. 
S0» 


UMBET..  A  sort  of  lnflore»cenr»  lik* 
an  umbrella. 

UMBELLAT.1^.  One  of  the  Llnn.Tan 
n.-iturBl  orders,  comprehending  uiiihel- 
liferous  planu,  or  those  which  have  How- 
era  in  the  form  of  an  umbel,  as  fennel. dill, 
tec. 

UMBER.  A  dark  yellow  colour  used 
in  shading. 

U.MBRELLA.  A  kind  of  screen  held 
over  the  he.nd  to  keep  off  the  sun  and 
ram.  It  was  introduced  into  England  it 
the  close  uf  the  iiel  ct-iitiMy. 


854 


VAC 


UNA  VOCE.  Wit!,  one  voice,  unani- 
mously. 

UNCTIO.N.  Anointing  with  consecrated 
oil,  a  practice  aniung  the  Jews  in  conse- 
crating kings  and  priests;  also  still  in  use 
at  coronations,  and  in  tlie  Komish  church 
on  different  occasions.  The  .inointingnf 
persons  who  are  on  their  deathbed  is  cal- 
led extreme  unction. 

UNCTUOUS.  Oily,  or  like  an  oint- 
ment. 

UNDECAGO.V  A  figure  having  eleven 
tides. 

UNDER  SHKRIFF.  An  assistant  to 
the  high  sheriff. 

UNDERTAKERS.  Persons  who  con- 
duct funerals. 

UNDERTAKING  (in  I.aw).  An  en- 
gagement to  do  a  particular  thing. 

UNDERWRITER.  The  person  who 
undertakes  to  insure  against  losses  at  sea. 

UNDULATION.  '1  he  tremulous  or  vi- 
bratory motion  in  a  liquid. 

UNICORN.  An  animal  said  to  have 
DUt  one  horn  in  the  forehead. 

UNIKOR.MITV.  tine  form  of  public 
worship,  as  prescribed  by  dilfereiit statutes 
to  be  observed  in   Eiigtaiid. 

UNIuN.  The  bringing  of  two  countries 
under  one  form  of  eoverniiieiit,  as  the 
Union  of  England  :iiid  .~^cotland,  and  the 
Union  of  Great  Lirilain  aud  Ireland.  In 
the  United  !r=tales  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  confederation  of  the  several  states  un- 
der one  general  govern iiieiit. 

UNISON.  Unity  of  sound,  mostly  ap- 
plied to  that  which  proceeds  from  differ- 
ent voices. 

UNIT.  A  figure  expressing  the  number 
one. 

UNITARIAN-S,  Those  who  deny  the 
divinity  of  our  Saviour,  and  consequently 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

UNIVALVE.  A  shell  consisting  of  one 
valve  or  piece. 

UNIVERSITY.  An  institution  estab- 
lished by  public  authority  for  the  educa- 
tion of  you'.h  ill  tlie  liberal  arts,  and  con- 


VAD 

ferring  degrees  in  the  several  facDitiM 
In  Eimlaiid  an  university  consists  of  sev* 
ral  colleges  under  the  government  oft 
chancellor,  vicechancellor,  proctors,  and 
beadles,  besides  the  heads  of  the  severa 
houses,  as  in  the  universities  of  Cambridge 
and  Oxford. 

URANIUM.  A  newly  discovered  metal 
soft  and  brittle,  but  hardly  fusible  before 
the  hlirwpipe;  but  with  phosphate  of  soda 
and  ammonia  melts  into  a  grass-groen 
glass. 

URETER.  The  niem^ranous  canil 
which  C<invey8  the  urine  from  each  kid- 
ney to  the  urinary  lil;idder. 

URETHRA.  A  membranous  canal 
which  serves  as  a  (Kissage  lor  the  discharge 
of  tlie  urine. 

UR.\.  A  vessel  among  the  Romans,  in 
which  they  put  the  iiame.<  of  llui.-ie  who 
were  to  engage  at  the  public  games, 
taking  them  in  the  <iider  in  which  they 
were  drawn  out.  In  such  a  vessel  a  I. -^o 
they  threw  in  the  notes  of  their  votes  at 
the  ele>  tions. 

UI{.*<A.  The  name  of  two  northern 
constellations,  namely,  Ursa  Major  ai^ 
Ursa  .\Iin<ir,  the  t.'r«-at  .-ind  Little  Hear. 

URSIJS.  A  genus  of  animals  in  the 
Linnasan  system,  im  liidii:g  the  bear,  bad- 
gi-r,  racoon,  glutton,  ic. 

USANCE.  A  deleriiiinate  lime  fiTed 
fur  the  payment  uf  a  Mil  of  e.i(haii!!e, 
reckoned  either  friiin  the  day  of  ihe  lull's 
being  accepted,  or  from  the  day  of  its 
dale,  and  so  called  because  it  is  regnlaled 
by  the  usage  or  custom  of  the  place. 

USIIKR  (in  Law).  An  officer  who  has 
the  rare  and  direction  of  the  door  of  a 
court  or  hall. 

USHER  (in  Schools).  An  assistant  or 
lower  ina.'ster. 

USHER  OF  THE  RLACK  ROD  in 
England).  An  officer  who«e  business  it  is 
to  bear  the  rod  before  the  king  ,it  Ihe  feaat 
of  St.  George  and  other  solemniliea. 

USURY.  The  taking  more  interest  for 
the  loan  of  money  than  is  allowed  by  law 


V,  the  twenty-second  letter  in  Ihe  alpha- 
bet, stands  as  a  numeral  for  5,  and  former- 
ly with  a  diish  over  it,  thus  V,  for  .5000, 
as  an  abbreviation,  V.  G.  Veibi  gratia, 
V   L.  videlicet,  &.c. 

VACANCY  fin  Law).  A  postorbene- 
fire  wan<ing  the  regular  officer  or  incum- 
bent. 

VACATION  (In  Law).  The  period  be- 
tween tJie  end  of  one   term   and   ihe  be- 


ginning of  another:  and  the  same  Ir  iht 
UiiivrrsJiies. 

VACCINATION.  Inoculation  with 
the  cow  pox,  intended  as  a  prmerr- 
ative  against  infection  from  tha  small 
pox. 

VACIL'M  (in  Philosophy).  A  ipM* 
supposed  to  be  deruid  of  all  matter  Of 
body. 

VADE   MECUM.     The   name  of  any 


VAR 

MMl  book  that  may  b«  carried  about  with 
one. 

VAGRANTS  (in  haw).  Becsan,  strol- 
ling and  idle  persons  who  wander  from 
ylare  to  pl.-ice. 

VAI.ET.  Formerly  a  young  gentleman 
of  faiiiUy,  but  now  applied  to  a  serving- 
man  of  low  degree. 

VALLAR  CROWN.  A  crown  bestowed 
among  the  Romans  on  a  general  who  6rst 
entered  an  enemy's  camp. 


VEN 


SM 


VAI.VE.  A  kind  of  lid  or  cover  to  a 
tube  or  vessel,  contrived  to  open  one  way. 

VAI-VRS{inConchology).  'flip  princi- 
pal pieces  of  which  a  shell  is  tuniposed; 
by  their  I'hells  Ihey  are  distinguished  into 
univalves,  fur  sip  h  a*  have  only  one  piece; 
bivalves,  for  those  that  have  two  ineces; 
and  mullivalves,  for  those  that  have  three 
or  mure  pirces. 

VAI.VK,  S/iFETT  An  orifice  which 
allows  the  escape  of  steam  when  the 
pressure  is  so  great  as  to  endanger  liie 
apparatus. 

VAMPIRE  An  animal  of  the  bat 
tribe.  . 

VAN  (In  the  Army)  The  front  of  the 
army,  or  the  first  line. 

VAN  <in  the  Navy).  The  foremost 
division  of  a  naval  armament. 

VANE.  A  device  on  the  top  of  build- 
ings to  show  the  direction  nf  the  wind. 

VAPOl'R.  A  watery  exhalation  that, 
being  rarefied  by  heat,  ascends  to  a  cer- 
tain lieiglit  in  the  atmosphere. 

VASE.    An  ornamental  urn 


V.ASES  (in  Architecture.).  Om.tmento 
p«ired  on  cornices,  socl««.  or  [irriiiiirnis. 
repiesenting  such  vessels  as  the  ancient* 
■sed  in  sart  fices.  A.c. 

VARIATION  (in  Ceognpliy  and  .Navi 


gallon).  A  deviation  of  the  magndieai 
needle  in  the  mariner's  ccmimsa. 

VARIETY.  Any  individual  plant  or 
animal  that  diflers  from  Die  re«l  uf  (ha 
species  In  some  accidental  circumstanrea. 

VARIORUM  EUITIO.NS.  Editions  of 
the  Greek  and  l.atln  authors,  with  tha 
notes  or  different  critics. 

VARNISH.  A  thick,  viscid,  shining 
liquor,  used  by  painter*  and  other  artifi 
cers  to  pive  a  ploes  to  Iheir  wurks.  Ke«in 
M  the  principal  coiistiliieiit  nf  varnish. 

VECRTAIILE.  An  orc:iiiii  lM>dy  desti 
tiite  of  sense  and  sponlaneinis  iiiotion,  but 
furnished  with  pnres  nd  vessels,  hy  the 
help  of  which  it  draws  uoiirishmeiit  from 
other  bodies. 

VKGKTARI.E  .MARROW.  The  fniil 
of  a  plant  of  the  gourd  kind  growing  in 
Persia.  Its  flesh  is  very  tender,  sol),  and 
of  a  hiitterv  i|uality. 

VEIN  (among  Miners).  A  spare  con- 
taining ores,  s(>ar,  clay,  tec.  -.  when  it 
bears  ore  it  is  called  a  quick  vein,  when 
no  ore  a  dead  vein. 

V"EI.Ns»  (III  Anatomy).  The  long  mem- 
braneous canals  which  return  the  ti!iiod 
(Vom  the  arteries  to  the  heart. 

VELLUM.  'J'he  finest  kind  nf  parch- 
ment. 

VELOCITY.  That  affection  of  motion 
whereby  a  moveable  body  is  disptced  to 
run  over  a  certain  space  in  a  certain  lime. 

VELVET.  A  sort  of  fine  shagged  silk 
or  cotton. 

VENA  CAVA,  the  Hollow  Veis  (In 
Anatomy).  The  largest  vein  in  the  iMidy, 
so  called  from  its  great  cavily  or  hi.ll-.w 
space  into  which,  .is  a  common  channel 
all  the  lesser  veins,  except  llie  piilniKiia- 
ris,  empty  themselves.  This  vein  rereivrs 
the  blood  from  the  liver  and  other  parts, 
and  carries  it  to  the  bean. 


VENEERING  A  kind  of  Inlaying  rf 
thin  sllres  of  fine  wiimIs  of  dlfTerrnl  kin*' 
niid  colours. 


S56 


VEK 


VENA  POKTA.  The  great  vein  (IIUBt- 
•d  U  Um  entrance  of  ibe  liver 


VENTILATOR  A  etintri van ce  for  sup- 
plying r(M>ins  with  fresh  air. 

VENTRICLE.  A  cavity  of  the  heart  or 
brain. 

VENTRILOaUIST.  One  who  liy  art, 
or  liy  a  particular  cdiifomiaiiiin  nl'  organs, 
is  enahled  in  8|>eaking  to  make  the  sound 
a|ipear  to  come  from  the  stomach,  or  from 
a  distance. 

VENUE  (in  Law).  The  neighbourhood 
whence  juries  are  to  be  ^uuuaoned  for  the 
trial  of  causes. 

VENUS.  The  goddess  of  beauty,  and 
laughter  of  Jupiter. 

VEDAS.  Tlic  ancient  Racred  litera- 
ture of  the  Hindoo.s,  or  the  Hindoo 
Scripture.^;  tbo  lour  oldest  sacred  books 
of  Mie  Uiiidoo.s. 

VELOCIPEDE.  A  sort  of  macliino 
Avith  two  wlieel.x,  i)laced  one  before  the 
other,  and  coiuucied  by  a  beam,  on 
■which  a  ver.son  .sit.i  nst'rido:  and  the 
veliicle  ih  iiropelletl  by  the  muscular 
jiowerof  tlie  rider  nctiiij?  upon  treadles 
and  lever.s,  whieli  comiuuuicate  with  a 
cranked-wijeel  axle. 

VEJsUS.  In  a.strononiy.  a  brilliant 
planet,  the  .second  in  onler  of  distance 
from  the  sun,  and  the  most  brilliant 
of  all  the  planetary  bodies.  Her  dis- 
tiinco  from  the  suu  is  about  e8,000,000 
iuile«. 

VER>[ICULTTE.  A  mineral  which 
con.sists  of  niicaccous-lookinu:  jdate.s, 
wjmposed  of  .>.ilica.  niainiesia,  peroxide 
of  iron,  alumina,  and  water. 

VEPRECUL^.  One  of  Linnn>ug's  na- 
tural orders,  containing  hriarlike  plants, 
as  the  bramble,  thorn,  &.c. 

VERB.  A  part  of  speech  nhich  serves 
to  express  action,  passion,  or  existence  ;  it 
ia  cither  active,  passive,  or  neuter. 

VERBATIM.  Word  for  word. 

VERDEGRIS.  An  acetate  of  copper 
■sed  as  a  pigment ;  it  is  the  rust  of  brass 
gathered  by  laying  plates  of  that  metal  in 
beds  with  the  husks  of  pressed  grapes,  and 
then  Bcrapinc  it  ofTilie  plate.s. 

VERrucT.  Tliv  report  or  determination 
afajiir)'  u|Km  any  cause. 

VERDH  ER.  A  grr en  taint. 


VES 

VEROE.  In  England,  the com.AMof  the 
king's  court. 

VElUIEll.  In  Rnuland,  .in  officer  of  • 
court  or  a  calhednil,  who  carries  a  rod 
before  the  judge  or  the  bishop 

VERJUICE,  'i'he  expressed  juice  of  th» 
wild  apple  or  crab. 

VER.ME!?.  Worms,  a  class  of  animala 
in  the  LinniTan  system,  that  are  slow  ol 
motiim,  of  a  soft  substance,  extremely 
tenacious  of  life,  capable  of  reproducing 
parts  that  have  been  destroyed,  and  in- 
habiting moist  pl.'ices. 

VERMICELLI.  An  Italian  dish. 

VERSE.  A  line  ni  |K)eiry,  consisting  of 
a  number  of  long  and  short  syllables  ;  alic 
the  division  of  a  chapter  in  the  Bible. 

VERSIPICATIO.N.  The  art  and  prac- 
tice of  making  verses. 

VERSION.  A  translation  out  of  one 
language  into  anotlier. 

VERT.  In  Elngland,  every  thing  in  a 
forest  that  bears  a  green  leaf  which  may 
serve  as  a  cover  for  deer. 

VERT  (in  Herahlo).  The  colour  of 
green  on  coats  of  arms,  repre.sented  in 
engraving  by  lines  drawn  from  the  dexter 
chief  to  the  sinister  base. 

VERTEBRiE.  A  chain  of  little  bones 
reaching  from  the  neck  down  to  the  back, 
and  forming  the  spine. 

VERTE.X  (in  Coometry).  The  top  of 
any  line  or  figure,  as  the  vertex  of  a 
triansle. 

VERTEX  (in  Anatomy).  The  crown  of 
the  head. 

VKRTICVL.  Pertaining  to  the  vertex 
or  zenith :  a  star  is  said  to  be  vertica 
when  it  is  in  the  r.euith. 

VERTICAL  CIRCLE.  A  great  circle 
of  the  sphere  passing  through  the  zenith 
and  nadir,  and  cutting  the  horizon  at  right 
angles. 

VERTICAL  POLNT  (in  .Astronomy/ 
That  point  in  the  heavens  which  is  ovei 
our  heads,  otherwise  called  the  zenith. 

VERTICELLAT^E.  One  of  the  Lin- 
na'an  natural  orders  of  plants,  including 
tho.se  whose  flowers  grow  in  the  form  of  a 
whorl,  as  the  mint,  &c. 
VERTIGO.  Giddiness. 
VERVAIN.  A  perennial,  •  sort  of 
mallow 

VESICLE.  Any  small  vf  ssels,  either  la 
the  animal  body  or  in  plants. 

VESPERS.  The  evening  prayers  in  the 
Romish  church. 

VESPERTILIO.  A  genus  of  animal* 
In  the  Linna-nn  system,  comprehendinj 
the  species  of  the  bat  and  the  vampire. 

VKSSRL.  Any  sort  of  utensi'  used  fol 
holding  liqtiid«. 


VET 

VKSSKl,  (among  Mariners).  Every  kind 
of  Hhi|i,  iHT'^e  or  small,  lliat  serves  lo  carry 
men  or  gduils  on  water. 

VI**SKI,S  (in  Aiialoiny).  The  conduits 
or  canals  lor  conveyiin;  llie  bl<M«l  or  oilier 
Juices  U)  tlie  dllferent  parts  ol'  ilie  animal 
body,  as  the  arteries,  veins,  &c. 

VKSSKLS  (in  Holany).  'I'lie  channels 
or  reservoirs  which  convey  llie  sap  or  air 
to  ditlerenl  parts  of  plants  tor  their  nutri- 
Bipnt. 

VKSTA  (in  tlie  Heathen  Mythology). 
The  dan^^iter  of  Khea  and  Saturn,  and 
the  Eoddesti  of  fire. 

VEST.\.  A  newly  discovered  planet. 

VKSTAL  VIRCJLVS.  Priestesses  lo  the 
goddess  Vesta  among  the  Romans,  to  whom 
was  coinniitled  the  care  of  the  vestal  tire. 

VKS'l'lltUNE.  'i'he  entrance  to  a  house, 
or  au  open  spar*  liefore  a  door. 

VtV^'I'iBL'LUM.  A  cavity  in  the  bone 
of  tiie  ear. 

VESTKY.  A  small  aiKirtment  adjoining 
a  church,  where  the  vestments  of  the 
clersyinan  are  kept,  and  where  the  pa- 
rishioners as3enil>le  for  the  discharge  of 
parochial  business  ■,  also  the  persons  assem- 
bled in  the  vestry.  In  England,  a  select 
vestry  is  a  certain  number  of  |>ersoiis  |»er- 
maneutly  appointed  to  conduct  the  allairs 
of  the  parish,  who  are  chosen  from  among 
tlie  higher  orders,  and  fill  up  their  own 
vacancies. 

VESTRY  CLERK.  A  scrivener  who 
keeps  llie  parish  accounts. 

VEt>TRy.\IE.\.  .Members  of  the  vestry 
who  conduci  ilie  affairs  of  the  parish. 

VESLfVIAN.  A  mineral  found  in  lava, 
especially  on  Mount  Vesuvius,  which  is 
often  ctmfounded  with  hyacinth  ;  the  prim- 
itive form  of  its  crystal  is  a  culie 

VETCH.  A  kind  of  pulse  or  peas,  bear- 
ing a  papilionaceous  flower. 

VETERINARY  ART,  otherwise  called 
Fakribbt.  Tlie  art  of  managing  ciittle, 
and  curing  their  diseases,  whence  a  vete- 
rinary surgeon,  vulgarly  called  a  horse 
doctor  or  farrier,  and  the  veterinary  col- 
lege, where  horses  are  taken  in  for  cure, 
and  persons  resort  to  acquire  practice  and 
information  in  all  that  relates  to  the  care 
of  anim{ils.  The  principal  diseases  to  which 
horses  are  subject  are  the  water  farcy,  or 
dropsy  of  the  skin  ;  ascites,  or  dropsy  itf 
the  belly  ;  broken  wind,  supposed  to  arise 
from  a  rupture  of  the  cells  in  the  lungs  ; 
cncks  in  the  heels,  from  gross  habit  or 
from  filth  ;  farcy,  an  inlVclion  of  the  skin  ; 
foot  foundering,  wnen  a  horse  is  unable  to 
rest  on  any  of  his  feet ;  greasy  heels,  fmm 
weakness  or  overlalviur  ;  lani|>ers,  a  sweM- 
lag  of  the  bars  in  the  rix.fof  the  nioiiiM  ; 


VIC 


837 


mange,  an  affection  of  the  skin,  u  hen  tiM 
hair  falls  off;  Rt.-igyers,  a  sort  of  Iciliaigy, 
and  mad  slagiiers,  a  sort  of  I'run/.y  from 
a  preiisure  on  the  brain  ;  strangles,  a  dis- 
ease attended  wiili  a  fever,  coiigli,  and 
rnnningat  the  nutie  ;  ilirusb,  a  discharge 
fr(nii  the  frog  of  the  fool ,  pole  evil,  arising 
from  friction  of  the  collar  ai  the  biick  of 
the  ears  ;  besides  intlammatiims,  fevers, 
dysenteries,  and  other  disorders  which 
they  have  in  common  with  human  sub- 
jects. 

VETIJRINO.  A  hirer  of  horses  in  Italy; 
also  a  guide  to  travellers. 

V.  G.  Verbi  gnitia,  as  for  instance. 

VIA   LACTEA.  The  milky  way. 

VIBRATIO.V.  The  alternate  motion  of 
any  suspended  body,  like  the  pendulum  of 
a  clock,  which  swings  this  way  and  then 
that.  The  regular  motion  of  tbe  |ieiiduluin 
of  a  clock  is  3600  vibrations  in  an  lioiir 
Vibration  is  also  a  quivering  uioiion  that 
acts  by  quick  returns. 

VICAR  (in  England).  One  that  acts  in 
the  stead  of  another-,  more  particularly 
taken  for  the  parson  of  a  (loriiih  where  the 
tithes  are  impropriated. 

VICE  (in  Smitliery).  An  instrdment 
used  for  hold  ingfiusi  any  piec«  of  iron  whick 
the  artificer  ia  working  upon. 


VICE  (among  Claziers).  A  machine  for 
drawing  lead  into  Hat  rods  for  case  win 
dows. 

VICE.  In  the  stead  or  tnm  ;  hence  the 
comiHiunds  vire-gerent,  vice-admiral,  &c. 

VICEAD.MIRAE.  In  England,  the  se- 
cond commander  in  a  fleet ;  the  ad  niinil  who 
commands  the  second  squadron  in  a  fleet. 

VICECHAMBERl-AIN.  In  England, 
the  oflicer  next  to  the  chamberlain,  who 
acts  in  his  stead. 

VICECHANCELLOR.  In  England,  nn 
officer  appointed  to  assist  the  Lortl  Chan- 
cellor; in  the  tJi  iversities,  ihi-  su|»rior 
acting  iifficer,  whi  performs  llie  diities  i-f 
the  Clhancellor. 

VICr.CEREN'T  A  governor  acting  with 
a  delecaied  powrr 

VICKUoV.  The  lord  lieutenant  oS  • 
kingdom,  as  the  Viceroy  of  Ireland. 


s&d 


VIP 


VICE  VERSA.  On  the  cjn'/ary,  the 
llde  being  turned  or  changed. 

VIDELICET,  generally  written  Vii. 
That  18,  namely. 

VI  ET  A  KM  IS  (in  Lnw).  By  force  of 
arms,  terms  in  an  indicinient  charging  a 
forcible  and  violent  commission  of  tres- 
pass. 

Vlflllj.  The  service  used  in  the  Romish 
church  on  tlie  iiigiit  preceding  a  liolyday. 

VIGUjS.  Certain  fasis  preceding  festi- 
vals. 

VIG.\ETTE.  A  frontispiece,  or  an  or- 
namental picture  preceding  the  title  page. 

VILLAINS  (in  England;.  Men  of  base 
and  servile  condition,  who  in  the  feudal 
times  were  immediately  attached  to  the 
^aiid,  and  bound  to  the  lord  to  do  services 
for  him. 

VINCULUM  (in  Algebra).  A  mark  or 
line  drawn  over  a  quantity,  thus,  a-l-b, 
deiiotin!!  it  to  be  one  i|uantitv 

VI.XE.  A  plant  that  tloiirlsbes  most  in 
warm  countries,  as  Italy,  Spainj  Portugal, 
and  Krance,  where  its  cultivation  forms  a 
part  of  husbandry  It  grows  in  those  parts 
in  the  o|>eii  fields,  and  is  not  suffered  to 
rise  much  higher  than  gooseberry  or  cur- 
rant bushes.  The  fruit  of  the  vine  is  tliere 
an  important  article  of  trade. 

VINEGAR.  Wine  or  any  other  liquor 
exposed  to  the  sun,  until  it  is  become  arid. 
In  this  country  vinegar  is  chiefly  made 
from  cider 

VINEYARD.  A  place  set  apart  for  the 
cultivation  of  tlie  vine. 

VIOL.     Alniisical  stringed  instrument. 

VIOLLV  A  common  musical  stringed 
instrument,  which  reijuires  great  skill  in 
tbe  performer  to  make  it  agreeable 


VIOLONCELLO      A  small  bass  viol. 

VIPER.    An  animal  of  the  snsKe  tribe 

ike  bite  of  which  is  more  or  'ess  venomous 


•▼ery  wVra^  id  hot  cnuntrie*  il  is  almost 
Inaiantly  fauil 


VIR 

VIOLET  A  plant  hearing  a  blue  sweet 
scented  flower;  also  the  colour  of  the  vio- 
let, or  purple. 

VIRGO.  The  sixth  sign  of  the  zodiac, 
■narked  thus  TTj^,  and  a  consiellation  cim- 
taining  from  32  to  110  stars,  according  to 
ditTerent  authors. 

VIRTUOSO.  One  skilled  in  antique  or 
natural  curiositiea  -,  a  lover  of  the  liberal 
arts. 

VISCERA.    The  intestines. 

VIS  INERTIiE.  The  power  in  bodies 
that  are  in  a  state  of  rest,  to  resist  any 
change  tliat  is  endeavoured  to  be  maJe 
upon  them  to  change  their  state.  This, 
according  to  Newton,  is  implauted  in  all 
matter. 

VISCOUNT  (in  England).  A  nobleman 
next  in  degree  to  an  earl.  The  first  vis- 
count was  created  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI 

VISCOUNT'S  CORONET.  Has  nei- 
ther flowers  nor  points  raised  aimve  the 
circle,  like  those  of  superior  degree,  bu" 
only  pearls  placed  on  the  circle  itaelf. 


VISCUS.    Any  organ  having  an  appr 
priate    use   in   the  human   body,  as  th 
liver,  tiall,  bladder,  &c.  ;  but  particularl} 
the  inie.stines. 

VISION.  The  sensation  in  the  brain 
produced  by  the  rays  of  light  passing  of 
acting  on  the  optic  nerves  of  llie  eye. 

VISITATION  (in  England).  An  act  of 
jurisdiction,  whereby  the  bishop  once  in 
three  years,  and  the  archdeacmi  once 
every  year,  visits  the  churches  within  liii 
diocess  or  d  istrict,  to  see  that  the  disciplin* 
of  the  church  is  observed 

VISITOR  (in  Law).  An  lns|)ector  into 
the  government  of  a  corporation. 

VISUAL  ANGLE.  An  angle  under 
which  an  object  is  seen. 

VISUAL  POINT.  A  point  In  the  hori 
zontal  line  wherein  all  the  ocular  rayi 
unite. 

VITAL  ATR,  now  called  Oitoeh 
The  air  of  which  the  .itmosphere  is  prin 
cipally  cojipnsed,  which  is  essential  to 
the  stippoit  of  life  in  animals  and  pl.ints. 

VITAL  FUNCTIONS.  Those  functions 
or  faculties  of  the  body,  on  which  life 
immediately  depends. 

VIHTREOUS  HUMOUR.  The  pelliicid 
body  which  Ar«  the  whole  bulb  of  llM 
eye  behind  the  crystalline  lens. 


VITRIOL,  A  suit,  of  a  very  ciiiislic 
taste,  h  is  a  smlpliate  geiicrully  fnuiKl  in 
minea  in  a  ra|iill;iry  state,  or  in  a  loose 
powdery  ellloresreiice.  Tlie  tliree  princi- 
pal sorts  are  llie  green  vitriol,  copperas, 
or  siilpliate  ot'  irnn;  the  bine  vitriol,  or 
sulphate  »(  copper;  \nd  the  white  vitriol, 
or  tiiilpliiile  of /.inc. 

VITKIOL,  (JiL  01-.  Sulphuric  acid. 

VITUS' l>A»\Cli,  or  St.  Vitui'Dakcb. 
A  nervous  disease  accDinpanied  with  in- 
▼oluntary  eesticulatioiis. 

VIVA   VOCE      Uy  word  of  month. 

VIVIPAROUS.  An  epithet  for  animals 
which  bring  forth  living  yonni;. 

VOCAL  MUSK'.  Musical  sounds  pro- 
ceeding from  the  human  voice;  also  com- 
positions f<ir  the  voice. 

VtiCATIVK  CASE.  The  fifth  case  In 
Latin  nouns. 

VOLATILE.  An  epithet  for  Indies  that 
are  apt  to  evaporate. 

VOLATILE  ALKAI-IES.  Ammonia 
and  rarlutnic  arid. 

VOLATILIZATION.  The  process  by 
which  liodies  are  resolved  into  air. 

VOLt'.ANO.  A  burning  mountain,  such 
as  Vesuvius,  if^tna,  and  llecia,  in  Kurope; 
which  send  forth  flame,  ashes,  lava,  stones, 
•moke,  &c. 

VOLTAIC  BATTERY.    Pee  Bitt*bt. 

VOLUME  (in  Music).  The  compass  of 
a  voice  from  grave  to  acute. 

VOLUME  (in  Literature)  A  book,  or 
any  thing  folded  Into  the  fonn  of  a  book. 

VOLUNTARY  (in  Music).  An  extem- 
porary performance  upon  the  organ,  intro- 
duced as  an  incidental  part  uf  divine 
service. 

VOLUTE.  A  spiral  scroll  In  the  Ionic 
tnd  Composite  capitals. 

VOMICA.     See  Nut  Vomica. 

VOWEL.  A  letter  which  affords  a  com- 
plete sound  of  itself. 

VOX  POPULL  The  popular  or  uni- 
versal opinion. 

VULGATE.  .A  very  ancient  Latin  trans 
iMlonof  the  Bible,  which  was  translated 


\V  A  F 


359 


from  the  Creek  of  the  .Sopliiaginl.  It  is 
the  only  one  ackiiowUdged  by  the  Kuinub 
chiiri'h  to  he  authentic. 

VULCAN.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Junn, 
and  the  god  of  ftre.  lie  is  comimuily  re- 
presented Willi  a  hamiaer,  anvil  ^c. 


VULTURE.  A  bird  common  In  al! 
warm  climates,  that  lives  chiefly  on  putrici 
flesh,  and  is  very  useful  in  removing  hltli, 
that    would   otherwise    pro<luc«  disease 


The  tnrk«y  buzzard,  common  In  the 
southern  states,  is  a  species  of  vulture  so 
useful  in  clearing  away  offensive  mat 
ter,  as  to  be  protected  by  law  in  large 
cities 


W. 


W,  the  twenty -third  letter  of  the  alphabet, 
composed  of  two  Vs.  It  was  not  known 
o  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  or  Romans,  being 
peculiar  to  the  I'eutones  and  other  north- 
ern tribes 

W.\CKE.     An  argfllaeeoQi  eartb. 

WADD     Phunbago    or     Mack     lead. 


Black  wadd  Is  an  orenf  manganese,  found 
in  Derbyshire  in  England. 

WADDI.N'G.  A  stopple  of  paper  or  tow 
forced  into  a  gun,  lo  ke«p  »n  the  powdei 
and  shot.  ^ 

WAFER.  Paste  made  of  flour,  eggs 
Isinglass,  tic.  cut  Into  a  thin  roaiid  cake 


»eo 


W  AL 


and  coloured,  for  the  purptise  of  Mciilliig 
etters. 

WAFER  (in  the  UojiiUh  ("hurclO.  A 
thin  piece  of  consecrnleil  hreail  used  at 
the  h(i)y  rite  of  the  sacrament. 

W.AGXEKI'rE.  A  rare  mineral  rc- 
8enil)liiiir  the  IJrazilJHii  tojia/. 

WALLERITE.  A  variety  of  ortho- 
clase.  found  in  small  ooinpact  masses, 
yellowish  and  translucent. 

AVALL-PLATE.  In  architecture,  a 
piece  of  timber  lyinj:  on  a  wall,  on 
■which  girders,  ioists,  &c.,  rewt. 

WAKWICKITE.  A  mineral  cou- 
tainiu<i'  titauium. 

WAGES.  Money  paid  for  labour. 

WACrGON.  A  large  kind  of  four- 
wheeled  conveyance,  much  used  in  hus- 
bandry. 


WAGTAIL.  A  bird  that  U  continually 
wagging  its  tail. 

WAIF!?  (in  England).  Goods  stolen,  and 
afterwards  waived  or  abandoned,  which 
are  forfeited  to  the  king. 

WAIST.  That  part  of  a  ship  between 
the  quarterdeck  and  forecastle 

WAITERS  (in  Law).  Otficers  appointed 
to  see  that  go<ids  are  not  landed  clandes- 
tinely. Those  who  go  on  board  the  vessels 
ire  called  tide-waiters  ;  those  who  do  this 
4uty  on  shore  are  land  waiters. 

WAITS.  In  England,  nightly  musicians, 
who  go  their  rounds  in  the  night-time  and 
play  just  betbre  C"hri.st)nas. 

WAl.KINt;  LEAF.  A  sineular  in.sect 
of  China,  that  has  a  neck  longer  than  the 
rest  of  the  body. 

WALLFLOWER.  A  plant  bearing  a 
sweet-scented  flower. 

WALRUS.  An  animal  of  the  seal  kind 
Inhabitingthe  northern  seas,  which  in  form 
resembles  an  ox. 


WALTZ.  A  particular  kind  of  dance, 
|atrodac«4  Into  England  from  Germany 


WAS 

It    Is    nioslly   pirftirriied    by   the    partMt 
going  will)  niea!>iired  steps  in  circles. 
WAl'EKTAKK.  'I'he  same  as  a  Hvh 

DREO. 

WARD  (in  Law)-  A  district  or  portion 
of  a  city  committed  to  the  ward  or  spectal 
charge,  of  one  of  the  aldermen  ;  also  one 
in  the  care  of  a  guardian,  or  in  particular 
cases  in  England,  under  the  special  care  of 
the  court  of  (,'hancery. 

WARDEN  (in  England).  One  who  liiia 
the  charge  or  keeping  of  any  person  <irthinjj 
by  virtue  of  his  oltice.  as  the  warden  nf 
the  Fleet,  who  has  charge  of  the  prisoners 
committed  there  ;  so  likewise  the  warden 
of  a  college,  or  the  warden  ol  the  C'inipie 
Ports,  &c. 

WARDMOTE.  The  court  of  each  ward 
in  the  city  of  Lond(ui. 

WARDROBE.  A  place  for  keeping 
clothes  ;  al.<o  the  clothes  themselves. 

WARDROBE,  Tlerk  of  the.  In  Eng- 
land, an  otticer  who  takes  charge  of  the 
king's  wardrobe. 

WAREHOl'SE.  A  place  where  mer- 
chandises are  kept. 

WARNING  WIIEEF,.  The  third  or 
fourth  wheel  of  a  clock,  according  to  its 
distance  from  the  first  wheel. 

WARP.  The  thread  e.vtended  lengthwise 
on  the  weaver's  loom,  which  is  cr(«.-ied  by 
the  workman  in  funning  the  clotli,  stuff 
or  silk. 

WARRANT  (in  Law).  A  writ  com- 
manding an  officer  of  Justice  to  take  up 
any  offender. 

WARRANT  OF  ATTORNEY.  An 
authority  given  to  an  attorney  by  hit 
client  to  ap|)ear  and  plead  for  him. 

WARRANT,  Kress  (in  the  Navy)  In 
England  is  issued  by  the  admiraU^v,  au- 
thori/.ing  an  officer  to  impress  seamen. 

WARRANTING  (among  Ilorsedealers) 
An  assurance  given  by  the  seller  to  the 
buyer,  that  the  horse  sold,  is  free  from  al 
defects  at  the  time  of  sale. 

WARREN  (in  Lawl.  In  Englard,  a 
franchise  or  privileged  place  for  keeping 
beasts  and  fowls  of  the  warren,  aa  hares 
partridges,  and  pheasants. 

WART.  A  s|iongy  substance  growing 
near  the  eye  of  a  liorsp. 

WASHI>.  A  dangerous  shore  in  Nor 
folk,  England. 

WASHING  (aniongGoldsniiths).  Draw- 
ing particles  r.f  silver  and  gold  out  of  ashes 

WASHINt;  (among  Painters).  Cohmr- 
ing  a  pencil  design  with  one  colour,  aa 
Indian  ink,  kc 

WASi*.  A  »liiigiiig  insert  resembling  a 
l)«e. 

\V.\s  TE  (in  La\c/     A  .-jmiiI  or  destrice- 


W  A  T 

ton  mnile  in  limises,  woods,  and  binds, by 
•JUe  tenant  for  life  or  years. 

WA^TE  Bi  >()K.  A  b<mk  contniiiine  an 
■ccount  of  ii  merrhaiil's  Iraiisaclions  in 
the  order  of  time  as  lliey  occur. 

WASTE-L.A.NUS  Such  a^  are  not  In 
any  man's  occu|i:ition.  that  lie  roninion. 

VVATOII  (In  the  Navy).  Tlie  space  of 
lime  duriiiz  which  one  division  nf  the 
ship's  crew  remains  on  deck,  to  keep 
watch  at  night. 

WATCH  (in  the  Pidice).  Persons  ap- 
pointed U)  euard  tlie  streets  or  particular 
places  at  night 

WATCH.  A  small  portable  machine, 
constructed  with  wheels,  that  serves  to 
show  the  hour  of  the  day.  A  watch  con- 
sists of  a  spiral  steel  sprinp,  which  is  the 
movin"  power:  the  Utrrel,  a  biass  bo.x, 
for  receiving  the  spring  when  coiled  up; 
the  worm-wheel,  which  is  turned  round 
by  a  Wonri;  the  fusee,  which  receives  the 
ch.iin  when  the  watch  is  wound  up;  the 
ratchet  wheel,  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
fusee;  the  !;reat  wheel,  which  has  forty- 
eight  teelh;  the  centre  wheel,  whicli  has 
fifty-four  teeth;  the  third  wheel,  which 
has  forty-eight  teeth;  the  centrate  wheel, 
which  has  forty  eight  teeth:  and  the  bal- 
ance wheel,  which  has  fifteen  teeth:  lie- 
sides  the  arbour  of  the  balance  wheel, 
called  the  verge,  and  the  two  pallets  be- 
longing to  this  arbour,  &c. 

VV  A TCIl-O LASS.  Hour  and  half-hour 
glasses  of  s-ind,  employed  on  board  vessels 
to  measure  the  period  of  the  watcb 


W'  .\  T 


»:i 


WATCHMAKER.  One  who  pats  to^ 
gether  the  different  parts  of  a  watch,  so 
as  to  make  the  whole  machine  act. 

WATER.  A  simple  substance  in  the 
opinion  of  the  ancients,  and  one  of  the 
five  e»eir»ents.  It  is  now  considered  as  a 
compound  fluid  consisting  of  two  gases, 
hyd.-ogen  gas  and  oxygen  eas. 

WATER  (among  Lapidaries).  The  lus 
tre  of  precious  stimes. 

WATER  (among  Manufacturers).  A 
lustre  imitating  waves,  set  on  silks,  mo- 
kair.  Sec. 

WATER  (among  Farriers).  A  filthy 
b-imotir  Issuing  fn^m  a  wound  in  a  horse. 

WATER-liAILIFK  (in  law).  An  •■tfi- 
e<-r  in  seaport  town-  who  searches  sbijw, 
3! 


and  in  I-omlon  has  particular  charge  of  lb* 
tish  brought  to  market. 

WATKRCOLUl  US.  Colours  made  of 
water  instead  of  oil.  The  principal  of  th« 
water  colours  are  as  follow:  White — Co- 
ruse,  white  lead,  SikiuliIi  white,  fiak<> 
white,  siKidiuin  :  Bl:tck— Uurul  clierr> 
stones,  ivory  Mack,  Ininp  black  .  Gieeii- 
(Ireeii  bice,  green  verditer,griis.'<green,sap 
green,  verdiprise  distllleit  :  Blue — Sanders 
blue,  teire  liliir,  blue  verdiler.  indisu  lit- 
mus, smalt,  Prussian  blue,  llsilil  liluc,  ul- 
tiniiiariiie,  blue  bice:  Krowii — Spanish 
brown,  Spanish  lit|uorice,  umber,  bistre, 
terra  de  Sienna  burnt  and  iinbunit.  Red — 
.Native  cinnatiar,  burnt  ochre,  Imtian  red. 
red  lead,  iiiiiiium,  lake,  veniiilion,  car 
mine,  red  ink,  Indian  lake:  Yellow  —  Rug. 
lish  ochre,  gall  stones,  gamboge,  iiiastinit, 
ochre  de  luce,  orpinieiit,  Roman  ochre, 
Dutch  pink,  suff'ron  water,  king's  yellow, 
go!d  yellow,  French  berries. 

WATER  COCRSE.  Any  n.ilural  or 
artificial  stream  of  water,  as  a  liver,  a 
canal,  and  the  like. 

WATER  IIE.V.  An  European  bird  thai 
swims  well,  and  runs  swiftly  on  the  land. 

WATER  LEVEL.  A  kind  of  level  used 
in  agriculture  for  finding  tlic  level  of  niads 
or  gniunds  by  means  of  a  surface  of  water 
or  other  fluid,  founded  on  the  principle 
that  water  always  finds  its  own  level.  It 
consists  of  a  Umg  wooden  trough,  as  rep- 
resented underneath,  which,  being  filled 
with  water,  shows  the  line  of  level. 


W.ATERMAN  One  who  plies  With  • 
boat  U|ion  a  river.  The  company  of  wa- 
termen in  l.ond(m,  was  incorporated  in  the 
reign  cf  Philip  and  .Mary. 

WATERMARK.  Th«  utmost  I  imh  of 
ilie  rise  of  the  flood. 

WATER.M.AKK.  The  mark  visible  In 
paper,  which  is  made  in  the  manufacturing 

of  It. 

W.ATER-SPOUT.  An  aqueous  meteor, 
■iiMi  frenuently  ol>«ervtd  at  sea,  rising  at 
rtrst  in  the  form  of  a  small  cloud,  wliH-.h 
afterwards  enlarges,  an. I,  assuming  iha 
<ilia|><-of  »  c}linder  or  Cone,  eidiia  li>u» 


862 


W  K  \) 


WIIA 


ier,  li:;htiiiiie.  n.-)  aUa  ruin  .-iiid  Imil,  in 
•Ui  li  qiiiiiililieii  :>.<  lo  iiiiimlate  vessftis,  ami 
3Vf  rspl  irpes,  linii^i-!!,  and  every  ihiiig  elsr 
wliich  ciiiiies  in  lU  way. 

WATKll.MIM..  A  niill  tlial  is  put  m 
motion  hy  iiieiiii^  of  vvaler. 

VVATKK-U  IIKKI,.  An  engine  fi.r  rais 
lug  vvuler  oiil  nCn  well. 

WA'IKRVVOKKS.  All  kinds  of  ma- 
chines employed  in  raising  or  sustaining 
waler,  as  walermllls,  sluices,  aipieducts, 
and  the  like. 

WATTLE.  A  kind  of  hurdle  used  in 
making  sheepfnids. 

WATTLKS.  Kleshy  appendages  nt  the 
fides  of  the  lower  mandibles  in  some  birds, 
as  turkeys. 

WAX.  A  soft,  yellowish,  and  tenacious 
matter  wherewith  the  bees  form  cells  for 
the  reception  of  the  honey.  It  is  a  vege- 
table substance,  that  may  he  extracted 
from  severil  planlH  :  also  a  tenacious  sub- 
stance made  of  wax  for  the  purpose  of 
sealing  letters. 

WAXCIIANDLER.  One  who  makes 
candles  of  wax.  The  company  of  wa.v- 
chandlers  in  Ixtndoii,  was  incorporated  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  III. 

WAY      A  road,  as  the  higliway. 

WAY  (among  ^=eamen).  The  ship's 
course. 

WAYS  AND  MEANS  (in  England). 
The  supplies  for  meeting  the  e.xpenditure 
of  the  year,  either  voted  by  parliament  or 
drawn  from  otlier  sources. 

WEAR,  or  WEIR.  A  dam  made  to 
■top  water. 

WE.'XSEL.  An  animal  of  the  same 
genus  or  kind  as  the  otter,  but  otters  live 
mostly  ill  the  water,  and  weasels  <m  the 
land.  It  is  a  name  f^r  several  of  the  spe- 
cies of  the  viverra  and  mustela  of  Linnx- 
III.     See  Ermike 


WEATHER -GLAPSES.  Instnimentt 
contrived  to  show  the  state  of  the  ntmo- 
•phere,  aa  barometers,  thermometers,  &.C. 

WEA  VING.  The  art  of  forniine  single 
Mireads  of  silk,  cotton,  or  tiax.  into  a  close 
febric  in  a  liHim  »  ith  a  .shuttle. 

WEDGE.  One  of  the  inecl-anical  pow- 
oM,  which  has  one  end  thick    tlmt  gndu 


ally  t-ipers  to  a  tliin  edse.     It  in  us«d  pw 
ticularly  in  cleaving  wood. 


WEDNESDAY.  The  fourth  day  of  the 
week. 

WEEK.  A  division  comprising  seven 
days.     Fifty-two  weeks  make  the  year. 

WEEPERS.  Pieces  of  white  camhiic, 
crape,  or  muslin,  sewed  upon  the  sleeves 
in  deep  moiiriiing. 

WEIGHT  (ill  .Merhanics;.  Anything 
that  is  to  be  sustained,  raised,  or  moved 
by  a  machine. 

WEIGHT  fin  Commerce).  Any  body 
of  a  known  weight  th.it  is  made  the  mea- 
sure of  weighing  other  bodies.  Two  sorts 
of  weights  are  admitted  in  En^laml, 
namely,  'J'roy  weight  and  avoirdupois 
weight. 

WELD.  A  sort  of  herb  that  grows  ia 
Kent,  Hereford.shire,  and  otlier  piirts  of 
England,  the  sinik  and  rout  of  wliirh  ar« 
used  in  dyeing  bright  yellow  and  lemon 
colours. 

U'ELDIXG.  Working  two  pieces  of 
Iron  together  by  means  of  lieut,  until  tliey 
form  one  mass. 

WELL.  A  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  of 
sufficient  depth  to  admit  the  water  lo 
spring  up.  When  the  water  is  got  out  of 
it  by  means  of  a  line  and  a  bucket,  it  is  a 
well  properly  so  called,  but  when  llie 
water  is  raised  by  means  of  a  pump,  it  is 
called  a  pump. 

WEST.  One  of  the  four  cardinal  points 
of  the  horizon,  at  which  the  sun  seia 

WH.ALE.  A  huge  animal  that  inhabits 
most  parts  of  the  ocean  and  particularly 
the  northern  seas,  and  is  said  to  measure 
aometimes  from  50  to  100  feet.  The  blubber 


of  the  whale  contains  the  oil.  which  is  an 
article  of  commerce,  and  the  horny  lamin» 
in  I  he  upper  jaw  yield  wlial  hi  called 
whalebone 


WIN 

WHARF,  or  QcAr.  A  structure  raised 
•n  the  shore  of  a  pad  or  harbour. 

WHEAT.  A  valuahle  grain,  of  which 
sreaci  is  made. 

WHEAT-EAR  An  European  bird  of 
the  finch  kind. 

WHEEL.  One  of  the  most  ini|>ortant 
of  tlie  six  iiiec hail ical' powers,  which  is 
employed  in  the  structure  of  almost  every 
machine. 

WHIG.  In  England,  the  name  of  those 
who  uphold  the  rights  of  the  people  in  op- 
position to  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown. 

WHIPPOORWILh.  A  s-.lit.ry  bird  of 
America,  whose  mournful  song  is  often 
heard  at  ni^ht.  tt  consists  of  a  repetition 
of  the  word  whippmirwill.geiienilly  utter- 
ed with  great  rapidity,  in  a  tone  of  exqui- 
site sweetness. 

WHIRLPOOL.  An  eddy  or  vortex.  ' 

WHIRLWI.N'D.  An  exceedingly  rapid 
and  impetuous  wind,  that  rises  in  a  whirl- 
ing direction,  and  continueti  in  the  same 
way  for  some  time. 

WHISPERI.VO  OAI.I.ERIEf.  Places 
which,  like  the  gallery  in  St.  Paul's  ('a- 
thedral  London,  by  their  peculiar  construc- 
tion enable  any  one  who  whisjiers  on  the 
wall  on  the  one  side,  to  be  heard  by  a  per- 
son standing  on  the  opposite  side. 

WHITE.  A  colour  sup|)o.sed  by  Newton 
to  be  a  composition  of  all  the  other  colours. 

WHITE  LEAD.  The  rust  of  lead. 

WHITING.  A  fish  of  the  cod  tribe. 

WlilTSUNDAY  A  festival  in  the 
Christian  church,  that  falU  on  the  fiftieth 
day  after  Easter. 

WHITTLE.  A  woollen  shawl. 

WICKLIFFITES.  The  followers  of 
lohn  Wicklitfe,  who  first  opposed  the  see 
)f  Rome,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
Keformatton  in  Enciand. 

WlGEOiN.  A  bird  of  the  di'ck  tribe. 


*V  1  N 


S64 


WILL.  The  solemn  act  by  which  a 
man  declares  his  will  as  to  the  dis|Misal  of 
ais  estate  after  his  death.  If  by  word  of 
mouth,  it  Is  a  nuncupative  will ;  but  if  by 
1  written  deed,  it  is  a  testamml. 

WIND.  Tlie  current  or  stream  o(  the 
air,  togetner  witli  I  le  vapours  that  the  air 
oarries  aiong  it,  which  are  supposed  to  be 


rarefied  and  put  Into  motion  by  tha  forr* 
of  heat. 

WILD  .MAN.   A  ipeclea  of  the  msnkey 
in  the  East  Indies 


WILD  TURKEY.  The  orlginnl  stock  of 
the  tame  turkey,  peculiar  to  North  Amei 
ica.  Flocks  of  this  noble  hinl  are  (tl 
found  in  the  woods  of  the  western  r.ouDti|r 


WINDBOL'ND.  An  epithet  for  a  nh^ 
that  cannot  leave  tlse  |)ort  on  account  of 
unfavourable  winds. 

WINDLASS.  A  kind  of  crane  by  wlili  I 
great  wei'ihts  are  raised,  as  guns,  stones, 
&c.  ii.to  a  vessel. 

VVI.NDWAKD.  Towards  the  wind;  as 
a  windward  tide,  a  tide  that  runs  against 
the  wind. 

WI.VE.  The  fermented  Juke  of  the 
gra|)e,  which  is  found  to  contain  an  arid 
alcohol,  tartar,  extract,  aronio,  and  aduus- 
ins  matter. 


>64 


WOL 


WINGS.  The  ri{;lit  and  left  divisions 
of  an  army. 

WINGS  (in  Forlifieatioii)".  The  large 
projectitig  sides  of  luirinvork. 

WL\.\<.)WING.  Separating  corn  friuii 
the  chaff  by  the  help  of  the  wind. 

WINDMILL.  A  mill  thai  is  put  in 
motion  by  means  of  the  wind  acting  on 
the  saili,  as  in  the  subjoined  hguie. 


WINTER.  Thai  season  of  tlie  year 
when,  in  the  northern  hemi:«phere.  the 
Fun  is  in  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  or  in 
his  greatest  declination  from  the  equator. 

WIRE.  A  piftce  of  metal  drawn  out  to 
the  size  of  a  thread,  or  even  smaller,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  hole  which  it  is 
made  to  pass  through.  One  single  grain 
of  gold  admits  of  being  drawn  out  into  a 
wire  98  yards  long. 

WITNESS  (in  Law)  One  sworn  to  give 
evidence  in  a  cause 

WOAD.  ,\  plant  growing  in  France 
and  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  fiom  which 
a  bine  dye  of  the  same  name  is  extracted. 
It  is  cultivated  in  the  United  States. 

WOLF.  A  fierce  animal  of  the  dog  tribe, 
found  in  almost  all  cold,  and  temperate 
diniates.  When  pressed  by  hunger  they 
hacoine  very  bold  and  will  attack  men  and 


lat^  anlmnla  They  sometimes  assemble 
together  upon  the  mountains,  and  encir- 
cling the  deer  will  rush  u|Kin  them  and  drive 
Iht-m  over  the  precipices,  where  they  are 
killed  and  become  tl>e  prey  of  the  wolves. 


w  n  1 

\\  OOD  ENGRAVER.  An  artist  who  cnU 
figures  and  letters  in  wood,  to  serve  the 
pur|«)se  of  engraving  (in  copper  This  art 
has  been  carried  to  verj'  great  perfection, 
and  ill  many  respects  will  be  I'ound  to 
etiect  I  he  pnr|Kise  ipiite  as  well  as  the 
sister  ail  of  cupperplale  engraving. 

WOODCOCK.  A  wild  fowl,  and  a  bird 
of  passage,  which  is  esteemed  for  its  fl««h. 


VYOOUPBCKEE.  A  bird,  so  called 
because  it  pecks  holes  in  the  bark  of 
trees. 

WOOL.  The  covering  of  sheep,  which 
IS  an  im|>ortant  article  of  commerce  In 
this  country.  Much  attention,  therefore,  is 
paid  t(i  the  breed,  and  also  to  the  feeding 
of  sheep,  to  render  their  wool  as  perfect 
as  possible. 

WOOLPACK.  Literally,  a  p;ick  of 
wool ;  a  name  for  the  seat  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  Eng- 
land. 

WOOLSTAPLER.  One  who  deals  in 
wool,  and  collects  it  for  the  manufacturer. 

WORD.  An  articulate  sound  that  repre- 
sents some  i(t«a  to  the  mind;  in  Military 
.Aflairs,  a  watchword,  or  f-eculiar  word 
that  serves  as  a  token  or  mark  for  all  sen- 
tinels to  detect  spies  or  other  persons  who 
may  wish  to  intrude  into  a  camp. 

WORM.  A  long  winding  pewter  pipe, 
placed  ill  a  tub  of  water  to  cool  and 
thicken  the  vapours  in  the  distillation  of 
liquors 

WORM  (in  Gunnery).  The  instrument 
used  for  drawing  the  charge  oul  of  a  gun. 

WRECK.  The  ruins  of  a  ship  at  sea 
thai  has  been  dashed  ^o  pieces. 

WREN   A  amalir^^ing  bird 


WRIT  (in  Law).  A  precept  issinng  ou 
of  some  court  of  law,  commanding  some 
thing  to  lie  d(me  touching  some  suit. 


XAN 


XYS 


36S 


X  begins  no  word  tmly  Engliah, 
bill  i.s  cliieflv  iiseil  in  woniii  of  Greek 
ori>:iii,  and  tieuce  it  is  frequently  ap- 
plied to  terms  of  a  Kcieiitific  cliaracter. 
— lu  arithmetical  science,  nn  a  numeral, 
it  .stands  fur  10 :  when  laid  horizontally, 
(x).  for  1.000;  ami.  on  accountof  itscorre- 
Kjiondint;  witli  the  Greek  digraph  Ch, 
it  in  UMeil  as  a  coutKictiou  fur  ChriKt. 

XANGTE.  The  name  of  the  Supreme 
Beinj:  amonji  the  Chiuesje. 

XANTHrVN.  An ejuthet pertaining 
to  Xantiiu.s.the  ancient  ca|iit4il  of  Lydia, 
an  tlie  Xanthian  marbles  in  the  Britisli 
Museum. 

XAXTHIC.  In  chemikrv,  an  epithet 
denoting  an  acid  coiupujtMi  of  .sulphur, 
carbon,  and  oxvien. 

XANTHIDI'C.M.  A  name  given  to 
minute  organic  bodies  found  m  chalk- 
aiid  Hint,  .suitposed  to  be  fossil  Infusoria. 

XANIHIXE.  In  chemistry,  the 
yellow  dyeing  mattef  contained  iu 
madder. 

XAXTHITE.  A  mineral  of  a  light 
prey  or  yeUow  color.  Its  constitnenLs 
are  silica,  aliniiina,  lime,  peroxide  of 
iron,  peroxide  of  manganese,  and  water: 
»p.  L'r.  3-20. 

XANTHOGEN".  In  chemi.stry,  the 
base  of  an  acid,  procured  by  the  action 
and  reaction  of  carburet  of  sulpliur  and 
potash. — Xaiitliide  in  a  compound  of 
xaiithoL'en  anil  a  metal. 

XANTHOPHYLLE.  The  yellow 
coloring  matter  or  sappy  exudation  in 
plants. 

XANTHOPICRIXE.  A  bitter  prin- 
ciple obtiiined  from  the  bark  of  the 
xaiithoxvlum. 

XAXtHORAMXIXE.  In  chemis- 
try, an  organic  compound  existing  in 
the  ripe  berries  of  certain  siH'cies  of 
Rhamnus. 

XANTHORTITE.  In  mineralogy,  a 
yellowish  variety  of  all.-inite. 

XEBEC.  A  sii'iall  three-niaated vessel 
navigated  in  the  Mediterranean. 


XEROPHAGY.  The  eating  of  dry 
meats,  a  sort  of  fast  among  Uie  lirinit- 
tive  Christians. 


XAXTH0T7S.  In  ethnology  a  term 
Rpnlied  to  varieties  of  mankind  with 
yellow,  red.  or  brown  hair. 

XAXTHOXYLACEiE.  In  botany, 
a  native  order  of  exogenous  ]>lnntit, 
consi.stiug  of  trees  or  shrubs,  of  which 
xanthoxvlnm.  or  piickly-ash,  is  the 
tyiK-  and  "lenus. 

XEN'OTIME.  An  opaqne  crystal 
mineral;  n  phosphate  of  vttria. 

XEKASIA.  Xu  pathology,  a  disease 
of  the  haJr. 

XEKODES.  In  pathology-,  some- 
thiiij;  of  a  drviug  nature :  a  drV  tnmor 

XIPHIAS'  In  ichthyology,  tho 
sword-flsh. — Iu  astronomy,  a  comet 
like  a  sword. 

XIPHOID.  In  anntoroy.  denoting  a 
ligament  or  cartilage  connected  with 
the  sternum,  resembling  a  sword. 

XIPHOSURA.  In  malacology,  a 
family  of  Crustaceans  with  sword- 
shaped   tails. 

XYLIDIKE.  In  chemistry,  an  arti- 
ficial organic  ba.«p  or  alkaloid,  consist- 
ing of  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon. 

XYLO-.  A  prefix  to  numerous  words 
connected  witli  mechanical  science  and 
the  art.s,  of  which  wood  is  the  chief 
niaterial. 

XYLOBALSAMUM.  The  wood  of 
the  balsam  tree;  a  balsam  obtained  by 
decoction  of  the  leaves  of  the  Amyrlt 
Gileadensif. 

XYLOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  en- 
graving on   wood;   woo<leiigraving. 

XYI.OCHLORE.  An  olive-green 
crystalline  muieral,  closely  resembling 
apoplivllitp. 

XiLOIDIXE-  In  chemical  science, 
a  temi  applied  to  paper  after  it  has 
been  immersed  in  strong  nitric  acid, 
and  washed  in  distilled  water;  the 
paper  then  assumes  the  tontluiess  of 
parchment,  and  is  so  combustible  as  to 
serve  for  tinder. 

XYLOLE.  In  chemistry,  a  hydro- 
carbon found  among  the  uils  separated 
from  crude  wood-spirit  by  the  addition 
of  water. 

XYLOTILE.  In  mineralogj-,  an 
opaque  green  mineral,  consisting  ot 
Sliver,  iron,  and  niagne-sia. 

XYI-ORETIXE.  In  chemi.stnr.  a 
crystallizable  compound  foViid  on  the 
remains  of  pine  trees. 

XYLOPYROGUAPHY.  The  art  or 
practice  of  engraving  on  charred  wood. 

XYPHIRRHYXCnUS.  Afaniilvof 
fishes,  of  which  the  sword-lioh  is  tho 

XYSTER.  In  surgery,  an  instru- 
ment for  scraping  and  shaving  bouas. 


866 


YAP 


ZEB 


Y,  tho  twetity-flfth  letter  of  the 
Eii>;li«li  alpliubet,  is  token  from  tli© 
Greek  v.  At  tlie  begiimiug  of  words, 
it  is  ciilletl  an  articxdatiun  or  eonsonaiiL 
In  the  middle  ami  at  the  eud  of  words, 
y  is  precisely  the  same  us  i.  It  is 
Bounded  as  i  lonjf,  when  accented,  as 
ill  defy,  rely;  and  as  i  short,  wlieu  un- 
accented, as  in  vanity.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  woi'ds,  y  answers  to  the  Gemian 
and  Dnieb  j. 

TAPOX.  lu  botany,  the  name  of  a 
South  Sea  Tea,  the  Oassine,  the  pro- 
duce of  tlie  Ilex  casnine,  which  is  ap- 
plied niediciniiUy.  and  used  as  a  tea. 
It  is  the  produce  of  the  southern  states 
of  South  America. 

YAKKAWAKA.  In  botany,  a  tree 
of  New  South  Wales,  one  of  the  laigest 
of  the  Eucalypti,  which  produces  ex- 
cellent timber. 

YKAK.  In  chronoljry  and  natural 
philo.sophy,  an  imi>ortaut  division  of 
time,  embraciug  the  four  sea.sous.  Jind 
determined  by  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  in  its  orbit. — The  civil  year  is  the 
year  of  the  calendar,  i.e..  12  months,  or 
365  days  in  con)uion  years,  and  366  iu 
leap  years,  beginnin;r  with  the  1st  of 
January  — Tim  sidereal  year  i:i  the  space 
of  time  the  sun  takes  in  pa.s8ing  from 
liny  fixed  star  till  his  return  to  it  again  j 
the  length  of  this  is  365  days  6  hours 
9'  II". — A  lunar  year  is  the  space  of 
twelve  luuai'  months. — 'I'he  Jidian  year 
consists  of  365^  days.  Julius  Csesar  or- 
dered that  the  civil  year  should  consist 
of  365  da V8  for  three  successive  years, 
and  the  fourth  of  366  days. 

YEAST.  A  substance  generated  dur- 
ing the  vinous  feriueiitatiou  of  vegeta- 
ble juices  and  decoctions,  rising  to  the 
surface  in  tlie  form  of  froth. 

YELLOW.  The  lightest  and  warm- 
est of  tlie  prismatic  colors,  situated  in 
the  solar  spectrum  between  red  and 
blue. 


YEXITE.  An  opaque  mineral  of  a 
black  color,  with  a  shade  of  brown  or 
preen,  consisting  of  silica,  lime,  pro- 
toxide of  iron,  protoxide  of  manganese 
alumina,  and  wat^r:  sp. gr. 3'99. 

YERBA.  The  native  name  for  77io(«' 
or  Paraguayan  tea. 

YEZiDEES.  A  small  nation  border- 
ing on  the  Euphrates,  whose  religion  is 
said  to  be  a  mixture  of  the  worship  of 
the  devil,  witli  some  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  Magi,  ilohaiumedaus,  and  Chris- 
tians. 

Y-LETEL.  In  surveying,  an  in.stru- 
ment  for  measuring  altitude  and  dis- 
tiuice. 

YOXI.  The  Hindu  name  for  the 
female  power  in  nature,  represented 
bv  an  oval. 

"YTTPvITJM.  A  peculiar  metal,  dis- 
covered in  the  state  of  an  oxide  in 
Sweden  ;  when  heated  to  redness  in  the 
air.  it  takes  five,  burns  with  splendor, 
and  is  coiiveited  into  vttria. 

YTTKOCERITE.  'A  mineral  which 
occurs  crystallized  and  massive,  and 
who.se  constituents  are  fluoric  acid, 
vttria.  oxide  of  cerium,  and  lime:  sp. 
gr.  3'14. 

YTTROCOI.UMBITE.  The  name 
of  a  mineral,  of  which  there  are  three 
suecie.s — the  vellow,  brown,  and  black. 

YTT  ROTA  NT  A  LITE.  A  niiiiural 
containing  yttria  and  oxide  of  colum-' 
bium. 

YTT.    In  mineralogy.nejihriteor  jade. 

YUG.  In  Indian  'mythology,  one  of 
the  ages  into  which  the  Hin<l<ios  divide 
the  diiiation  or  existence  of  the  world. 

YULAN.  A  beautiful  flowering  tree 
of  China;  the  magnolia  yulan. 

YITLE.  A  name  given  in  many  parts 
of  England,  and  generally  in  S(;otlaiid, 
to  the  festival  of  Christmas;  v  lienco 
yule-log,  a  large  log  of  wood  ])lated  on 
tlie  fire  iluiiug  the  Christmas  merry 
meotiugs. 


ZAFFRE.  In  chemistry,  the  re- 
siduum or  imjiure  oxide  of  cobalt,  after 
sulphur,  arsenic,  and  orlier  volatile 
matters  have  been  expelled  by  calcin- 
ation. 

Z  AMITE.  In  geology,a  fossil  zamina, 
■which  is  a  kind  of  palm. 

Z.AMITTE.  A  hydrous  carbonate 
of  nickel  of  an  emenild-gicen  C(dor. 

ZAPHAKA.  In  the  art.x.  a  mineral 
nsed  bv  iiotters  to  make  a  skv  color. 

ZAliAIHAN.  In  patholoigy.  a  h-ard 
tumor  of  the  breast, resembling  a  caucur. 


ZARNTOH.  A  genns  of  fossils  that 
burns  with  a  wbiti-^h  flame. 

ZEA.  A  genus  of  imp<irtant  jrrasseR, 
Indian  corn  or  maize.  exteiisiveVv  culti- 
VRt^d  iu  warm  countries  as  an  article 
01  ;bo<l. 

ZEBRA.  A  wild  animal  of  Africa, 
somewhat  resembling  an  ass,  but  larger, 
and  beaiitifullv  stripetl. 

ZKBRA-W()OI).  'ihe  wood  of  a  tree 
of  Brazil  and  Rio  Jai^eiro,  of  an  orange 
and  dark-brown  color,  variously  mixed. 


ZEB 

ZEBU.  The  Indian  bull  or  cow,  re- 
markable for  its  loii}5  ptudnlous  cars, 
and  a  fatty  excrescence  or  bump  on  its 
BbonlikMS. 

ZECHSTEIN'.  Inniineraloj^y,  amiij^- 
nesian  limestone  lyiu;;  uuder'tbo  red 
sanilstoiie. 

ZEXD.  Tbc  nnciejit  Per.si.in  tontrne 
— the  languajje  iu  which  the  Avesta  is 
■written. 

ZEND-AYEST.\.  The  sacred  book 
or  scriptures  of  the  nneient  Persiau 
nOinion;  properly  the  J.re/fto  or  sacreil 
t^Nt.  and  the  Zend  or  translation  into  a 
more  intelliitible  lani;ua;:e. 

ZEXITU.  In  natural  philosophy  and 
onrauolo<:y,  that  itoint  in  the  visible 
cele,-*tial^emispbere  which  is  verticjil 
to  the  spectator;  the  point  directly 
overliead.  and  opposite  t<»  tbo  nadir. — 
Zenth  distance  is  the  distance  rf  a  star 
or  planet  from  the  zenith,  measured  on 
,  the  vertical  circle  passing  throu>:li  the 
seiiith. — Zenith  A-ccto;"  is  an  a.strunomical 
instrument  for  measiirin<r,  with  great 
accunicy,  the  distances  from  the  zenith 
of  stars  which  pa.ss  near  that  point. 

ZEOLITE.  In  mineralogy,  a  ftunily 
of  minerals,  consisting  of  .silica,  alu- 
mina, lime,  and  water;  natrollte. 

ZERO.  In  meteorology  the  i>oint  at 
which  the  gniduation  "of  the  ther- 
mometer commences. — The  zero  of 
l{eaii!uur'»  and  of  the  Centigrade  ther- 
mometers is  the  freezing-point  of  water; 
that  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  32° 
below  the  freezing-point. 

ZEL'ETIC:.S.  A  partof  algebra  which 
consists  iu  the  direct  search  after  un- 
kniiwn  quantities. 

ZECXITE.  A  greenish -brown  min- 
eral, consistins  of  sllici.  ainmina,  )n-o- 
toxideof  iron,  lime,  and  water:  sp.  gr. 
3  0:  n  =  4  2J. 

ZKJZ.-VG.  An  ornament  in  Gothic 
architecture;  auothcr  name  for  the 
chevron. 

ZIGZAGS.  In  fortification,  trenches 
or  paths  with  several  indentetl  wind- 
in^rs.  so  cut  that  the  besieger  can  not 
be  enfiladed  iu  his  ajiproaches. 

Zl.MOME.  In  chemistry,  that  part 
of  the  gluten  of  wheat  which  is  in.solu- 
ble  in  alcohol. 

ZINC.  A  metil  of  a  bluish-white 
color,  brittle  when  cnld,  but  malleable 
when  heated:  much  u.-ted  in  the  manu- 
facture of  bni.ss  and  other  alloys.  It  is 
foiiiul  iu  solid  masses,  .sometimes  in 
nix-sided  prism.s.  having  the  enda  turmi- 
ni>t"'l  in  peiit.igoiis. 

ZIXCOGR.\rHY.  The  art  of  draw- 
ing  upon,  aud  printing  from,  plates  of 
zinc. 

ZINGIBER ACE.E.  A  nat.  order  of 
aromatic  emiogenons  plants,  of  which 
zniifiher  is  the  tvpe. 

ZINKENII'E:  A  crystallized  min. 
ernl  contaiians  antimony  sulphur.  lead, 
and  copper:  sp.  gr.  5-30 i  H  =  3 — 35. 


ZYM 


367 


ZTKCONIA.  In  mineralogy,  a  rar* 
eaith  extracted  from  zircon  and  hya- 
cinth.— Zirconium  is  the  metallic  base 
of  zirconia. 

ZOANTIIORIA.  In  botany  and 
zoology,  a  class  of  zoophytes;  animul- 
fiowers. 

ZOANTHROPr.  In  pathology,  a 
species  of  monomania,  iu  which'  tho 
j>atier't  believes  himself  translormed 
into  one  of  the  lower  animal.s. 

ZOAIICHID^.  A  family  of  tho 
acanthopterygious  fi.shes,  of  which 
zoaichus  is  the  type  and  genus. 

ZODIAC.  In'aslionomv,  an  im.ici- 
nary  zone  or  belt  in  the  heavens,  ex- 
tetidiuL'  about  l>°  or  !i°  on  each  ^si^U•  of 
the  ecliptic.  It  is  divided  into  twelve 
equal  parts,  called  irigng. —  Zodiacal  liaht 
is  a  fnint  nebulous  "^lightness  which 
accompanies  the  sun  inmiedialely  be- 
fore 8unri.«e  or  after  sunset. 

ZOIATKIA.  In  pathology,  the  treat- 
ment of  the  diseases  of  the'  lower  uui- 
niiil.s. 

ZOISITE.  A  grey  crysfalline  min- 
eral, consisting  of  silica,  alumina,  lime, 
and  protoxide  of  iron:  sp.  ^v.  3'32; 
H  =fi  2.';. 

ZONE.  In  geology,  a  division  of  the 
earth's  surface  by  nuiins  of  p.irallel 
Hues.  The  zones  are  five  in  number, 
viz..  the  torrid  zone,  tv!0  temperate  zoneii, 
aiul  two/n'in'd  zones. 

ZONNAK.  A  belt  or  girdle,  which 
the  Christians  and  Jews  in  the  Levant 
are  obliged  to  wear,  to  distinguiiih 
them  from  the  Moluimmedan.s. 

ZOO-.  In  natural  history,  a  prefix  to 
comi)ound  words  relating  to  animals  or 
animal  lite. 

ZOO(  HEMICAL.  Pertaining  to  tho 
cheiuistrv  I'f  miimal  orLanizat""!!!. 

Z0(K:H0MY.  That  science  which 
pertains  to  animal  chemistry. 

ZOOGEMY.  The  doctrine  of  animal 
formation. 

ZOOGKAPHY.  In  natural  history, 
a  descriiitinn  of  animals. 

ZOOLIi'E.  In  geology,  the  fossil  re- 
mains "fa  }iftritied  animal. 

ZOONOMY.  In  natural  history,  a 
treatise  on  the  laws  of  animal  life;  the 
structure  and  functions  of  animal.s. 

ZOOPATHOLOGY.  A  treatise  on 
the  diseases  of  animals. 

ZOOSPt)RE.  In  ziiology,  a  moving 
.•spore,  provided  with  cilia  or  vibnitile 
lU'gans. 

ZUKLITE.  The  name  of  a  recently- 
di.scovered  Vesuvian  mineral. 

ZYGOilA.  In  anatomy,  a  bone  of 
the  upper  jaw ;  the  process  of  the  cheek 
bone.  ,  , 

ZYMIC.  In  chemistry,  an  epithet 
denoting  an  acid  procured  from  a  for" 
menfed  substance,  as  leaviai. 

ZYMOSIS.  In  med..  a  nn-rbid  action 
as  cf  the  blood,  supjioetd  to  bo  cuuaeu 
bv  fermeutation. 


366 


ZOOl.OCY 


ZEBPA  An  African  animal  ot  tlie 
hnrse  tribe,  about  the  siz.e  of  a  riuile  It 
ii  beautiful,  swill,  and  wild. 


ZOOLOGY.  That  branch  of  natural  his- 
tory which  treats  of  animals.  That  which 
treats  of  quadrupeds  is  also  called  by  the 
general  name  of  zoolojo  ,  to  distinguish  it 
from  ornithology,  which  treats  of  birds ; 
ichthyology,  which  treats  of  tishes  ;  ento- 
mology, which  treats  of  insects  ;  helmin- 
thology,  which  treats  of  worms  ;  erptology, 
which  treats  of  creeping  things. 

General  zoology  roiiiprehends  the  whole 
animal  kingdom,  as  this  class  of  natural 
oiijecj  Is  styled  by  Linna-us.  It  is  divided 
Into  six  classes;  these  classes  are  subdivided 
into  orders,  and  the  orders  into  genera,  and 
the  genera  into  speiies. 

The  first  class,  Mammalia,  comprehends 
•even  orders,  namely,  the  primates,  bruta, 
fenp,  glires,  perora,  belluime,  and  cete. 
Under  ihe  Primates  are  four  genera,  name- 
ly, homo,  man  ;  siinia,  the  ape,  b'iboon, 
and  monkey;  lemur,  the  lemur:  ves|)er- 
tilio,  the  bat.  Of  the  llnita  there  are  the 
following  genera,  namely,  bradypus,  the 
sl.ith;  myrmecophaga,  the  ant-eater;  dasy- 
pus,  the  armadillo;  rhinoceros,  the  rnino- 
feros ;  sokotyro  ;  elephas,  the  pirphant ; 
trichechus,  the  morse  and  walrus,  and  the 
manis.  The  FeriE  consist  of  ten  ;:nera, 
n-imely,  phoca,  the  seal  ;  canis.  the  dog, 
the  wolf,  the  fox,  and  the  hy;sna;  felis, 
the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  tiger-cat,  the  lynx, 
and  the  cat;  viverra,  the  weasel,  theshiuk, 
the  civet,  the  genet,  and  the  titchet;  uuis- 
tela,  the  otter,  the  marten,  the  ferret,  the 
polecat,  the  ermine,  and  the  stoat;  ursns, 
the  bear,  the  badger,  the  ract.-m,  and  the 
glutton;  didelpliis,  the  opossiini,  the  iii3r- 
■lio»e.  the  phalanger,  ami  the  kanguroo  , 
talpa,  the  mole;  sorex,  the  shrew;  eriua- 
ceus,  the  hedgehog.  The  (Jlires  consist  uf 
histrix,  the  porcupine;  cavin,  the  cavy; 
castor,  the  beaver;  nms,  ihr.  rat,  iiuisk-ral, 
and  the  mouse;  acinmys,  the  mar-Mnt; 
«unu.thesquirr('<   »iyoxus,thedormoi.<e,  I 


(lipus,  the  jerboa;  lepus,  the  hare  and  tlM 
rabbit;  and  the  hyrax.  The  Pecora  out 
sist  of  c.aiueliiri,  the  camel  and  the  llama* 
nioschus,  the  musk;  cervus,  the  stag,  the 
deer,  tlie  moose  or  elk;  caiueloi)ardalis, 
the  cameltipard  or  giraffe ;  antilopus,  the 
antelope;  capra,  the  goal;  ovis,  the  she«p; 
and  Ih>s,  ihe  ox.  The  Beilumc  consist  of 
eipuis,  the  horse,  the  a.ss,  and  the  mule; 
hippopotamus,  the  river  horse;  tapir,  the 
tapir;  and  sus,  the  hog.  The  Cete  consist 
of  monodon,  tiie  mouodon;  bala;na,  the 
whalo;  physeter,  the  cachelnt;  delphinus, 
the  porp<iise,  the  dolphin,  ami  the  grampus. 
The  serxind  class,  .Aves,  is  divided  into 
8ixorder8,namelyaccipitres,  pica;,  anse res, 
grallx,  gallinte,  and  passeres.  1"<ie  Accipi- 
tres  consist  of  four  genera,  namely,  vultur, 
the  vulture  and  thecondur;  faico,  the  eagle, 
the  kite,  the  biir.zard.  the  falcon,  and  the 
hawk;  strix,  the  owl;  lanius,  the  shrike, f 
the  butcher-bird,  and  the  woodchat.  The 
Picie  consist  of  the  following  genera, 
namely,  ramphastos,  the  toucan;  inomotui, 
the  iiiotmot;  psittaciis,  the  parrot,  the  ma- 
caw, the  parroquet,  the  cockat«.io,  and  the 
lory;  buceros,  the  hornbill;  crolophaga, 
theani;  glancopis, the  wattle-hird;  rorvus, 
the  crow,  the  rook,  the  raven,  the  j;kckdaw, 
and  the  jay;  coracoas,  the  roller;  orioliis, 
the  oriole;  graciila,  the  grackle;  paradisea, 
tlie  bird  of  paradise;  bureo,  Ihe  barbet; 
trogoii,  tlie  curucui;  ciiculus,  the  cuckoo; 
yiire.v,  the  wryneck;  piciis,  the  woodpecker; 
sitta,  the  nuthatch ;  todus,  the  toddy ;  airedo, 
the  kingfisher;  galbula,  the  jacania;  me- 
rops,  the  bee-eater;  npupa,  the  ho<ipoe; 
certhia,  the  creeper;  trochilus,  the  hum- 
ming-bird; huphaga;  and  scythrops.  The 
.Anseres  consist  of  anus,  the  swan,  the 
goose,  the  duck,  theshoveler,  and  the  teal, 
inergus  the  merganser,  the  goosander,  tlie 
dunii-diver,  and  the  smew;  aica,  the  auk 
or  razorbill;  apterodytes,tlie  penguin;  pro- 
cellaria,  the  petrel,  diomedea,  the  aiba- 
tross  or  man-of-war  bird,  pelicaniis,  the 
pelican,  the  cormorant,  the  shag,  the  crane, 
the  gennet,  and  the  booby;  plutus,  the 
darter;  pl.ieton,  the  tropic  bird;  colymhiis, 
the  guillemot,  the  diver,  and  the  gre^-e; 
lams,  Ihe  gull,  nnd  hetarrockor  KittiwiKe; 
sterna,  the  tern;  rynciiops,  the  ski:iimer. 
The  Grallie  consist  of  the  phoenicoptero*, 
the  damingo;  platalea,  Ihe  8po<mbill;  |.a. 
lamedea,  the  screamer;  mycteria,  the  ja- 
bira;  caiicroma,  the  boalbill;  scnpiis,  ^e 
uiiibre;  ardea,  the  heron,  the  crane,  the 
stork,  and  the  bittern;  tantalus,  the  ibis; 
corrira,  the  courier;  scolopax,  ibe  curlew, 
the  whinlril,  the  snipe,  the  woodcock,  the 
godwil,  ,Tsd  the  red  , -shank;  tringa,  the 
saii({plp<-r,  the   phalarop,  and   the  purr*> 


/WMJl.OfJV. 


360 


Charadrtiis,  ihp  pluver  nnd  the  ilnllrrel  ; 
recurvinwtri,  llie  avucrt',  lia;(ii:iliipus,  (he 
sea-pie  cir  pied  oyster,  atid  the  catcher) 
glarcula,  Ute  prUiiicole;  fulica,  the  g.illi. 
iiule,the  lutHirheii,  :iiiil  the  cout-,  viigiiialis, 
the  sheath-bill-,  p:irni,  the  jncama  ;  rallus, 
the  rail,  the  crake  or  hiiid-tail,  tiie  br<H>k- 
uu^el  ur  water-mil,  ai:d  thesoree;  psiiphia, 
the  trumpeter,  'i'he  nnlliiix  consist  tif  tlie 
olis,  tlie  bustard;  slruthio,  the  ostrich;  and 
the  cassowary  or  emeu;  didus,  the  dodp  ; 
pavo,  the  peacock;  mele.igri^i.  the  turkey; 
peiielope,  the  guaiii  and  the  yacow;  crux, 
the  ciinissow,  ph:isiaiius,  the  pheasant; 
iiumidia,  tile  j>iiiUido  or  ;.'Uinea-hen;  te- 
trao,  the  grouse,  the  m(K>rcock,  llie  par- 
tridge, the  quail,  and  the  tinamoii.  The 
fasseres  consist  of  columha,  the  pigeon, 
the  ring-dove,  Hie  turtle-dove,  &c.;alaiida, 
the  lark  ;  gturnus,  the  stare  or  starling  ; 
and  the  crake  or  water-ouzel;  turdus,  the 
thrush,  the  lieldfare,  the  blackbird,  and  the 
ring-ouzel;  ampelis,  the  chatterer;  colius, 
the  culy ;  loxiu,  the  gmsslM'^ik;  the  crossbill, 
and  the  hawfinch;  emlieri/^,  the  liunting; 
tanagra,  the  tanager ;  fringilla,  tlie  finih, 
the  chalhnf  h.  the  siskin,  the  rcdpole,  the 
linnet,  the  twite,  and  ihe  sparrow;  phyto- 
toma,  the  phytoloina;  iiiii.-cicain,  the  fly- 
catcher; mivtacilln,  the  wagtail  ur  warbler, 
the  nightingale,  the  hedge-sparmw,  the 
wren,  the  white-throat,  the  wheat-ear,  and 
the  red-start;  pipra,  the  miiinakin;  parus, 
the  titmouse;  liirundo,  the  swallow  and 
tlie  swifl;  caprimiilgus,  the  goatsucker. 

Ainpliibia,  the  third  class,  is  divided  into 
two  orders,  namely,  replilia,  reptiles;  and 
serpentes,  ser|>eiits.  'I'lit.  Keptili.i  consist 
of  the  following  genera,  iiainely,  testudo, 
the  tortoise  and  the  turt-.';  raiia,  the  load, 
the  frog,  and  the  natterjack;  draco,  the 
flying  dragon;  I  icerla,  the  crocodile,  the 
alligator,  the  Ii7,ard,  the  tiiana,  the  newt, 
the  salamand  r.  the  chniiieleon,  and  the 
eft;  syren,  the  syren.  The  ?er|)entes  con- 
sist of  croteliis,  the  mttle-siinke;  boa,  the 
boa  constrictor;  colnl>er,  the  viper  and 
the  asp;  anguis,  ihe  snuke  and  the  blind- 
W(vrm;  achrocordus,  the  warled  snake; 
the  aniphislxEna;  nnd  cmcilia. 

Pisces,  the  fourth  class,  is  divided  into 
til  orders,  namely,  n;>od.il.  jugular,  thora- 
cic, abdominal,  lintnchio8teKous,chondrop- 
.erigioiis.  The  Apodal  order  contains  the 
following  geneni,  namely,  niunpna,  the 
eel  ;  anarhica.<<,  the  wolf  fish  ;  xiphi.is,  the 
■word  tish;  ammodyteii,  Ihe  laiince;  gym- 
notus,  ophidiiiiii;  stroinateiis;stylephorus, 
Ilc.  The  jiisiilar  order  contains  the  fol- 
owing  genera,  namely,  callionymus,  llie 
dngonet;  trarhiiiii<i,  Ihe  sting  bull  or  wea- 
rer; gadtu,  the  cod  fish  bib,  whiting,  cual- 


fish,  hake.  bLrhot.  and  rnckling;  blcnnlua, 
tlie  h.eiiny,  <k.c.  'I  he  'I'horacit  order  con 
tains  the  followins  genera;  echineis,  the 
siickiiig-tish;  gobius,  llie  goby;  coitus,  tlM 
bull-liead,  fallier-lasher,  and  niiller's- 
thuiiib;  Zens,  the  Julin-duree;  pleuronectes, 
the  llouiiiter,  plaice,  dab,  Mile,  smedrdab, 
p.'arl,  and  turlxit;  spiirus,  the  gilt-bead  and 
the  pudding  fish;  labrus,  the  wrasse,  g>  Id- 
liniiy,  the  canitter,  and  the  cook;  |ierca,  tli« 
perch,  basse,  lutfe,  blacktish,aiid  s<piirrel- 
fish;  seoml>er,  the  mackerel,  thuiiny,aca<t, 
and  yellow-tail;  trigia,  the  guriiiird,  piper, 
tub-fish,  j^c.  The  Abdominal  onler  <  un- 
tains  the  following  genera,  name.'y.  ccbi- 
tis,  the  lochc  and  the  mud  fish;  salmo,  ih« 
salmon,  trout,  salmon-trout,  bull-trout, 
charr,  sraill,  gurniad,  and  lavaret;  fistiila- 
ria,  the  tobacco-pi|ie  fisb;  esox,  the  pike 
and  gar-fish;  mugel,  the  mullet;  excocoe- 
tus,  the  llying-fish,  clupea,  Ihe  herring, 
pilchard,  sprat,  sh.id,  and  anchovy;  cypri 
nus,  the  carp,  barbel,  gudgecm,  tench,  gold 
fish,  d.ice,  roach,  bleak,  lireain,  minnow 
graining,  tt-c-  The  Braiichinstegous  orde 
contains  the  following  genera:  teirodon 
the  sun-fi.-li  ;  syngnathus,  <he  pipe-full 
and  needle-fish;  lopliius,  the  tishing-frug, 
and  angler  or  frog-fi.sh,  itc.  The  Cbon- 
dropterigioiis  order  contains  the  following 
genera,  namely,  accipenser,  the  sturgeon, 
chima-ra,  Ihe  sea-inonsler;  gipiaius,  the 
shark,  dog  fisli,  tope,  sea  fox,  and  angel- 
fish;  pi'slis,  the  saw-fisli;  raia,  the  ray, 
skate,  thornback;  petroinyzon,  the  lam- 
prey and  the  pride;  gastrubraiichus,  the 
hag  or  hag-fish. 

liLsecla,  the  fifth  class,  is  divided  into 
seven  orders,  namely,  coleoptera,  liemip- 
lent,  lepidoptera,  neiimptera,  hymenop- 
tera,  diptem,  and  aptera.  The  order  Co- 
leoptera  contains  the  follnwins  genera, 
namely,  scarabxiis,  the  beetle;  dern»esle« 
the  leather-eater;  ptinus,  the  death  watch 
forfii  ula,  the  earwig  ;  lampyris,  the  fire- 
fly; hydropliilus  '.iie  water-clock,  &.C.  The 
order  llemipteia  contains  blalta,  tne  cock- 
roach; gryllus,  (he  locust,  gnisslHipper,  an4 
cricket;  riilgora,the  lantern-tly;  notouecta, 
the  boJU-rty;  nepa,  the  water-scorpioii;  ci- 
mex,  the  bug  ;  aphis,  the  plant-louwi;  coe- 
ciis,  the  cochineal,  ice.  'l°he  order  l<ept- 
doptera  contains  papiliu,  the  butterfly  ; 
sphinx,  the  hawk  moth;  pbalcna,  Ihe 
moth.  I'he  order  .Neiiroptera  contains  li- 
Itellula,  the  dmgim-tly ;  ephemera,  the  djjr 
fly;  myrmeleon,  the  lioii-aHt,  k.e.  Th» 
order  llyinenoptera  contains  cynips,  the 
gall-fly;  leulhreilo,  the  saw-fly;  sirex,  th« 
tailed  was|>;  ichneumon,  the  ichnruiiion, 
chrysis,  the  golden  lly  ,  v«spa.  (he  wapp| 
apis,  the  bee ;  furm)c4    tiia  uit  ur  ritiiaal. 


370 


y.ix  »Loi,  r 


tc.  The  order  l)ipt#*ra  contains  <witrtis, 
the  gad-rty  and  ltretr/,e  j  lipula,  \\ie  crane- 
fly  ;  nnisca,  the  rty  ;  cti!ex,  the  gnal  •,  hom- 
byliu!4,  the  hunibielife,  &c.  'I'll*'  order 
Aplera  cunlaina  [lodura,  the  spriiig-lail  ; 
lernies,  the  white  ant  ;  pediciilus,  the 
loxif^e  and  crab-louse^  acanis,  the  tick,  har- 
vesi-bag,  and  itch-mite  ;  uranea,  the  spi- 
der ;  Scorpio,  the  scorpion;  caitcer,  the 
crab,  lobster,  prawn,  shrimp,  and  s({uill  -, 
putex,  the  ftea,  &.c. 

The  sixth  clasa,  Vermes,  is  divided  into 
Ave  orders,  namely,  intestiita,  mollusca, 
leslarea,  zoctphytes,  and  infusoria.  The 
oriler  Intestina  contains  the  following  ge- 
nera, namely,  fascioln,  the  gourd-worm  or 
fluke;  tffinia,  the  tape-worm;  godius,  the 
hair-worm;  lumbricus,  the  earth-worm,  the 
dew-worm,  and  the  lug;  hirsudo,  tlie  leccii; 
and  sipunculus,  the  tube-worm,  &c.  ']'he 
order  Mollusca  contains  laplisia,  the  sea- 
hare;  doris,  the  sea-lemon;  actinia,  the 
Bea-daisy,sea<marigol(],and  sea-carnation; 
■epia,  the  cuttle-hsh;  asterias,  the  star-fish 
and  sea-star;  echinus,  the  sea-urchin,  &c. 
The  order  Testacea  contains  lepas,  the 
acorn-shell,  area,  the  ark;  conus,  the  cone; 
turbo,  the  wreath;  helix,  the  snail  ;  lialio- 
tis,  the  sea  ear;dentalium,  the  tooth  shell; 
ostrea,  the  oyster;  canliuui,  the  cockle  ; 
mytilus,  the  mussel;  arconauta,  thej^ailor; 
buccinum,  the  whelk,  &,c.  'J'he  order  Zoo- 
phytes contains  spongia,  the-sponge;  isis, 
the  coral;  hydra,  the  polype;  tiibip  ra;  the 
tubipore,  &c.  The  order  Infusoria  con- 
tains the  genera  voticella,  monas  volvox, 
gonium,  &.c. 

CUVIER'S  ARRANGEMENT. 

DIVISION    I.    VKRTKBRATKI)    ANIMAUS,  or 

thofie  having  a  verlel>r;iJ  column  or  hark  htmc. 
DIVISION  II.  MOLLUSCA,  aninmU  of  flol'l   tex- 

DIVISION  HI.  ARTICULATKD,  or  joint eil  aui- 

mals. 
DIVISION  IV.  700PHITj:S,  animal  planU,  or 
radiated  animals. 
DIVISI(»N  I.  VERTKBRATKD  ANIMALS. 
Pour  c'Asees.—— C/rt**t  I.  Ayam77iaiia,Bninin)s  which 
pi  re  luck  Orih*r  I,  Bimaria,  or  two  hamied;  man 
©Illy.  Order  II,  C^uatininiana,  or  four  handed;  mon- 
keys of  all  kinds.  Order  HI,  Caniasalers,  or  flenh- 
ealing.  SubflivisKin  I,  Cheiroptear;  wihged-haiulR; 
as  the  bat.  Sut*division  11,  Insectivora;  living  on  in- 
ttfcis;  as  the  hedgchofE,  shrew-mouse*  and  mole. 
Stibdirlsiun  III.  Cariiivora;  carniruront.  A.  Planti- 
rrade;  which  walk  on  the  soles  of  the  feet;  aa  the 
bear,  raccoon,  badger,  and  ghiiton.  B.  Dif^ti^rade; 
which  walk  on  the  toes;  as  (a)  weasels.  (4)  The 
dog  kind;  doine^itic-dog,  wolf,  fox.  (c)  Civetcai. 
(rf)  Hyena,  (e)  The  cat  kind;  lion,  tiger,  leopard, 
(anther,  lynx,  common  cat,  C.  Some  of  the  ainphi* 
bIo>is;  as  seals  and  walrusses.  D.  Marsupial  or 
pouched  animals;  ua  karear:)93  and  0|>r«sums.  Or- 
iler IV,  Rongeurs,  rodentia,  or  gitawers;  as  castors, 
beavers,  vats,  mice,  marmots,  squirrels,  iwrcupines, 
Bares,  rabbits,  guinea  pigs.  Onler  V,  Rilentes, 
•dcntata,  ortoothlvss:  as  the  sluth,  trmaitilio,  pan- 
|olia,  ormithorvnchus.  Order  VI,  rachydermata,  or 
Ibicjr  skinned;  as  the  tlephant,  bipiKjpotamus,  pig, 
:%iaoe«ru«,  korse,  ass,  tshra,  qoaftisa.  Order  Vlt, 
RuminaiM.:  as  the  dctr,  aiitelo^,  iroat,  sheep,  cow, 
•uffalo.    Orc}«r  Vin,C«tacea,  the  whaU-tribe. 


>■*  II.   R>-d*      OHer  T,  Birds  of  vrer.     SiiMbrt 
:  I,    Dim,  nil     .»  U.t-  y'llture,  eu^'le,  f.itcon.  hawk. 
Miv>Rtoull.    N.KtiirnHl:    as  the   owl.      Order    II, 
8ci«ax,  i»r  the  sparrow  irit>e:  as  the  maiH'ie,  swaj- 
,  ihrusii,  sparn>w.  cr-»w,  wren.     Order  lll,(n-iir»- 
peurs.  or  climbers:  as'.lw  w>Md|»ecker,  cuckiH>.t3ucaO| 
parrot.     Onler   IV,  tialhnaces:  the  ealluinceous  iv 
poultry  tribe:  as  the  |>eacock,tiirkeT,  pheas<tnl.  barn- 
door fowl,  partridge,  pigeon.     Order  V,  K.:lia*siers, 
the  stilled  or  wadfrs:  as  the  ostrich,  Ckim  .vt  -y,  plo- 
ver, crane.  her->ii,  stork.     Ordt;r  Vt.  pHlini|.t>des,  or 
web-footeu:  as  th«  |ieiican,  duck,  swan,  imhI  ti'VJtv, 

Cla^M  111,   RevtiUt:     Onler  I,  Clitloni-i.s,  or 

tortoises.  Order  11,  Saurieiis,  the  lizard  tribe:  as  th« 
crocodile,  lizard,  gecko  atidchamnielion.  Ord<;rMi, 
Ophidietis,  thr  ler  pcni  tribe-  iiicludihg  lh«  boa  ctn- 
stnctor,  and  such  ser|>entR  as  are  not  veiiompns,  aa 
welt  as  the  venoirioiis  seriHrnu.  Order  IV,  Batricl- 
ens,  the  frog  tribe:  iiiclnding  (rogs,  loads,  salarnaii- 
(lers,  thf  [irotenB,  and  syren,— —Oo**  IV.  Fxshe$t 
Series  I,  Chondrotiierygiens.  or  the  cartita^nous:  a« 
the  lamprej,  shark.skate,  thornback,  sturgeon.  Se- 
ries II,  Asseui,t,h«  bony,  whuse  ilivision*  are  prio- 
cipHlty  taken  from  the  gilts,  jaws,  or  fins,  and  are, 
Onler  l,ihe  Plectognathes:  as  ihe  suit-fish,  trunk  f.sh. 
Orderll.ilieLot4tobrancbe«:as  the  pipe^nli,  and  |>«. 
gasus.  Onler  III,  the  Alalacopterypfiie:  as  the  ial- 
mon,  herriiu!,  sein-ftsh,  |iike,  carp,  toche,  silurus: 
coiUturl-ot.  sole,  remora,  eel,  OrderlV.ihe  Acaa- 
th(»:terv^en9:  at  the petch,  mackerel,  dolphin. 

DiVisiON  II,  MtiLLUSCA.  Six  Classes,  princ* 
pally  constituted  from  the  orgHus.  and  nrode  of  pro- 
gression.—^C/rt*»  \,the  Cep/iaio//r,de8;  an  'be  cuitle- 

fi*li.aiid  nautilus. C/tut   II,  Me  Pteroitodet ;  9M 

the  c!io,  cleodore,  and  hyalea.     Clnrg  III,  Ae  (insier- 

ort'ulee;  as  tlie  slug,  snail,  and  limpet. Class  IV, 

Ihfi.  Arephatts,  (without  heads);  as  the  oyster  and 
muscle. —  CUuB  V,Me  iirathiojiodes;A»  the  lingida, 

antl  tereliraiula. Cias*  VI,  the  Cirrhopodeg  ;  aa 

the  tmruacte. 

DIVISION  IH,  ARTICULATKD  ANIMALS. 
Foui  classes.'— ^C//M*  I,  Annelidet,  or  Wi>rnis, 
Order  I,  the  Tubicoles,  forming  a  calcareous  lube 
amund  them:  as  the  scnpula,  sHi>ellR,  and  terebella. 
Order  II.  the  Dorsibrnnches,  the  limbs  difliiRed  over 
the  bo<ly;  as  the  nereide  and  aphro<lite.  Onler  III, 
tlie  A)>ranches,  (without  limbs);  as  the  earth  w or ir 
and  leech. Class  II,  the  CrustnceouF.  Five  or- 
ders, formed  from  the  number,  or  position  ot  their 
organs  of  motion.  Order  I,  tlie  Decapodes:  as  tita 
crab,  lol)slfr,  and  prawn.  Onler  II,  the  Stomapo<les: 
as  the  squill.  Order  III,  the  Amf>hipi)des:  as  tlic 
eammurus.  Order  IV,  the  IsofKles:  as  the  wood- 
louse.     Order  V,  the  Branchiop-Kles;  as  the  mono- 

cullus Class  III,  the  Arachnidet,  or  spidtrr  tribe. 

Two  orders,  formed  from  respi<*ation  being  eflected 
bv  pulmonary  cells:  or  by  tracheie,  or  openings  in  the 
sfein.  Order  I,  the  Folmonaires;  as  thespiiler,  taruo- 
tula  and  scorpion.  Order  II,  the  Tracheennes:  at 
the  phaluiitfium,  and  mite.-— —C/a««  IV,  fnttects* 
Twelve  orders,  derived  principally  from  the  number 
of  their  feet  and  wings.  Order  i,the  Myria)iode>, 
have  numerous  feet:  as  the  iulus,  centit>es.  (Irder  II, 
Ike  llysanoures,  hnving  ap|«pdazes  to  their  tails:  a» 
the  lei'iftnia,  or  wood-tish,  and  podura.  Order  III, 
ihe  Parasites:  as  ihe  louse.  Onler  IV,  the  S«ccurs: 
as  the  flwa.  Onler  V,  the  Coleopteres,  having  eased 
winjgs:  as  the  ceratms,  beetle,  ladv-bird,  glow-worm. 
Onler  VI,  the  Oribopttres,  tiaviiig  slmigbt  wings 
as  the  earwig,  locusi.  grasshopper,  and  mole  cricket. 
Order  VII,  the  lleuiipieres,  or  half  winged:  as  th« 
bug,  the  water  scorpion,  lariiemriy,  aphis,  ami 
cochineal.  Order  VIII,  the  .N'europtercs,  having 
network  wings:  as  the  drKgon-tly,  and  ephemera. 
Order  IX,  the  Hymenopteres,  hiving  membranoiia 
wings:  as  the  ichneuuion.  ant,  sphex,  wniip.aiid  bee. 
Order  X,  the  Lepidnpteres,  having  scalv  wiiig»  :  a« 
the  butteray,and  moth.  Order  XI,  the  Hhipip'eres 
having  fan-like  wings:  as  tlie  tenns,  snd  stylopa 
Order  XII,  the  Dipteres,  having  two  vtngs:  as  iha 
gnat,  ami  house-rtv. 

DIVISION  IV'.  ZOOPIIITFS.  Pour  claasea 
—CUxss  1,  the  Echyuo'iermes;  spinedskin;    as  tha 

«tar~f)sh,  and  echinus. Class  II,  the  IntesdnnuSj 

or  iulestina)  aninials:  as  the  tvnia,  ascaris,  andhy;iv 

tid. Class  III,  tht  Acalrvhest  or  sea  nettle     aa 

the    sea-aneiTuiny,   mm',    medusa. Class   lY.   A« 

PolypfSf  or  mAiiv-rouLeii:  as  tha  hydra,  cwvcmmm, 

and  sponge. ClnsM  V,  tU  InJusoT^a,  iifui.1   U 

animat  aiid  vaftUibla  imluaiocic:  w  Hm  vkasJ  iiilniftl, 


I  wad  protaua. 


UCSB  LIBRARY 


1  '' 


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